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JºſTTTTTTTTTTTTTI. t - - - | i | { | 'tiginaering library tº F }} C3 , F// 2 X FIELD ARTILLERY BASIC First Edition THE MILITARY SERVICE PUBLISHING COMPANY Harrisburg, Pennsylvania × Copyright 1943 The Military Service Publishing Company Harrisburg, Pennsylvania First Edition 1943 (1) ALL RIGHTS RESERVED R&NSCŞl [EDGE lºſ’ § [ESUAER & AS [. º º tº: N º § &\r—S. s: º's º sº § º lº 4.2% * ºf ** * * *Nº. * -- - A. * : \, * § º THE MILITARY SERVICE PUBLISHING COMPANY 100 TELEGRAPH BUILDING HARRISBURG, PENNSYLVANIA % ... º Aºr. ą : } Printed in the United States of America By The Telegraph Press Harrisburg, Pennsylvania FIELD ARTILLERY Basic Volume I CONTENTS Subject Page Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Military Courtesy and Discipline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Military Sanitation and First Aid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 Military Organization, General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 Leadership I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • * * * * - - - - s m s - - - * * * * * * * * * * * * - - - . . . 173 History and Development of Artillery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 Map Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • - - - - - - - - - - - s e - - - - * * * * * 211 Physical Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 Dismounted Drill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323 Ceremonies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355 Standards and Guidons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379 Interior Guard Duty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387 Individual Equipment and Tent Pitching . . . . . . * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 417 Elementary Principles of Ballistics, Dispersion and Gunnery and Effect of Projectiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445 Service of the Piece . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491 75-mm Gun, Horse and Truck-Drawn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491 75-mm Howitzer, Horse and Truck-Drawn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597 105-mm Howitzer, Truck-Drawn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627 155-mm Howitzer, Truck-Drawn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659 155-mm Gun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 689 Antitank Weapons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 761 Caliber .50 Machine Gun . . . . . . . . . * - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 761 37-mm Antitank Gun . . . . . . . - - - - • * * * * * * * * * * * . . . 793 Materiel and Ammunition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • * * * - - - . . . . . . . . . . 855 General Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 855 75-mm Gun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * - - - - - - 875 75-mm Howitzer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . w . . . . 907 155-mm Howitzer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 929 Other Calibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 947 105-mm Howitzer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • * - - - - - . . . . . . 975 Military Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VOLUME II Leadership . . . . . . * * * * * * • e < * * * * * * * * * * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I Fire Control Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Battery Communications . . . . . . * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * = c s a e e s e e s s e 55 Duties of BC Detail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . º 109 Care of Animals and Stable Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 Equitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 Driving and Draft Mounted Formations and Maneuvers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 Care and Operation of Motor Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 409 SUPPLEMENT (Containing answers to questions) INTRODUCTION CONTENTS Paragraphs Chapter I. Orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3 Chapter II. Relationships of the American Citizen to His Government in º General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-10 Chapter III. The Relationships of the American Citizen to His Government in Military Matters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-13 Chapter IV. Military History and Policy. Colonial Wars and The Revo- lutionary War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-16 Chapter V. Military History and Policy. War of 1812 and Mexican War . . 17-20 Chapter VI. Military History and Policy. The Civil War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-23 Chapter VII. Military History and Policy. 1865 to 1916, Including The Spanish- American War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 24-27 Chapter VIII. The National Defense Act of 1916 and World War I . . . . . . . . . 28-29 Chapter IX. The National Defense Act of 1920 as Amended and the Reserve Officers’ Training Corps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-42 Chapter X. The Selective Training and Service Act of 1940 and the Act as Amended . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43–52 Chapter XI. The United States and World War II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53-58 CHAPTER I ORIENTATION 1. Scope of the Course. This section is divided into eleven chapters, dealing briefly with the following subjects: the relationships of the American citizen to his govern- ment; a brief outline of the military history and policy of the United States; and a short summary of the Act of Congress called “The National Defense Act of 1920.” which prescribes the basis for many features of the present military establishment and policy of the United States and indicates the place of the Reserve Officers' Training Corps within that policy; a discussion of the Selective Training and Service Act of 1940 and the Act as Amended; and the United States and World War II. 2. National Defense Policy. The national policy of a government dictates its military policy. The traditional policy of our government has been to abjure aggression, but to defend this country “against all enemies foreign and domestic.” To maintain this policy, the Congress adopts and enforces the necessary legislation. It sees that the military forces required are available, and provides them with equipment by appropriat. ing funds and initiating legislation to ensure sufficient manufacturing facilities. It enforces the Monroe Doctrine, which guards the independent states of the Western Hemisphere from attack. It sees that enemy nations are kept away from any point in the world which would or could be used as a base of attack against the Americas, and guards against internal disorders and insurrection. 3. Our Military Policy. The traditional military policy of our government from the time of President George Washington to the present has been that, in time of peace, we should maintain only a small standing army of professional soldiers and, in time of war, raise an army of such size as might be required by calling to the colors the necessary number of civilians. But world conditions forced a change in our traditional military policy with the result that on September 14, 1940, Congress passed a Selective Training and Service Act which required all male citizens between the ages of 21 and 1 FA1 (1) 2 INTRODUCTION 36 years, to register for possible military service. The law provided that 900,000 men might be selected each year. On October 16, 1940, 16,628,493 young Americans registered under the provisions of the new law. About 1,250,000 more will become eligible each year upon reaching the age of 21. The second registration day set by the President was July 1, 1941. A registration day for those who had become 21 years old was set by the President for July 16, 1941. Those registered on this date numbered 752,577. Upon the entry of the United States into World War II, the Selective Training and Service Act of 1940 was further amended so as to require that all men between the ages of 18 and 65 years be registered. On February 16, 1942, registration took place of men who had attained their twentieth birthday on December 31, 1941, and those who had not reached their forty-fifth birthday on February 16, 1942. Questions 1. What has been the traditional national policy of the United States? 2. What agency adopts and applies measures necessary for our national defense? 3. What has been our traditional military policy in time of peace with reference to the size of our Army? CHAPTER II RELATIONSHIPS OF THE AMERICAN CITIZEN TO HIS GOVERNMENT IN GENERAL 4. Definition of Citizenship. It was indicated in Chapter I that the ultimate national defense, under the policy of our country, depends upon the general citizenry. The rela- tionships of the citizen to the government in military matters will be discussed in Chapter III. In Chapter II we shall consider other relationships between the citizen and the gov- ernment. This is done for the purpose of showing that the military relationships do not stand alone but constitute an integral part of the whole body of rights and duties which, taken together, comprise what is known as citizenship. The Supreme Court of the United States has described a nation as “an association of persons for the promotion of their general welfare. Each of the persons associated becomes a member of the nation . . . He owes it allegiance and is entitled to its protection.” This is true of any nation that functions at all. It exists to afford its citizens security and is entitled to their loyal support in return. 5. Rights of the Citizens in General. Our own country, from the very first day of its independence, has promised its citizens not only security but liberty and justice as well. The enduring philosophy of our government was expressed in the Declaration of Independence, as follows: “We hold these truths to be self-evident; that all men are created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness; That to secure these rights Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed; That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute a new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happi- ness.” In 1787 the people of the United States, through their chosen representatives, wrote the Constitution of the United States, in which they formulated the general, more or less permanent, rules for governing themselves as a nation. In the Preamble they stated: “WE, the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquillity, provide for the common defense, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.” . All these purposes, then, are in our land, as fundamental as the right to protection. INTRODUCTION 3 6. Right to Security. Aside from the question of armed aggression from without, which will be considered in Chapter III, we may say that the government undertakes to protect the citizen, in person and in property, from violence, fraud, and oppression at home, through the criminal laws, the courts, the police of the local and State governments, and, in cases of serious civil disorder, even through the armed forces of State or nation. 7. Right to Justice. To secure equal justice for all citizens before the law, we have many provisions in the Federal Constitution and in the laws of the several States. These guarantee, among other things, speedy and public trial; the right of the accused to be represented by his lawyer; to be informed of the cause against him; to be confrontcd by the witnesses against him, and to call his own witnesses; and the right, in any important case, to trial by jury. 8. Right to Liberty. Under an autocratic government, the individual is the helpless servant of the ruling power. But under a representative form of government, such as ours, the citizens are the masters of the government; they are equal partners in the busi ness of government and are equally entitled to the opportunities for security and general welfare, to provide which constitutes the only legitimate reason for the existence of a government. Upon the idea of political liberty, in other words self-government, and of individual liberty for the citizen—so far as may be possible without depriving others of equal liberty —our entire political system is based. In the Constitution the people delegated to their officers, the President, the Congress, and the Courts, various duties in conducting the people's business of government, and prescribed the methods by which their officers should be chosen, either by the people directly or by representatives elected by the people. Then, realizing that as conditions inevitably change the rules must also be changed, the original Constitution prescribed methods by which amendments could be adopted by the people whenever they might consider them desirable. Of course, self-government does not imply that rules can be made only with the con- sent of all. Practically, government by the people must mean, in general, government by a majority of the people. But individual liberty demands that the right of minorities shall also be respected. In the first ten amendments to the Constitution, often called the “Bill of Rights,” we find listed important personal rights that cannot be overridden even by a majority of Congress. Among these are freedom of religion, freedom of speech and of the press, and freedom of assembly and petition; the right to bear arms; the right to be immune in their homes from search and seizure of their papers or belongings without a legal warrant; the right to fair and speedy justice mentioned above; and the right to be free of governmental interference with life, liberty, or property, without due process of law. 9. General Welfare. Of course, our various governments, State and Federal, do a great deal more for the people than can possibly be included under the triree heads, security, justice, and liberty. To “promote the general welfare,” public schools, colleges, hospitals, roads, postal service, bureaus of information for agriculture, commerce, and labor—to name only a very few of such activities—are maintained. The role of the government in the life of the private citizen seems to be growing from year to year. But, vital as some of these functions are, we cannot say that the government is required specifically to provide even the most important of them, in the sense that it is required to assure to the people, security, justice, and liberty. 10. Duties of the Citizen. What, then, does the citizen owe the state in return for the security, justice, and freedom he receives? Leaving for later discussion his military duties, what else does he owe the country in return for the rights which he enjoys? a. For security. Obviously, he must pay taxes for the support of the government, to maintain the armed forces, the courts of law, the police—all the machinery that keeps him safe. He must do his part, also, in keeping order by refraining from criminal acts and, when called on by the proper authorities, by preventing the criminal acts of others. In times of civil disorder he may be required to help in restoring order. All these duties are enjoined upon the citizen and enforced by law. b. For justice. In return for justice, he must be ready to do his share in assuring justice 4. INTRODUCTION for all, by serving on the jury or testifying as a witness, whenever called upon. This also is a duty enforced by law. c. For liberty. When we come to the question of the citizen's right to political liberty (self-government), the state does not attempt to enforce any corresponding duty. Citizens are not obliged by law to vote. They are under no legal compulsion to take any interest or share in the government, or to insure that the political setup in city, State, or nation shall be efficient, progressive, or even honest. But the absence of legal compulsion cannot absolve them of moral responsibility. Those who fail to make use of their political liberty can hardly be called good citizens, and on them falls the penalty for their negligence— they will get a government just as bad as they deserve. Indeed, if the citizens fail too long and too fully to exercise their political liberties, they may even lose them. As Chesterton has said, “A despotism may almost be defined as a tired democracy. As fatigue falls on a community the citizens are less inclined for that eternal vigilance which has truly been called the price of liberty, and they prefer to arm only one single individual to watch the city while they sleep.” Questions 1. Name ten rights of citizens generally protected by law in this country whether mentioned in this text or not. 2. Give five examples of duties generally required of citizens, by law, whether men- tioned in this text or not. CHAPTER III RELATIONSHIPS OF THE AMERICAN CITIZEN TO HIS GOVERNMENT IN MILITARY MATTERS 11. Introduction. In the Preamble to the Constitution of the United States, quoted in the preceding chapter, two of the six purposes stated are “to insure domestic tranquillity” and “to provide for the common defense.” Both of these absolutely require the main- tenance of armed forces; and, unless these two are assured, none of the other purposes can be accomplished. In the Revolutionary War, the armed forces made good the Declaration of Independence and established our country. In the Civil War, they preserved the country, to the end that, in the words of Lincoln, “Government of the people, by the people, and for the people, shall not perish from the earth.” The simplest definition of the term “citizen” contains nothing but a definite statement of the reciprocal obligations of the citizen and the state. “A citizen or subject of a state is an individual member of the body politic, owing it allegiance and entitled to its protection in person and property.” (Davis, The Elements of Law, p. 5.) The fact that aliens are not granted all of the personal, property, and political rights that citizens enjoy is usually explained on the ground that aliens are not under the same obligations as citizens to defend the state. Thus it is said, (Davis, Elements of Law, p. 91), “As both civil and political rights are created by and pertain to citizens alone, the extent to which they shall be extended to and enjoyed by aliens is a matter which is regu- lated by statute in each of the States of the Union. For this reason, aliens, as such, can- not lay claim to any of the rights enjoyed by the citizens of a State, who owe it the allegiance of defense . . .” The Army and Navy of the United States constantly provide our citizens protection from foreign invasion. It is not at all times evident that this protection is always present, and the citizen goes his way in peace, usually even more unconscious of the existence of this protection than he is of the constant protection from crime or fire afforded him by the police and fire departments of his city. Despite all effort made to prevent crime, fire, and war, these dreaded evils sometimes occur. These governmental forces then devote their full strength respectively to suppressing crime, extinguishing fires, and restoring peace by success in battle. 12. Rights of the Citizen to Military Protection. a. Defense against enemy armed forces. The most fundamental right a citizen may, claim from.his government is that the govern- INTRODUCTION 5 ment shall exercise in battle, if need be, the ultimate force necessary to “provide for the common defense;” to use the words of Woodrow Wilson, when the United States entered the World War, “Force without limit.” * b. Protection against domestic lawlessness. The Constitution requires the President of the United States to see that the laws “shall be faithfully executed.” All the rights of the individual—personal, property, and political—mentioned in the preceding chapter are granted by law, and remedies are provided by the law for their violation. All these remedies and, consequently, the enjoyment of all these rights, depend upon the enforce- ment of the law. Usually, the courts alone, by utilizing their own officers, such as marshals and sheriffs, are able to enforce their judgments made to protect the citizen's rights and to redress his wrongs. But, occasionally, these ordinary agencies of law en- forcement are inadequate. Insurrections, riots, or unlawful assemblies constitute such serious obstruction to the orderly processes of the law that the military arm of the gov- ernment must be employed. The President has the Constitutional mandate to enforce the law; he is the Constitutional Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy, and the Congress has definitely authorized him to employ these forces in aid of the civil authorities. Every legal right of the citizen may, then, at some time, depend upon this employment of the Army and Navy by the President of the United States. This is what is meant in the Preamble of the Constitution by the expressed purpose; “To preserve domestic tran- quility.” Requirement for the use of such force has arisen from a great variety of situations, throughout the history of our country. More than one hundred times from 1794 to 1926 (when the so-called “Bonus Army” gathered in Washington), the President has taken such action to aid the civil authorities to maintain law and order. Regardless of the political or economic issues involved in a conflict leading to this exercise of military force, the troops involved have no duty and no interest except to obey the military order of their Commander in Chief—to remove the obstruction to the enforcement of the laws, with the least force that will effectively accomplish that mission. c. Protection from devastation by earthquakes, fires and floods. In every great domestic disaster threatening the lives and property of the civilian population, such as earthquakes, fires, and floods, the Army takes a leading part in affording protection and relief. Hun- dreds of instances could be cited. Two conspicuous ones were the San Francisco earth- quake and fire of 1906, and the Ohio River Valley flood of 1937. This flood involved the large cities of Wheeling, West Virginia; Cincinnati, Ohio; Louisville and Paducah, Kentucky; and scores of smaller towns. The flood occurred during mid-winter. Hun- dreds of thousands of men, women, and children were driven from their homes by the raging waters. They had no food, bedding, or fuel, and insufficient clothing. Every agency of government, the Red Cross, and various civilian relief committees assisted. The Army, as always, placed its every facility at the disposal of the destitute population. The War Department in Washington and many Army stations and depots in the eastern half of the United States rushed troops and supplies to the devastated Ohio Valley. They continued their services until the disaster abated and permanent provision had been made for the destitute. There are many reasons why the Army is particularly adapted to such relief work. It is in charge of the construction of navigation improvements on all navigable waters. It always has present engineers who know the situation. Its troops of the various branches, infantry, artillery, cavalry, air corps, and other arms and services, are stationed throughout the country. Its personnel includes officers or enlisted men who are skilled in every profession and trade. It has transportation for rapid movement. It has tentage, cook stoves, clothing, bedding, and medical supplies for promptly, setting up large con- centration camps. It has organized and disciplined personnel, regularly trained to handle emergency situations. It has warehouses of reserve supplies of all kinds necessary to pro- vide quickly the necessities of life. 13. Duties of the Citizen. a. Introduction. The term “duty” is here used only in the sense of legal duty. The following brief reference to the provisions of the Constitution, 6 INTRODUCTION and certain laws of Congress enacted by authority thereof, will show the legal authority under which the government may induct citizens into military service. As stated earlier, the accomplishment of the purposes recited in the Preamble to the Constitution obviously requires armed forces. Among the powers specifically granted to Congress by the Constitution are: “To raise and support armies.” “To provide and maintain a navy.” “To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces.” “To lay and collect taxes to . . . provide for the common defense.” “To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions.” “To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia.” “To declare war.” “To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers.” * The National Defense Act of 1920 defines the militia as all able-bodied males (in- cluding citizens and those who have declared their intention to become citizens) more than eighteen years of age and not more than forty-five years of age. The views and policies of the American people throughout our history, as expressed in appropriation acts, and other statutes pertaining to national defense, have been approxi- mately reflected in the views of our Presidents. The opinions of the Presidents have differed as to the size of the force necessary, from time to time, to constitute an adequate Army or Navy; but on most fundamentals they have been in accord. Fortunately, national defense has not been, in this counutry, a partisan political question. All of our Presidents, regardless of political party, and regardless of personal origin, experience, and associations, have advocated: Peace with all nations but not “peace at any price.” Upholding the dignity of the United States and protecting its citizens at home and abroad. An adequate national defense, as a guarantee of peace and security. Recognition of the obligation of every citizen to serve his country in case of need. b. Compulsory military service in time of war. In the conduct of most of its wars, the United States has relied upon voluntary, short term enlistments. The defects of this policy will be discussed later. Occasionally, during the progress of a war, we have enacted statutes providing for compulsory service. Prior to the World War I, our compulsory service acts were not of universal application, and their unfairness resulted in making the acts both unpopular and ineffective. During the World War I we adopted, at the very beginning, a compulsory service law, called the “Selective Service Act.” This act was fair, in that it was of universal applica- tion to men of military age. The government, upon the advice of committees of citizens in each locality, decided who should enter the military service, and who, in the interests of the nation, could be more useful in some other way. The law was popular, and it was effective in raising armed forces (Army and Navy) of more than four million inen. While this act was in effect only for the duration of World War I, it is generally agreed that it marked the definite adoption of a permanent national policy. The Selective Train- ing and Service Act of 1940, a peace time Act providing compulsory military servcie in peace time, was quickly amended to make its provisions suitable for war. In general, all men between 18 and 65 are required to register and those between 20 and 45 are eligible for military duty. (See Chapter X.) c. Compulsory military service in time of peace. On September 17, 1940 for the first time in the history of the country the Congress enacted and the President signed the “Selective Training and Service Act of 1940” which provides for compulsory military training in time of peace. In signing the bill and fixing October 16, 1940, as registration day, President Franklin D. Roosevelt stated: “America has adopted selective service in time of peace, and, in doing so, has broadened and enriched our basic concept of citizenship. Besides the clear democratic ideals of INTRODUCTION 7 equal rights, equal privileges and equal opportunities, we have set forth the underlying other duties, obligations and responsibilities of equal service. “In thus providing for national defense, we have not carved a new and uncharted trail in the history of our democratic institutions. On the contrary, we have merely reasserted an old and accepted principle of democratic government. The militia system, the self- armed citizenry with the obligation of military service incumbent upon every free man, has its roots in the old common law. It was brought to this continent by our fore- fathers. It was an accepted institution in colonial days. At the time of the adoption of the Federal Constitution, nine of the thirteen States explicitly provided for universal service in their basic laws.” d. Voluntary military service and training in time of peace. The National Defense Act of 1920 adopted what has been called a system of “universal voluntary military training.” That term was not accurate, but it correctly indicated a purpose on the part of Congress to give young men an opportunity to secure military training in time of peace. Op- portunities were offered for full time service in the Regular Army for terms of three years; part time service in the National Guard or in the Organized Reserves; part time training in the Reserve Officers' Training Corps of many colleges and schools; and short courses at Citizens’ Military Training Camps for those who did not have an opportunity of belonging to the Reserve Officers' Training Corps. All these organizations will be discussed later. Questions 1. State eight provisions of the Constitution of the United States authorizing the government to raise and maintain an Army and Navy. 2. To what extent has Congress exercised its power to compel citizens to render military service? CHAPTER IV MILITARY HISTORY AND POLICY. THE COLONIAL WARS AND THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR 14. Introduction. This chapter, the next five, and the last chapter are devoted to the military history and policy of the United States. The principal purpose of these chapters is to give an understanding of our present military policy, as set forth in the National Defenses Act of 1920 and in the Selective Training and Service Act of 1940 and in that Act as amended as a result of our entry into World War II, in the scheme of national defense. The brief outline of military operations in our major wars in the past and a brief orientation as the events leading up to and during the early phases of World War II are given for the sole purpose of providing a background against which we may paint the picture of the development of military policy. All the constituent elements of military policy may be grouped under the four headings —enlisted men, officers, supplies, and high command. The military policy of the United States in several major wars, and the present military policy, will be discussed under these four headings. * 15. The Colonial Wars. a. Narrative. (See Plate 1). During a large part of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, England and France were at war in Europe. These wars frequently involved their colonies in the eastern part of North America—the English colonies located, generally, south of the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence River, and the French colonies north of these waters. The struggle in America was primarily for posses. sion of the valley of the St. Lawrence and neighboring territory. The principal objective of English attack was the fortified post at Quebec. Since there were no routes of trans- portation except waterways, this post controlled access to the interior. The principal wars of this period were known in America as King William's War (1689-1697), Queen Anne's War (1702-1713), King George's War (1744-1748), and the French and Indian War (1754-1763). King William's War consisted of numerous bloody, but indecisive, raids along the northern border of New York and New England. TREAL-4 WC. * º º N º } WN Susg95 ºf a J N S Y LVº § l § º Ft. Dusquesne w © PHILAD # \oº! º ** > : sºlexan SºrlGl * SS .1°, S alºn ſhº. "...' S N 7)]] § * - \ ** ** if: Nº" sº ... • º W sº 3. * Nº. 31.Afs. sº § º *\ 42 ſº S sº e Nº July/ N' S &_*: $ sºvº lº's * > SCALI (ºf MILºº; sº sº sº * * * * * 100 50 O 50 to 0 030 TOO g N s 90° sº s NS ºlm) ...}, R ab” 7 Oe es' Plate 1. Northern New France and the British Colonies. From “The True History of the American Revolution,” by sºng º; *. By special permission of the author and of the publishers, • * * pplin CO O. N: INTRODUCTION 9 In Queen Anne's War, the English colonists, aided by a British fleet, captured Port Royal in Acadia. Further, aided by several regiments of British regular troops, the colonists started a campaign against Quebec via the Gulf of St. Lawrence, while, simul- taneously, a force of colonists advanced on Montreal via Lake Champlain. Both cam- paigns terminated when the first force encountered a storm in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. In King George's War, 4000 New England Colonials, unaided by the British, advanced by water and captured the fortified post of Louisburg. But this was returned to France by the treaty of peace. The French and Indian War was started by Major George Washington's unsuccessful campaign in the Monongahela Valley to drive the French from “Virginian territory.” Early in this war the colonists, aided by the British regulars, made four separate, un- coordinated attacks, simultaneously, against Fort Duquesne (Braddock's Defeat), Niagara, Crown Point, and Acadia. All failed to accomplish anything of importance. The war ended with the permanent conquest of Canada by the British soon after British regulars captured Quebec in 1759. b. Military policy. (1) Enlisted men. The first settlers, because of the grim necessities of pioneer existence, were self-armed militiamen, organized for defense of their colonies. Among its earliest measures for self-defense, the Continental Congress, on July 18, 1775, recommended “to the inhabitants of the United English Colonies that all able-bodied, effective men, between 16 and 50 years of age, be formed into companies of militia.” The colonists did not maintain any permanent military force. Their troops were assembled only to meet the exigency of the moment. They had not been trained in time of peace. They were enlisted for short periods—a few weeks or, at most a few months. They never remained in service long enough to become trained or disciplined. To a great extent they determined for themselves when they would quit the service, and upon the slightest unfavorable development great numbers deliberately deserted. (2) Officers. The colonial officers were often selected for inherent qualities of leader- ship and often because of political pull. They were nearly always totally lacking in military training. While they often led well in guerilla warfare, they were incapable of making intelligent military plans. (3) Supplies. No comprehensive system was developed to provide the colonial soldiers adequately with food, uniforms, or the simple military arms, ammunition, and equipment of that day. (4) High command. The inefficiency of the colonial militia was due largely to a lack of political unity in the colonies. Joint operations could be carried out only by a loose, mutual agreement. Armies raised at great expense frequently frittered away their efforts because there was no unity of command, i.e., one commander of all forces in the field, to coordinate and direct their efforts in accordance with a sound general plan. A notable illustration is the four simultaneous, uncoordinated attacks upon French territory in the early part of the French and Indian War. Such successes as were won in this war were due almost entirely to the British regulars or to the combined employment of the colonials and regulars, operating under the leadership of trained regular officers, in accordance with plans formulated by such officers and to the further most important fact that the British held undisputed control of the sea. 16. Revolutionary War. a. Narrative. After July 4, 1776, the national objective of the United States was to establish independence. The British, in a half-hearted way, attempted to subdue the rebellion of the colonies. The military plan of the British was to gain con- trol of the line of the Hudson River and the line of the Chesapeake Bay—Susquehanna River, thus dividing the colonies into three groups—New England, the middle Atlantic colonies, and the southern colonies; to blockade the coast; to destroy all organized American military forces; and to suppress guerrilla warfare. The plan of the Americans was a simple defensive against the British plan. There were campaigns in New England which included the battles of Concord and Lexington, Bunker Hill, and the battles around Boston leading to the British evacuation of that city. There were also campaigns in the South, including the battles of King's Mountain, Camden, and Cowpens. The prin. cipal campaigns were for the possession of the inland waterways designated in the British .* §llº Y | reº----7. * Yºº cº N (((( º, \º % *\; wº 4, §: 2. % Sº… S \\ 6. : % º- Crown s zºº Point | º i ſº *:::::: C \\ Q t % Iº t.Defian t º: Pſ & O A. TA ź. ſº ſº t George, š% ºft- *}'}\histow: rºto??, *2. Oriskon axº~Stillºr \ Sºbenrån BAN § Śl É $; $l § #l Vers Eso Or 3| & R gºme HKı Ston àC 2: 3:: § $º Q, N Pointº Poin i §3. n usSexyrie Ft Løg - <3 •º OSn) ſh £º tº Nº. \- N’s Y L. v A N IS®: * º, Soś . t §3. - Pri n | §ſº, Gº; RE M iyouthch. §§§ § | jº | / Vº j\! JJZ ſºy & L__^ __^ FF&dericks § § Chd. lottgswi (S s wº gº L-> | let H ºš º RICHM & is & Sl Estes º º º- - \ A Sºº. hº >g ſº S **~. Guilford C.H. 25 | Histº ** sº * vº, § ) ~x. sº } Ramsjsmiſs &e - º | j N <--~Kin Charloſ to * gº #!/ CAPE CŞ. C A\RSO \rī; à Aºss —asil the Čowpens t— G S-VT & •Blackstock Hill §§ 2. Winsbg. s O den \,- N, ) y Ninetºx H N |LMINGTON Ft. Granb N. * * wº - *, \sº g See s PE PEAR 3. OPongøbum ri & is a “ºur of Mºss ICO A. f Nº. GETOWN l ºr Hºrs—º - On 33° * *} ARLESTON *h, * 75° | Plate 2. The American Colonies in the Revolution. tr- INTRODUCTION 11 plan. Campaigns for the possession of the Hudson River included the battles of Long Island, Monmouth, Trenton, and Saratoga. The most important and decisive of these ended in the capture at Saratoga in October, 1777, of the British army under General Burgoyne, who had invaded New York from Canada. This result led to recognition and very great aid to the United States from France. The American victory was largely due to General Howe (British) failing to give General Burgoyne the support he had promised. The campaign which ended the war was one for the possession of Chesapeake Bay, which concluded with the surrender at Yorktown of General Cornwallis to the combined American and French military forces. These forces had received invaluable aid from the French fleet, which had kept the British fleet out of the Bay. b. Military policy. (1) Enlisted men. During the Revolution, the United States was a loose confederation of States without a strong central government. The Continental Congress was only an advisory body. It had no power to levy taxes or to enlist, arm, or equip soldiers. The Army consisted principally of untrained militia furnished by the States. Two of the most serious errors were reliance upon short term enlistments and voluntary service. Although the war lasted seven years, few troops were enlisted for as much as a year. From four to six months was the usual term, and often troops were called to serve for six weeks or less. On one occasion 5000 troops were called to serve from December 10 to January 15, and on another occasion a contingent was called for three days. These troops demanded discharge at the end of their terms, before they could possibly be disciplined or trained. In depending upon voluntary enlistment, the government failed to apply the democratic principle of equal obligation resting upon all citizens. It permitted individuals to decide who should constitute the Army, a decision which can be more wisely nade by the government. It is not until nearly a hundred and fifty years later, in the World War, that we find our war army raised by the fair operation of a universal draft. During the Revolution, when it was recognized that the volunteer system was failing to produce sufficient enlistments, resort was had to the “bounty,” a lump sum of money, as a special inducement to enlist. The bounty offered sometimes amounted to as much as $1000 for a few months’ service. The payment of these sums to recruits was unfair to those al- ready in the service. Discontent led to equalization of pay, which greatly increased the expense. When even the bounty failed to induce sufficient enlistments, Congress recom- mended the draft. Some States responded, but individuals selected for service were per- mitted to hire substitutes. George Washington wrote to one of the State Councils as follows: “It gives me inexpressible concern to have repeated information from the best authority that the committees of the different towns and districts of your state hire deserters from General Burgoyne's army and employ them as substitutes to excuse the personal service of the inhabitants. I need not enlarge upon the dangers of substituting as soldiers men who have given a glaring proof of a treacherous disposition and who are bound to us by no attachments, instead of citizens in whom the ties of country, kindred, and sometimes property, are so many securities for their fidelity.” The British troops in America were gradually increased from 20,000 at the beginning to a maximum of 42,000. To combat this force we employed about 400,000 men, but the largest force ever available to Washington at one time was 17,000. At the time of Cornwallis’ surrender at Yorktown, French forces present outnumbered the Americans. The successful outcome of the war was largely due to the aid of the French and to the inactivity and lack of interest of the British. A very small Continental Army, in the nature of a permanent, or “Regular,” Army, was maintained from 1775 to the end of the war. The length of the enlistment was three years. Again and again, on the battlefield, this small force of seasoned soldiers demon- strated its incomparable superiority to the militia. The difference was due to training and discipline rather than to the inherent qualities of the men, because all sprang from the same stock. (2) Officers. The officers were appointed by the States and frequently felt no attach. ment to the central government. They were often selected because of political influence 12 INTRODUCTION and without regard to military training. Often the ability to induce enough men to en- list to form a military organization was rewarded by a commission to command it. (3) Supplies. Congress having no power to tax, could not establish sound currency. The depreciated value of the Continental paper money gave rise to the expression “not worth a continental.” The result was a ragged, hungry, poorly armed and poorly equipped army, which, for bare necessities, often had to depend upon the generosity of such individuals as Robert Morris, instead of being supplied in a dignified manner by the country they served. (4) High command. The command of the Army was, fortunately, given to the “most experienced and capable soldier in America. The principle of “unity of command” was well observed, i.e., Washington not only commanded the troops who accompanied him, but he also commanded the other American armies in the field. This made possible the concentration of his own immediate army, with the French and with American troops in the South, which led to the final success at Yorktown. Questions 1. List three weak elements and one strong element of the military policy of the Americans in the Revolutionary War. 2. State clearly how the result in one campaign was influenced by our military policy. CHAPTER V MILITARY HISTORY AND POLICY. THE WAR OF 1812 AND THE MEXICAN WAR 17. From the Revolution to the War of 1812. In 1789 we established the strong central government prescribed by the Constitution. As we have seen in Chapter III, the Con- stitution gave the Congress and the President complete power to utilize all the man- power and physical resources of the country in preparing for, or waging, war. Never- theless, but little was done during the next twenty-three years to prepare for national security, although we engaged in one minor war (with the Barbary States), one serious domestic insurrection (The Whiskey Rebellion), several difficult and extensive campaigns with the Indians, and were continually threatened with a major war with England, France (the Genet affair), or Spain (the Burr conspiracy). Congress called upon President Washington for a plan for national defense. His proposals included a very small standing army, to be used primarily to garrison the fron- tier posts; a “well-organized” militia; one or more military academies; and the necessary arsenals and manufactories of munitions. Although every able-bodied male citizen was to be enrolled in the militia, it was not intended that all would be trained. Washington proposed that a certain proportion of the younger men should be enlisted, or drafted, to form the active portion of the militia, to be given “fifteen or twenty-five days” training per year, to have uniform organization, equipment, and training in all of the States, and to be subjected to a certain amount of Federal control. Not until the approach of the World War were Washington's plans for the militia realized. The Congress of his time was influenced by the consideration of “States’ rights” and feared to place an effective military force at the disposal of the central government. One of its first acts was to disband the “Continental,” or Regular, Army, leaving the central government with no troops of its own. Several times the Regular Army was reorganized with a total force of from 700 to 1200 men. No provision was made for a reserve to expand this force in the event of war. When emergencies arose, Congress fell back upon the old policy of calling upon the States for militia for short terms of service. In 1789 a War Department was organized, and it was provided that officers of the Regular Army should be appointed by the President and should take an oath of allegiance to the United States. . In 1791 we find the first legislative reference to National Volunteer forces, when the INTRODUCTION 13 President was authorized to raise 2000 Volunteers for six months and to appoint their officers. This was the beginning of the National Volunteer system which we were to find in the Mexican War much superior to the old militia system, and which was to reach its greatest development in the Civil War. But, unfortunately, before national volunteers were employed in large numbers, the right to appoint their officers was surrendered to the governors of the States. In 1792 Congress enacted the “Militia Act.” It opened by stating the salutory doctrine that every able-bodied citizen of military age (eighteen to forty-five years of age) was liable for military service. But it committed the tragic blunder of providing that this service should be rendered to the States, rather than to the nation. The citizens were to be enrolled on paper only, there being no provision for organization, appointment of officers, training, or equipment. There was adopted also the limitation that these forces could be used only to suppress insurrection or repel actual invasion. Since this act included all male citizens the limitations just mentioned would have, if not amended later, deprived the United States of the power to fight the Mexican War, the Spanish-American War, and the World War or to conduct some of the operations of the War of 1812. In 1795 it was provided by Congress that the President might discharge the Regular Army at any time, within his discretion. In 1799, faced with the threat of war with France, Congress authorized the President to expand the Regular Army to 40,000 and to call for 75,000 volunteers and appoint their officers. But it was provided that the volunteers should be called for three months only and not be required to serve outside the States from which they came. Had there been an invasion at Boston, only the volunteers from Massachusetts could have been employed. In 1802 the United States Military Academy was organized at West Point, as Wash- ington had recommended. This was the first step taken in providing peace-time military education for officers. But Congress supported the Academy so inadequately that only seventy-one cadets had been graduated by 1812. It seems that but for the repeated Indian difficulties, the Regular Army would have been disbanded. A Regular Army is necessary to the maintenance of any effective military policy. It must garrison our coast defenses and foreign possessions. It is the continuing repository of military knowledge. It must keep abreast of developments in military science and art, supervise the organization and training of all military forces, and afford the nucleus around which they may form in time of war. 18. The War of 1812. a. Narrative. (See Plate 3). This war was fought to stop Great Britain's impressment of our seamen and to force her to observe other of our rights as an independent and neutral country. The American plan of operations provided for four, separate, uncoordinated attacks against Canada—on Montreal, and through Detroit, Niagara, and Sackett's Harbor. All these attacks were failures. Our only entirely credible operations of the war were those of the Navy, including the clearing of the Great Lakes and Lake Champlain of British vessels, and the land defense of New Orleans by Andrew Jackson. The surrender of General Hull at Detroit was a disgrace, as were the futile efforts to defend the capital at Washington from capture and destruction by a small British force (the Battle of Bladensburg). - sº b. Military policy. (1) Enlisted men. Every error of the Revolution in depending upon voluntary enlistments for short terms of service, under State control, was repeated in this war, producing even greater inefficiency. In the prosecution of this war we actually enlisted in the service 528,000 troops to oppose 8000 British regulars in Canada, aided by a comparatively small number of militia and Indians. The greatest force we ever assembled on any field during the war was less than 6000, while the British, with much smaller numbers available, once as- sembled a force of 11,000 on Lake Champlain. Of our 528,000 men, 465,000 were enlisted for periods of twelve months or less and 150,000 for less than one month. Although the Constitution gave the Federal Government unlimited power to raise troops, the Congress relied upon State support. The folly of this is conspicuously shown by such incidents as the following: Yºğº AEEºsmºsºmº gº-ºº: º mºsº 'S - SCALE OF M gºles 5C) Montroal C-E-ED-E - tR gi? SłRegis.c.” O Fronch Mills $ £, º Ch tl º F. & - } ****"...ºf pºsſ. Ft. Pro Scott3% 'oùsburg Plate 3. Canada and the Northern United States in 1812. From “History of the United States,” by Henry Adams. By courtesy of the publishers, Chas. Scribner's Sons. }S"? Is". sº." S 5 § 13 * KS; 4 York. Sacketts Harbor C Ø 73 y Hamilton eºs: 2.9 | "Z, Wº. © **świazzºz : Tº e / ; * ſº $ Ft. Eric º ſº | $ & 2-º uffalo Q) Alb 2---|| o º % e º ºw- - W Olſh *** * * Aaka.SYC/air §§ «yº” ºn 4 -> Q) * 5 z. Detroit.}} gº sº KS 23 * $( : º O /* #1 3. * *%-S | C & 9 * 7 p. 2, , 2- Broºft %2 ſº %. ºf *a*... § 2. º riº Sº W R '. Fi § ºf }^3 gº tºº & © tº º tº dº § s Hi- ronc º g § ºs ; : tºshº : y 13. *S** É alſº ...Tº | wº" sºs sſ is | t Miqm => M% §§ * M +Ft JMøic : º sº § is º *** . •w Sº g” Firefiance jFest.phanson | } §§ 2& *> o / " . P R N Nº. ºº N S s & & e ... wº sº * .# © § Sº" * W"ws \tº \ S." S s & CŞ §IN ºf # fº sº * I tº $'; º . &\ sins ſ Mºº NEW work; º º Q §§ s’s SW" 4W ‘ "Wºup. s W 2: ſº • $ wº § * ſue , sº • Pittsburgh A. sº ** INTRODUCTION 15 The Governor of Vermont directed the militia of that State, who were then enrolled in the service of the United States, to disband and return to their homes. He stated that “The military resources of a State must be reserved exclusively for its own defense and protection.” When the call for militia was presented to the States, under the provisions of the Militia Act of 1792, Massachusetts and Connecticut refused to furnish their quota. At Queenstown, opposite Niagara, General Van Renssalaer (American) was defeated and forced to surrender his troops, while the bulk of his militia stood by on the American side and refused to cross the international border to assist him, relying upon the theory that State troops could not be required to serve on foreign soil. Our Regular Army at the beginning of the war numbered some 7000 men. Detach- ments of this force rendered distinguished service at Lundy's Lane and Chippewa, and also as a rear guard, trying to stem the rout of the militia at Bladensburg. The difference was due to training and discipline, owing to longer service training, of both officers and IIlCI). (2) Officers. The officers of the militia, which made up the bulk of the Army, were appointed by the Governors of the States, more often for political reasons than for military merit. Even the officers of the Regular Army, although possessed of considerable military experience, had not had the advantages of a military education, since only seventy-one cadets had been graduated from West Point at the time of this war, and there were no other military schools at the time. One encouraging feature of the war was the develop- ment of certain younger officers, including Andrew Jackson and Winfield Scott. (3) Supplies. The system for supplies was much improved in this war by the creation by Congress of two supply branches of the Army—the Quartermaster Depart- ment and the Ordnance Department. This was the first action taken by law in this country to provide a supply staff for the Army. (4) High command. Here we retrogressed pitifully. During the Revolution we had unity of command under the great commander, General Washington. In 1812 we had a number of independent armies in the field, operating under the orders of a civilian Secretary of War, who, though ignorant of military operations, attempted to exercise command. He was unable to formulate a plan or to impose his will upon the military commanders in the field. To this factor our defeat and humiliation were largely due. 19. From the War of 1812 to the Mexican War. At the end of of the War of 1812 the Regular Army, which had been increased during the war, was again reduced. Congress provided for a permanent force of 10,000. But by 1821 it was reduced to 6000, with no provision for expansion or reserves. Subsequent increases were made during the Indian Wars, but the usual reduction always followed the restoration of peace. 20. The Mexican War. a. Narrative. (See Plate 4). This war arose out of a boundary dispute between the United States and Mexico over the territory between the Rio Grande and Nueces Rivers. The American plan, at first, was to bring Mexico to terms by occupying northern Mexico. General Zachary Taylor, in a series of successful battles, advanced south of Monterey and accomplished this occupation. Mexico not submitting, it was then concluded that the capture of the capital, Mexico City, would be necessary. Because of the two hundred miles of desert in addition to other hun- dreds of miles of rough country between Monterey and Mexico City, it was decided that since the United States had complete control of the sea, it would be best to proceed by water to Vera Cruz, and thence by land. General Winficla Scott, who had been the Commanding General of the United States Army for many years, com- manded the expedition, which culminated in the capture of the Mexican capital in September, 1847. b. Military policy. (1) Enlisted men. In this war some of the mistakes of the Revolu- tion and of the War of 1812 in providing enlisted men were repeated. These included short term enlistments, reliance upon voluntary enlistment, the bounty, and partial reliance upon State militia; but these errors were not committed to such a serious degree as in previous wars. At the beginning of the war we had a non-expansive Regular Army of 8000 men. These men were already well trained, and most of them were experienced in Indian MEXICAN WAR º THEATRE OF OPERATION SCALE OF M | LES ſ O O 2O 4O O OO *====#=*=} *66ffſ; % U T1SUl Q C JP Monclava & Padre Island #\s; (ºr § Q * % S. S. S º %\; Mi (// | | \ * I or sº Corralvo o- ºmfº tºinºisabel Žiº ºº::'S Ma as: jº | Z Co margo 's * * §: Z2 Q *...*** 2 & Salòjo *...*.2. t // - - - £ 2: 2- •ºz, ; F sº, * = - Ž. 2. * $$.” & S. 22.2 • ?:, , , i. *- } ~ 2: … * *, *, * * *. º 2 : :" ... º.2 -- *WSS ==: t = < - - º *:::::: * #ss E SS - *SSs: Vyš • S.S S- | * * > ...". $32 * - Victoria * .N. • *. do º º % * *... • • S :- © * ...” SS S- R to 70s: Nº.SN sº, , * * -* , *2 ^_ _ 75%.2 £ - - s".:* * * 5. 2, 7. * , *.* *g º, ſº º %222 2 : - º: * > tº-r º %. º: ; ū& & g *...* *. • * > e sº º sº tº 3% -y ... ??? Aº 2 ºf t *g § $55 Sº | 2, 'I'', '', 2. * * SSS SNNº.;22.2% //// 1 \" 22 •.º.S. SSSº. £2. 2.2e, £30, > S :=: % ‘9 $:A ~~$33- *s: Z/ ' ' ', ** $ SS - >SS ...º.º. # / $ va & S SY ST- ºr Sº º, * *N. > S Jºs º 'º -- Dol O ITQS 2: ; ". § * >Sis ; $5: sº •. * = * - E = sº nº, • ?:, a $S. - ~~~ **, — M.: 's SS *...** * * º: & * ~ *: •º S • * / / A / Wv .* *: / s &tiiſ, fº, 2 §§ arº %2 * // SSS... º::/ --> S 5 º's sa, º: * , swee § *# 3 #!/2 º 22%rrºw º,'''//, Z * * Tuldź. *2 ge 2: ºGuadalupe Hidalgoš zº * NY : ICO & Por ote \\\ll \ll \\ºss' ==3 Ş. \ \\?-3 f * \\\\\".; 22 Sºlili §§§ §§ ~ * P **** + 2 opocatapetB; <2 2 * O lcan O e %us * /// '', v ,”, ...” 2 \* */, "ºf/ '''2% "...ºrr, g %/1/|\}|\}\}|º.9%N : ///1" //jii º"/"ºft ... iś /1''//, //ff/11%iº ...wºssºs '// 'f'''NS ... --SS ***. * * * * Plate 4. Mexican War. Theater of Operations. INTRODUCTION 17 fighting. General Scott recommended just before the war that each company of the Regular Army (which consisted of about forty men), be approximately doubled by the addition of recruit privates only. The new men would have learned from the old and would have rapidly become seasoned soldiers, but the Congress did not adopt the recommendation. The law was changed to increase the term of service in the militia from three months to six months. The Regular Army was increased by the addition of new regiments, and it was provided that enlistment in these regiments should be for the period of the war. The greater part of the war army consisted of national volunteers, raised under a law authorizing 50,000 of such troops to be enlisted “to serve twelve months” or “to the end of the war.” The President made the mistake of permitting the recruits, rather than himself, to exercise the option. The recruits chose the twelve months' period. This led to a most unfortunate result. When General Scott was on the way to Mexico City from Vera Cruz, the term of enlistment of the volunteers expired. They refused to re-enlist. He had to send them home. This left him with only a small army of regular troops— too small to enable him to proceed toward Mexico City and also to maintain communica- tion with his base at Vera Cruz. He made the hazardous decision to cut loose from his base and continue the advance, depending upon the chance of being able to live off the country. He was successful, but a defective law had forced upon him this dangerous choice. Opportunity for training the new soldiers was much greater in this war than in previous wars, largely due to the long term of enlistment. General Taylor energetically trained the volunteers for six months at Corpus Christi before starting his advance into northern Mexico. Another great advantage was that the bulk of the troops, regular and volunteer, were entirely under national control, instead of being largely under State control, as in the past. This was our first major war in which we employed fewer troops than the enemy. Our uniform success was partially due to the quality of the enemy troops but decidedly due to the character of training and discipline of our own troops. Let us consider two conspicuous examples. At Bladensburg, outside the city of Washington, in the War of 1812, 5400 American State militia disgracefully fled when the first shot was fired by the British force of one-half their own number; while at Buena Vista, in northern Mexico, 5000 American regulars and National volunteers defeated 15,000 Mexican soldiers, who, upon this occasion continued to attack with great energy, not surrender- ing the field until they had suffered losses of 15 per cent of their total number. (2) Officers. In this war Congress departed from the previously adopted policy of authorizing the President to appoint the officers of volunteers, and specifically author- ized their appointment by the Governors of the States in which they were recruited. The governors frequently appointed as officers the individuals elected as such by the enlisted men within the organizations. This placed a premium on qualities other than military ability. Despite these mistakes, the war army was far better officered than ever before. Four-fifths of the officers in Taylor's army in northern Mexico had received military training, either at the United States Military Academy or in the campaigns of the Seminole (Florida) War. (3) Supplies. The provision of adequate supplies lagged far behind the raising of troops. For want of supplies, over 5000 troops raised by General Gaines in Louisiana and neighboring States and sent to Texas were discharged at the termination of their enlistment without ever having been armed or equipped. Lack of transportation caused General Taylor to leave 6000 troops at Fort Brown when he started for Mexico. Lack of pontoon equipment seriously delayed his crossing of the Rio Grande. (4) High command. There was, in general, unity of command under General Scott as the commanding General of the Army in Washington at first and later while he was in Mexico conducting the only important campaign going on at that time. Both General Taylor and General Scott were experienced Regular officers. They gave the Army a high quality of direction and relationship. The President and Congress were łº, to act upon the advice of General Scott, who had recommended at the beginning of 18 INTRODUCTION the war a campaign against Mexico City via Vera Cruz, but, in the end, they adopted his military plans. Questions 1. State two improvements upon the military policy of the War of 1812 practiced in the Mexican War? 2. State one instance during the War of 1812, and one during the Mexican War, in which defects of military policy caused a commander in the field to have fewer men present for battle than he would have had under a sound military policy. CHAPTER VI MILITARY HISTORY AND POLICY. THE CIVIL WAR 21. From the Mexican War to the Civil War. At the close of the Mexican War the temporary forces were demobilized, the Regular Army was reduced from 31,000 to 10,000, and no provision was made for expansion to meet future contingencies. The military operations from 1848 to 1861 were limited chiefly to Indian wars and to the expedition of 1858 to quell disturbances in which the Mormons were involved in Utah. One improvement in military policy was effected during this period. In 1850 Congress authorized the President, at such time as he might wish, to increase the number of privates per company from forty-two to seventy-four in regiments serving on the western frontier. When Indian troubles arose a few years later the President exercised this authority; and, in this inexpensive manner, without adding any officers he increased the effective strength of the Army to 13,821 men, representing a 33 per cent increase. The result of the Utah expedition was to transfer nearly all the troops of the Regular Army west of the Mississippi River. This left the Government with very little military force in the East, where the controversies of the impending Civil War were rapidly developing. 22. The Civil War. a. Narrative. (See Plates 5, 6, and 7). The immediate cause of the war was the secession of the Southern States. The military plan of the Federal Government, as it gradually developed, was to blockade the coasts of the Confederate States, cut the Confederacy into several parts by the occupation of the Mississippi, Tennessee, and Cumberland Rivers, capture the capital at Richmond, and defeat the Confederate armies in the field. The Confederate plan was a general defensive. There were two principal theaters of operation, Eastern and Western, as shown in Plates 5, 6 and 7. The principal campaigns in the West included that of 1862 which opened the Cumberland and Tennessee Rivers (Battles of Fort Donelson and Shiloh); those of 1863, one which opened the Mississippi River (Surrender of Vicksburg), and the other clinched Federal control of Kentucky and Tennessee (Battles of Chickamauga and Chattanooga); and that of 1864 (Sherman's advance from Chattanooga to Atlanta and his March to the Sea). In the East, the principal campaigns were McClellan's unsuccessful Peninsular Cam- paign against Lee in 1862 for the capture of Richmond; Lee's invasion of the North in 1863 (Battle of Gettysburg); and Grant's Overland Campaign of 1864, which ended in the fall of Richmond and the capture of Lee's army. b. Military policy. (1) Introduction. Because our Civil War remains the most severe conflict in which, as a nation, we have ever engaged, and because each side faced a formidable foe, alone, the lessons of this war are of particular interest and importance. At the outbreak of the war, the Regular Army consisted of 16,000 troops, widely dispersed principally on the western frontier, as protection against the Indians. They could not be readily assembled. At the First Battle of Bull Run, in July, 1861, only one small battalion of Federal Regular infantry participated. “At the close of the year 1860," says General Upton, “we presented to the world the spectacle of a great nation nearly destitute of military force.” . There was no reserve, and no laws or even a plan to create or to train a reserve. There was no plan for INTRODUCTION 19 the mobilization or concentration of an army and no strategical plan or study on the conduct of any possible war. The legal powers of the President to raise a war army consisted only in the privilege of requesting the several States to lend their militia for a period of not longer than three months. (2) Enlisted men. The wars of the Revolution and of 1812 made it clear that a system of national defense based on the consent and cooperation of the States possessed none of the elements of certainty or of strength. Nevertheless, for the want of laws pro- viding for the expansion of the Regular Army or a system of National Volunteers, the President was again compelled to look to the States, and therefore, on the 15th of April, 1861, the day after the fall of Fort Sumter, President Lincoln issued his call upon the States for 75,000 militia to serve for three months. Nominally, the militia numbered more than 3,000,000, but scarcely any were or- ganized. With the exception of a few regiments in the larger cities, the militia consisted only of census report statistics. * The Southern States refused to send their quotas. So did the Border States. The following reply of Governor Magoffin, of Kentucky, was typical: “In answer, I say emphatically that Kentucky will furnish no troops for the wicked purpose of subduing her sister Southern States.” The Northern States responded to the call. In July, the Northern people and press clamored for a battle to be fought before the three months' enlistments should expire. Such pressure forced General McDowell to advance to the attack of the well organized and better trained Confederate army (enlisted for one year) confronting Washington City. The members of one regiment of McDowell's troops demanded and took their dis- charges, per expiration of term of enlistment, upon the very day of the Battle of Bull Run. The result of the battle was, as might have been foreseen, a disgraceful Federal stampede and rout. The one trained Regular battalion, of its own initiative, posted itself as rear guard, covered the retreat, and repelled such efforts at pursuit as were attempted. They were the same kind of men as the militia, but they were trained and disciplined. The President, then, in advance of Congressional authority, increased the size of the Regular Army and issued successive calls for National volunteers. He made the mistake of not making the volunteers clearly and exclusively National troops. States were per- mitted to establish hospitals, to send their agents to the front and to transport the sick and wounded home in droves, in utter disregard of the protests of military commanders. Civilian physicians were even permitted to grant certificates of discharge from the Army. The first of the volunteers were enlisted, also, for a three months' period. Later this error was corrected and volunteers were called for “three years or the war.” Voluntary enlistment was again relied upon. It did not meet the needs. The “bounty” was reinstated. It operated as a bribe and was a common cause of desertion from old regiments. Finally in the spring of 1863 Congress enacted the first Selective Service act in the history of the country. It was popularly called the draft. But the system was very unfair because it allowed any man to hire a substitute or purchase outright exemption for $300. Only Army personnel was used to obtain the “conscripts,” and there was great resentment and lack of cooperation in many communities. Men were registered by house to house canvass and hunted down by troops if they failed to appear. There were serious riots, draft officials and other individuals were killed, and much property damage resulted. The number actually drafted into the Army after two years of turmoil was 46,347 at a cost of $288 each. The principal value of the draft was its inducement to voluntary enlistment, which continued throughout the war. º There was no system of replacements to introduce new men into the dwindling ranks of experienced regiments, where new men might learn quickly from experienced soldiers. 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The war would have ended there, with the crushing of Lee's army, if a reasonable proportion of the enrolled soldiers of the Army of the Potomac had been present. They were absent, principally, because of divided Federal and State control. (3) Officers. Because of States’ rights considerations, the governors were allowed to appoint and promote officers of volunteers. Again, in many cases, the election of officers by the enlisted men was permitted. Political considerations often governed. Due to the lack of an officers’ reserve corps, the new officers were as ignorant of the science and art of war as the men they were to train and lead in battle. If the Presi- dent had been given power to appoint officers, he could have facilitated the develop- ment of new regiments at the beginning of the war by assigning to them a few trained officers of the Regular Army. Later in the war he could have transferred experienced volunteer officers from old to new regiments. (4) Supplies. Control of the sea was of incalculable value to the Federal Govern- ment, not only because it facilitated the strategic movement of troops but because it kept available the markets of Europe. This was our first war in which railroads were extensively available. They proved of the great importance in moving both troops and supplies. Their location influenced the plans of many campaigns, and important battles were sometimes fought to gain possession of railroads. Congress authorized the President to commandeer all railroads for military use. A military Director of Railroads was appointed. He took control of such lines and equipment as were needed to serve the Army. This was the first recognition in our history of the importance of mobilizing the nation's industries for the conduct of a war. (5) High command. At the beginning of the war, the Federal Government made many mistakes by appointing “political generals” without any military background. Before the end of the war the best men reached the top. Grant, Sherman, Sheridan and Meade were all experienced in the Regular Army in time of peace, and all except Sheridan were veterans of the Mexican War. The principle of unity of command was conspicuously and repeatedly violated. At one time there were five independent armies operating on a front of two hundred miles along the general course of the Potomac River. In the Shenandoah Valley, Stone- wall Jackson passed between two Federal armies whose combined strength greatly exceeded his. Each knew of the movements of Jackson but did not know of the presence of the other Federal Army a few miles away. Thus, probably, lack of unity of com- mand permitted the escape of Lee's “strong right arm,” who was later to inflict so many defeats upon the Federal armies. The career of General Grant is the history of the development of the observation of the principle of unity of command by the Federal Government. After he captured Fort Donelson and proceeded south, the army of Buell at Louisville was ordered to join Grant and to come under his command. This enabled him to concentrate the two forces at Shiloh, there to defeat the Confederates in the hardest fought major en- gagement of the war. He captured Vicksburg and was given command of the entire Western Theater. This was responsible for the transfer of part of his forces, who accompanied him from Vicksburg to Chattanooga, to defeat the Confederate Army which had recently won the Battle of Chickamauga. Following this, he was taken to Washington and given command over all the Federal troops in the country for the remainder of the war. This was responsible for the two simultaneous and coordi- nated campaigns which ended the war—the advance on Richmond of the Army of the Potomac, under Grant's immediate command, and the advance on Atlanta by Sherman's army, in accordance with orders given him by General Grant. A serious error committed by the high command was interference in the details of military plans by the President and the Secretary of War. It was probable that McClellan would have succeeded on the Peninsula in 1862, if these civilian officials INTRODUCTION 25 had not required him to return a large part of his army to reinforce—quite unneces- sarily—the troops in immediate defense of Washington City. Such interference did not occur after Grant rose to command, and it may reasonably be said that there was considerable basis for the President's lack of confidence in Grant's predecessors. 23. Military Policy of the Confederacy. A brief statement of the military policy of the Confederacy is made, for the purpose of showing that its superiority over the military policy of the United States constituted the principal reason why the Confederacy, with one third the number of troops, one third the amount of money expended, and one fourth the (white) population of the Northern States—and blockaded and denied foreign markets by the Federal Navy—kept the war going four years, by the brilliant achievement of victory after victory in the field. The Confederate government was organized at the beginning of a war and was free from disabling precedents. The term of enlistment was made one year at the first of the war. In 1862 conscription was adopted, applicable to all male citizens, and the term of enlistment was the duration of the war. The military forces were properly organized at the beginning into brigades, divisions, corps, and armies. Experienced officers were ap- pointed as generals. The longer term of enlistment than that in the Federal Army per- mitted the Confederate training to proceed more efficiently. The President appointed the officers of all grades. Although the Confederacy was created to support States’ rights, it organized its military forces in a national army. President Davis appointed General Lee to command all Confederate forces in 1862, and from then to the end there was unity of command under General Lee. This made possible the brilliant teamwork between Lee, near Richmond, and Jackson, shuttling back and forth between Richmond and the Shenandoah Valley, to the great confusion of the uncoordinated Federal armies. Questions 1. Name four important campaigns or battles of the Civil War in which military policy probably determined the result. State how military policy contributed to the result in each case. CHAPTER VII MILITARY HISTORY AND POLICY, 1865 TO 1916, INCLUDING THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR 24. From the Civil War to the Spanish-American War. Following the Civil War, despite its costly lessons our military policy entered a period of dry rot. The volunteer armies were disbanded, which of course, was proper; but we made the same old mistake of reducing the Regular Army to a force inadequate for peace-time needs. Again, no provision was made for a reserve. The Army was so dispersed in small detachments that it could do very little toward accomplishing those important missions of a Regular Army of keeping abreast of the developments in military science and art and training its own members so that they may be ready, when war comes, to train both by precept and example, the civilians who enter the Army. The one bright spot in the Army's history following the Civil War was the hasty withdrawal by France and Austria of their support to Maximilian's usurpation of empire in Mexico. This empire promptly fell when American troops, not yet demobilized from the Civil War, were sent to the Rio Grande under Generan Sheridan. After this incident the Regular Army was reduced to 25,000 men, at which figure it remained until the Spanish-American War in 1898. The Army was sadly neglected by Congress, although, in small detachments, it was continually engaged in Indian campaigns. For some time, notably in 1877, its entire strength was actually engaged throughout the eastern part of the United States in aiding civil officials to restore domestic order. Conditions necessitating this action had grown out of riots incident to the widespread railroad strikes of that year. The Army, then, 26 INTRODUCTION was being employed as a national constabulary, to the neglect of its vital peace-time mission of preparing for national defense. In 1881 progress began by the establishment at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, of the In- fantry and Cavalry School, for post-graduate instruction of officers in the theory of strategy and tactics. This was followed a few years later at Fort Riley, Kansas, by a school of practical instruction in technique, particularly of artillery. 25. The Spanish-American War. a. Narrative. (See Plate 8). (1) Introduction. This war resulted from the growing hostility of our people to Spanish misrule and cruelty in Cuba, and was precipitated by the blowing up of the American battleship, Mine, by unknown hands, in Havana Harbor, February 15, 1898. (2) War plans. This war is unique in our history in that it was primarily a naval war, in which the Army was limited to necessary cooperation in the plans of the Navy. The general plan was that our Navy would prevent interference by the Spanish Navy and, assisted by the Army, would seize the principal harbors of Cuba. The Army was, further, to assist the Cuban Army in defeating the Spanish Army in Cuba. o \, } \, Rº: sº W. * obrussels K ( * … (e. • M6W. **** º: Z8 & -, oLillº. &. & \s Bothuno O S.-- §M S Gr r * C Lons L.S. On Z º Arras # «» ly CP \ 3. O Combroi li /-, * /~~ © W. ſ} / t- \ Amiens A$ ... • ** S’s.’ J G § § ſº ON W *s, * \ | º \ ;Soº" !- º % | º Montclidier 3. Y- \\ \\ 3. s Cantignyº O Laog $$. Sedanº "N f * K2. ' N & º' º º (4. *e º, º º' a $; ? º ‘J’s J.-S. Soissons. Tº Jºž tº ! ! % \ \º º Rheinns \ 0. % O 27 %-—º º § º łka, AISNE-MARNEA ...” 3 - July. Verãº...!” JULY 8 - AVG.6 sº MEUSE-ARGONNE Wºº ſº. chateau-º ***". Afşºs (C) Thierry $CALC Oſ’ MILES ST MIHIEL. Sº m PARIS © 25 $o SEPT. 12- 16 © *****==#’ Tgul Plate 9. The Allied Drives of 1918. Note.—The arrows show the points at which American troops were engaged, and the shaded areas the territory captured by the American Army acting as a unit. The following American divisions were engaged in these operations: Alsne-Marne: 1st, 2d, 3d, 4th, 26th, 28th, 32d and 42d. Somme: 27th, 30th and part of 33d. Olse-Aisne: 28th, 32d and 77th. Ypres-Lys: 27th, 30th, 37th and 91st. St. Mihiel: 1st, 2d, 4th, 5th, 26th, 42d, 82d, 89th and 90th. (3d, 33d, 35th, 78th, 80th and 91st in reserve.) Meuse-Argonne: 1st, 2d, 3d, 4th, 5th, 26th, 28th, 29th, 32d, 33d, 35th, 37th, 42d, 77th, 78th, 79th, 80th, 81st, 82d, 89th, 90th, and 91st. (6th in reserve.) duty of the citizen to render military service in case of need and the right of government to compel it.” June 5, 1917 was registration day, when thousands presented themselves for possible service. When the need for more men became pressing as the Germans began a near- victorious drive and Russian resistance collapsed entirely, the age limits were increased. 30 INTRODUCTION The second registration August 24, 1918, included those who had become 21 years old since the first registration. The third and last registration on September 12, 1918, extended the age limits to 18 through 45. Had the war continued, the War Department estimated it would have obtained more than 8,000,000 soldiers from those age groups. A total of 24,234,021 were finally registered within the ages set by Congress. The law forbade bounties, substitutes, and purchased exemptions. Civilian boards in the various communities throughout the land made the selection of specific individuals for military service, in accordance with rules as to priorities formulated by the President, under authority of the statute. Units composed of selective service men were called the “National Army,” and many were later transferred to units of the Regular Army and National Guard. The Selective Service Act was accepted by the people as fair and necessary. There was but little opposition. This law enabled us to enroll in the Army and Navy, within a period of a year and a half, more than four million men of whom 2,810,296 were enlisted through the operation of selective service at an average cost of about $8 each. All enlistments were for the duration of the war. A replacement system was provided to keep all units up to strength. There was, usually, a period of several months, at least, of intensive training of organ- izations before they were sent into battle. There was an effective organization of large as well as small units, uniform throughout the army. During the war, the President combined the Regular Army, the National Guard, and the National Army into one composite force, designated “The Army of the United States.” At the end of the war, we had 2,000,000 men in France. Twelve hundred thousand were employed in the Meuse-Argonne battle. Contrast this concentration for battle with our experience in the War of 1812. (2) Officers. All officers were appointed by the Federal government. The Officers' Reserve Corps, first authorized less than a year before we entered the war, had but few members. To supply officers for the Army of the United States, camps were organized at Plattsburg and other locations throughout the country, where selected men of character and education were sent to be trained intensively for three months in preparation for appointment as officers. After being commissioned, most of them had many months in which to acquire further training while they, in turn, trained the new soldiers pro- vided by the selective service law. Later, experienced enlisted men, from all three components of the Army, were com- missioned as officers. By these various means, the number of officers in the army was raised from about 12,000 at the beginning of the war to about 250,000 at its close. A liberal and effective use was made of trained Regular officers to instruct and lead the units of the new National Army, as division, brigade, and regimental commanders, and some in lower grades. (3) The high command. The President and the Secretary of War generously sup- ported the commander of our field forces. They did not interfere in the military conduct of campaigns. There was unity of command in the American field forces throughout the war under General Pershing. The decision, in which we concurred, to place Marshal Foch in command of the combined American, British, and French armies carried the principle of unity of command to the highest degree known within our history. All general officers were appointed by the President on the basis of experience and merit alone. Most of them had been trained for high command at the Command and General Staff School at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas. (4) Supplies. Congress appropriated ample funds from the outset of the war. But arms, ammunition, and other military equipment cannot be procured on short notice, re- gardless of the amount of money available for their purchase. We had but little military equipment at the beginning of the war. American industry had been actively engaged since 1914 in manufacturing certain military supplies for Euro- pean countries engaged in the war. This experience was a favorable factor for expediting the supply of our own Army after we became engaged. INTRODUCTION 31 American industry worked at top speed to supply our needs. The American Army in France did not enter battle in large numbers for nearly eighteen months after our declara- tion of war. Despite these factors favorable to furnishing military supplies, our Army could not have operated without the vital supplies in great quantity which were furnished it by the Allies. * Although Congress, in July, 1917, appropriated $640,000,000 for aviation, the greatest single appropriation of funds in our history up to that time, only 196 American made airplanes were in action at the end of the war. * When the war opened we had but ninety pieces of artillery—less than one-twelfth the number necessary to equip the forty-seven divisions we sent to France, without consider- ing the huge quantities required for units larger than divisions. The Allies were obliged to furnish us artillery. We had only 600,000 rifles of our own pattern. Therefore, we were obliged to adopt the British Lee-Enfield rifle, modified to shoot our own .30 caliber ammunition. * More than half our troops were carried to France in Allied ships and a large part of the remainder in captured German ships. (5) Conclusions. This was a popular war. A united people and a thoroughly awakened government bent every effort toward effective support of the Army. Never- theless, it was a year and a half after the declaration of war before we were able to put an army of 1,200,000 partially trained troops on the field of battle. We could not have achieved anything approaching that accomplishment, except for the assistance of the Allies. They provided a large part of our most important equipment and held the enemy while we prepared for action. (6) The Military Policy of the United States from the Revolutionary War down to and including the declaration of war against Germany in 1917, has been characterized by three great fundamental mistakes, so persistently adhered to as to constitute “rules of conduct.” They are: First: The entrance of the United States into every war without an army with which to fight the war, and without any plan for providing one. Second: The organization and development of the War Army during the progress of the war. 0. Third: The breaking up or disbanding of the War Army immediately following the conclusion of the war. In spite of the fact that the European War had been going on for nearly three years, the United States entered that war on April 6, 1917, without having made adequate pro- vision for the army that was needed to fight the war. The National Defense Act of June 3, 1916, was only a first step in that direction. The necessary authority for obtain- ing and organizing a War Army was not forthcoming until the passage of the Act of May 18, 1917 (The Selective Service Act), was accomplished. Therefore the authority to begin to prepare an adequate army was furnished one month and twelve days after the declaration of twar. e In spite of invariable and universal lack of preparation prior to the declaration of war, the United States has ultimately and at great cost always succeeded in developing during the course of each war, a military force sufficient in size and efficiency to win. The un- necessary and inexcusable waste in wealth and human life, in pursuing such a policy of hasty war-time development, is upon our entrance into World War II, today generally appreciated by our people. Question 1. Contrast, briefly, the military policy of World War I with that of the War of 1812, under ten elements. CHAPTER IX THE NATIONAL DEFENSE ACT OF 1920 AS AMENDED AND THE RE- SERVE OFFICERS’ TRAINING CORPS 1 30. Introduction. Following World War I the Committees on Military Affairs, in the Senate and House of Representatives, took up the careful and painstaking study of the American military policy and formulated the National Defense Act of June 4, 1920. These Committees devoted many months to the study of this important question. Imme- diately after the Armistice in 1918, sub-committees and individual members traveled through Europe and the United States, inspecting and investigating the military activities of this government during the World War. For several months in 1919 and 1920 hearings were held, during which Army officers and civilians representing all points of view were heard. As a result, the National Defense Act of June 4, 1920, was enacted. This act was supported in both Houses of Congress by members of both political parties. 31. General Provisions. This legislation provided for the development in time of peace of an army that can be used in time of war. Section 3 of this act specifies in part: The Organized peace establishment, including the Regular Army, the National Guard, and the Organized Reserves, shall include all of those divisions and other military or- ganizations necessary to form the basis for a complete and immediate mobilization for the national defense in the event of a national emergency declared by Congress. At the very outset, then, the act takes cognizance of that all-important factor of national defense: mobilization. Prior to its passage the general conception of mobiliza- tion was very hazy, and it can be truthfully said that we had no such thing as a mobilization plan. 32. Composition of the Militia. The militia of the United States shall consist of all able-bodied male citizens of the United States and all other able-bodied males who have or shall have declared their intention to become citizens of the United States, who shall be more than eighteen years of age and, except as hereinafter provided, not more than forty-five years of age, and said militia shall be divided into three classes, the National Guard, the Naval Militia, and the Unorganized Militia. (57) The “unorganized militia,” then, consists of all the available manpower in the United States. Court Decision. Congress can by conscription organize the militia, as defined by this section, for foreign warfare, and as incident thereto provide for enforced registration of those liable to service; the limit on the constitutional power, by which the militia may be called forth only to execute the laws, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions, with the implied inhibition against calling it out for any other purpose, relating only to the organized State militia as such. United States v. Stephens (D. C. 1917), 245, Fed. 956. 33. Potential Military Strength. a. The potential military forces of the United States consist of all citizens who are able to render military service in any capacity. It is estimated that of this number about 27,000,000 men are of an age which would enable them to render active military service as soldiers or sailors, a number equal to the entire population of Spain, including men, women, and children, or as large as Holland, Switzer- land, Belgium and Denmark put together. It is difficult to visualize such a group. If formed in a column, four abreast, with the usual distances between ranks, the potential military manpower of this country would extend for over 7000 miles, and require nearly five months to march past a given point. b. Although 27,000,000 men are potentially available, the mobilization of such a number is wholly impracticable. Large numbers of men of military age and physical fitness are required by industry and other activities during war. 34. The Army of the United States. The Army of the United States shall consist of the Regular Army, the National Guard while in the service of the United States and the Organized Reserves, including the Officers' Reserve Corps, and the Enlisted Reserve Corps. (Section 1, National Defense Act as amended to January 1, 1940). Note. The substantial change from the Act of June 4, 1920, consists in the addition of the words, “the National Guard of the United States.” 1 Unless otherwise indicated, numbers following paragraphs refer to paragraph numbers in the National Defense Act. 32 INTRODUCTION 33 35. Regular Army. a. Strength. The National Defense Act stated that the peace- time commissioned strength of the Regular Army was to be 16,719 officers, 1120 warrant officers (in addition to five warrant officers for each mine planter in the mine planter service). The original act of 1920 specified that there would be 280,000 enlisted men; but the enlisted strength has varied from year to year according to the provisions of the War Department appropriation acts which limit the amount of funds available for pay of enlisted men. For example, from the Act of June 30, 1922 to that of April 15, 1926, inclusive, the total number of enlisted men (not including Philippine Scouts) was annually fixed at 125,000. Thus, although the act of July 2, 1926 provided for an in- crease of 6240 enlisted men the appropriation acts held that strength to 118,750; and that average prevailed until April 9, 1935 when the average was raised to 165,000 enlisted men. Succeeding annual appropriation Acts including the Military Appropriation Act of 1940, have provided for “an average of not to exceed 165,000 enlisted men of the line and staff, not including the Philippine Scouts. However, the act of July 1, 1939 provided an additional appropriation “for pay of the Army, fiscal year 1940, . . . not subject to the limitations as to the numbers of commissioned officers and enlisted men specified under this head in the Military Appropriations Act for said fiscal year.” b. The Regular Army constitutes the permanent military force and in peacetime provides: (1) Garrisons for the continental frontiers of the United States; overseas posses- sions; small garrisons in a few of the seacoast defenses; and caretakers for the remainder. (2) Personnel for the development and training of the National Guard, Organized Reserves, and Reserve Officers' Training Corps, and for the conduct of Citizens' Military Training Camps. (3) An organization for the administration and supply of the peacetime establish- InentS. (4) A framework for rapid expansion to meet wartime requirements. (5) A repository of cumulative military knowledge, and a laboratory for military developments so as to keep this country up to date and prepared. (6) In conjunction with the National Guard, a covering force in case of a major war. c. Regular Army Reserve. Legislation passed in 1938 established a Regular Army Reserve as a part of the Regular Army and in addition to the authorized strength thereof. It was composed entirely of men under 36 years of age who had served at least one year continuously in the Regular Army and had been honorably discharged therefrom and who elected to return to civil life when discharged from their regular enlistments. En- listment was for four years, was voluntary, and was made only after a soldier had been honorably discharged from active service. Its purpose was to provide immediate rein- forcement for the Regular Army in an emergency. The man got $2 per month, payable every four months. He reported to Corps Area Headquarters three times a year. Mem- bers of the Regular Army Reserve were to be ordered to active duty only in case of emergency declared by the President. This small reserve became available during the emergency. d. Sources of officers of Regular Army. (1) Section 24e, National Defense Act, as amended, read in part as follows: Except as otherwise herein provided, all appointments in the Regular Army shall be made in the grade of second lieutenant from the following groups: Group 1, from graduates of the United States Military Academy; group 2, from warrant officers and enlisted men of the Regular Army who have had at least two years' service; group 3, from honor graduates of the senior division of the Reserve Officers' Training Corps; group 4, from members of the Officers’ Reserve Corps . and group 5, from reserve officers and from officers, warrant officers, and enlisted men of the National Guard, members of the Enlisted Reserve Corps, and graduates of technical institutions approved by the Secretary of War. g (2) The Secretary of War, under such regulations as he may prescribe, may here- after revoke the commission of any officer on the active list, initially commissioned after the date of this Act, who, at the date of said revocation, has had less than three years of continuous service as a commissioned officer of the Army, and each officer whose commission is so revoked shall be discharged from the Army: Provided, That until July FA1 (1) 34 - INTRODUCTION 1, 1942, the marriage of an officer shall not be a cause for revocation of commission but that after that date, under regulations issued pursuant to the authority contained in this Act, marriage may be a cause for revocation of commission only in the event that the * marries within one year subsequent to the date of his original commis- sion. (23 (3) The United States Military Academy furnishes about 50% of the officer strength of the Regular Army at the present time. With the exception of honor graduates of universities (who are appointed as a result of recommendations of the president of the institution, the Professor of Military Science and Tactics and boards of officers convened by Army commanders), all appointments of second lieutenants will be from officers of the Army of the United States on extended active duty or in Federal service, that is, Reserve officers. Accordingly, candidates finally selected for appointment in the Regular Army who are not members of the Officers' Reserve Corps must accept appointment in the Officers' Reserve Corps and enter upon extended active duty imme- diately prior to appointment in the Regular Army, which appointments will be made on the same date as officers appointed under this authority from original members of the Officers' Reserve Corps. (4) To be eligible for appointment, a candidate at time of appointment must be: (a) A male citizen of the United States. (b) Between the ages of 21 and 30 years. (c) Single and not previously married. (5) The provision which requires that candidates must be on extended active duty or in active Federal service, as commissioned officers, for a continuous period of at least 6 months, are waived for Reserve officers called to extended active duty and for units of the National Guard of the United States inducted into Federal Service, prior to May 1, 1941. (6) The preliminary examination will consist of: (a) An examination to assure that the applicant possesses the educational founda tion necessary to justify his further consideration. (b) A physical examination when necessary. (c) A moral and general fitness examination. Applicants who have passed the preliminary examination will be authorized by army commanders to appear before the army selecting boards for final examination and will be examined to determine their relative qualifications for appointment. Selection of qualified candidates for appointment will be accomplished by a War De- partment Selection Board and based upon the recommendations of army commanders. 36. The National Guard. a. Defined. (1) “National Guard” or “National Guard of the several States, Territories, and the District of Columbia” means that portion of the Organized Militia of the several States, Territories, and the District of Columbia, active and inactive, federally recognized as provided in this Act and organized, armed, and equipped in whole or in part at Federal expense and officered and trained under paragraph 16, section 8, article I of the Constitution. (2) “National Guard of the United States” means a reserve component of the Army of the United States composed of those federally recognized units and organiza- tions and persons duly appointed and commissioned in the active and inactive National Guard of the several States, Territories, and the District of Columbia, who have taken and subscribed to the prescribed oaths. (71) b. Dual role of guard. The National Guard therefore has a dual responsibility. First, it comprises the organized military force of the state or territory (or the District of Columbia) to which it pertains, and as such is organized and commanded by the civil authorities of the state, etc. As a state force it can be used by the state authorities for any legitimate purpose authorized by the laws of the several states. Second, its personnel and units comprise a reserve component of the Army of the United States, and as such is subject to almost complete Federal control, notably as to the qualification and appointment of officers. Its organization, training, and equipment is prescribed and controlled by the Federal government, it is limited as to number by regulations and law of the Federal government, and its maintenance is assured by Federal pay. INTRODUCTION 35 c. Can be called into Federal Service. Any part of the National Guard may be called into the Federal Service, “whenever the United States is invaded or in danger of in- vasion from any foreign nation, or of rebellion against the authority of the Govern- ment of the United States, or the President is unable with the regular forces at his command to execute the laws of the Union.” It shall be lawful for the President to call forth such number of the militia of the State or of the States or Territories or of the District of Columbia as he may deem necessary to repel such invasion, suppress such rebellion, or to enable him to execute such laws of the Union . . .; and when authorized by Congress, the President may draft any or all units, and members thereof, into the active service of the United States. When so drafted the National Guard is known as “The National Guard while in the service of the United States.” Under the basic provi- sions of this act the National Guard has been called “into the service of the United States.” d. Strength. The strength varies in ratio to the population of the states, territories and the District of Columbia, from a few men in Nevada to thousands in New York. The National Guard, which has been called into Federal service for one year's training under Act of Congress passed August 15, 1940, had, as of September 15 (the date of the induction of the first units into the Army of the United States), 18,647 officers and 243,661 enlisted men. There is, strictly speaking, no “authorized” strength for the National Guard under the National Defense Act; it is whatever the Congress decides to make it. (Example—one appropriation measure was based on 800 per Senator and Representative). e. Composition. The National Guard of each State, Territory, and the District of Columbia shall consist of members of the militia voluntarily enlisted therein, who upon original enlistment shall be not less than eighteen nor more than forty-five years of age, or who in subsequent enlistment shall be not more than sixty-four years of age, organized, armed, equipped, and federally recognized as hereinafter provided, and of commissioned officers and warrant officers who are citizens of the United States between the ages of twenty-one and sixty-four years: Provided, That former members of the Regular Army, Navy, or Marine Corps under sixty-four years of age may enlist in said National Guard. (58) f. Armament. The National Guard shall, as far as practicable, be uniformed, armed, and equipped with the same type of uniforms, arms, and equipments as are or shall be provided for the Regular Army. (82) g. Detail of Regular Army Officers with National Guard. The Secretary of War shall detail officers of the active list of the Army to duty with the National Guard in each State, Territory, or District of Columbia, and officers so detailed may accept com- missions in the National Guard, with the permission of the President and terminable in his discretion, without vacating their commissions in the Regular Army or being prejudiced in their relative lineal standing therein. The Secretary of War may, upon like application, detail one or more enlisted men of the Regular Army with each State, Territory, or District of Columbia for duty in connection with the National Guard. (100) The above provisions applied chiefly to peace-time conditions. Since the outbreak of war during the emergency these provisions are not necessarily in effect. h. Schools. The National Guard officers may be detailed to attend the several service schools to take special courses of instruction. In peace time the National Guard is usually called into active duty for two weeks training each year, which consists of en- campments, maneuvers or other exercises. i. Inspections by War Department. The Secretary of War shall, cause an inspection to be made at least once each year by inspectors general, and if necessary by other officers, of the Regular Army, detailed by him for that purpose, to determine whether the amount and condition of the property in the hands of the National Guard is satisfactory; whether the National Guard is organized as hereinbefore prescribed; whether the officers and enlisted men possess the physical and other qualifications prescribed; whether the organization and the officers and enlisted men thereof are sufficiently armed, uniformed, equipped, and being trained and instructed for active 36 INTRODUCTION duty in the field or coast defense, and whether the records are being kept in accordance with the requirements of this Act. (93) The above was the practice in peace-time. j. Appointment of officers. The National Guard officers are commissioned by the Governors of their several states; when they have met certain standard requirements they are recognized by the Federal Government. All persons appointed officers in the National Guard of the United States are reserve officers and shall be commissioned in the Army of the United States. Such appoint- ments in grades below that of brigadier general shall be made by the President alone, and general officers by and with the advice and consent of the Senate. (38) k. Appointment of officers in Federal Service. The President is authorized to appoint in the same grade and branch in the National Guard of the United States any person who is an officer or warrant officer in the National Guard of any State, Territory, or the District of Columbia and who is federally recognized in that grade and branch: Provided, That acceptance of appointment in the same grade and branch in the National Guard of the United States, by an officer of the National Guard of a State, Territory, or the District of Columbia, shall not operate to vacate his State, Territory, or District of Columbia National Guard office. (73) l. Subject to same laws as Regular Army when in Federal Service. The National Guard when called as such into service of the United States is, from the time they are required by the terms of the call to respond thereto, subject to the laws and regu- lations governing the Regular Army, so far as such laws and regulations are iš. to officers and enlisted men whose permanent retention in the military service, either on the active list or on the retired list, is not contemplated by existing law. 37. Officers’ Reserve Corps. a. Basic law. For the purpose of providing a reserve of officers available for military service when needed, there shall be organized an Officers' Reserve Corps consisting of general officers, and officers assigned to sections corresponding to the various branches of the Regular Army, and such additional sec- tions as the President may direct. All persons appointed in the Officers’ Reserve Corps are reserve officers and shall be commissioned in the Army of the United States. Such appointments in grades below that of brigadier general shall be made by the President alone, and general officers by and with the advice and consent of the Senate. Appointment in every case in the Officers' Reserve Corps shall be for a period of five years, but an appointment in force at the outbreak of war shall continue in force until six months after its termination. (37) b. Active duty. The National Defense Act provides that a Reserve officer cannot be ordered to active duty for more than 15 days in any calendar year without his consent, except in time of national emergency expressly declared by Congress. However, sub- sequent acts authorize the President to order annually, with their consent, upon application to and selection by the War Department, for a period of not more than one year for any one officer, for active duty with the Regular Army, such numbers of Reserve officers, in the grade of second lieutenant, as are necessary. Since the outbreak of war reserve officers have been called to the service and may be required to serve until six months after the duration of hostilities. A Reserve officer is not entitled to pay and allowances except when on active duty. When on active duty he receives the same pay and allowances as an officer of the Regular Army of the same grade and length of active service, and mileage from his home to his first station and from his last station to his home, but is not entitled to retirement or retired pay. During the last few years several hundred Reserve officers have been called to active duty (in 1940 it was 1000) for one year's training under the “Thomason Act” (named after Congressman Ewing Thomason, of Texas, who is the author). After a year of active duty a number are commissioned in the Regular Army, the selections being based on their records of the year's work plus a competitive examination. c. Officer candidate schools. (1) Basic regulations. The Mobilization Regulations contemplated that in time of emergency opportunity will be given to warrant officers and enlisted men to qualify for appointment as commissioned officers in the Army of the United States (Reserve officers) through officer candidate schools. Officer candidate INTRODUCTION 37. schools have been inaugurated and in view of this, appointments in the Officers' Reserve Corps are no longer made by qualification in extension courses. (2) The officer candidate system is a special mobilization procedure which is utilized, for the procurement of prospective officer personnel who must be trained prior to appointment as officers. (Par. 2, MR 1-4). (3) Preparation for course. The course of instruction given at each of the officer candidate schools is designed to prepare the candidate for duty as a second lieutenant of the arm or service in which he is obtaining his training. There are no requirements for study in preparation for attendance at schools. Company, detachment, or similar unit commanders will bring to the attention of prospective candidates section VI, Circular No. 109, War Department, 1941, which suggests certain War Department publications to be studied. (4) Who may appoint boards. (a) The following are authorized to appoint boards of officers to examine applicants: (1) All division commanders. (2) All army corps commanders. (3) All army commanders. (4) All department commanders. (5) All defense command commanders. (6) All air force commanders. - (7) GHQ for headquarters and headquarters company, GHQ, and headquarters, special troops, GHQ. (8) All replacement training center commanders. (9) All corps area commanders. (10) Provost Marshal General. (11) Chief of the Armored Force. (12) Each chief of arm or service. * (13) Others as directed by the War Department. (b) Where, in the opinion of the above authorities the best interest of the service will be served thereby, they may delegate authority to convene boards to subordinate commanders. (5) Composition of board. Each examining board will consist of not less than three experienced officers, at least one of whom will be a field officer. At least one mem- ber (and preferably all members) of each board should be an officer of the arm or service for which applicants appearing before it are applying. (6) Procedure of board. Preliminary testing and interviewing of applicants and checking of qualifications may be done by individual members, but there will be no final recommendation until the applicant has made at least one personal appearance before the members acting as a group. Any applicant not qualified for the course chosen but qualified for the course of an alternate arm or service will, if he so elects, be reported to the authority having jurisdiction over allotments of quotas for the alternate arm or service. (7) Leadership. An applicant must have demonstrated high qualities of leadership during his period of service. (8) Character. No applicant who has been sentenced to confinement in a peni- tentiary or who has been convicted in any civil or military court for an offense denounced by the 92d, 93d, or 94th Articles of War or which is denounced as a felony by any Federal law will be accepted as a candidate. No applicant who has been convicted of a military offense of a less serious nature will be accepted as a candidate unless there is positive proof that his service has been exemplary since his conviction. (9) Age. A candidate must have attained his 18th birthday and must not have passed his 46th birthday on the date of completion of the course for which selected. (10) Citizenship. An applicant must be a citizen of the United States. (11) Length of service. An applicant must have 3 months' continuous service immediately preceding the date of enrollment in an officer candidate school or a mini- mum of 6 months' cumulatice service within the last 12 months immediately preceding the date of enrollment. 38 INTRODUCTION (12) Physical. The standard of final type physical examination will be that re- quired for commission in the Army of the United States except for height, which will be º same as that for selectees (see par. 15b below for waivers of disqualifying defects). sm (13) Mental. A score of 110 or higher in the Army General Classification Test is required for acceptance as a candidate. If this test has not yet been given, facilities will be made available to applicants to take it. When, in the considered opinion of the examining board before which the candidate appears, an applicant has been done an injustice in a previous Army General Classification Test, the board will authorize an immediate retest, in which case an Army General Classification Test other than the one previously taken by the applicant will be used. No applicant who obtains a score of less than 110 in the retest will be accepted. (14) Education and experience. (a) Each accepted applicant must have such education or practical experience as will reasonably insure his satisfactory completion of the course of instruction at the school for which application is made. In those arms and services where it is essential that the applicant have technical experience or education in order to absorb the technical subjects of the arm or service, educational or experience qualifications will be given great weight. (b) The following order of preference from a nonmilitary qualification stand- point may be used as a guide in selecting candidates for— 1. Signal Corps School. (a) Those with a degree in electrical engineering or electronic physics; (b) Those with any other engineering degree; (c) Those with the equivalent knowledge of an engineering degree gained by practical experience; (d) Those who have had special training or experience in communications or allied fields; (e) Those with any degree other than engineering; (f) All others. 2. Engineer and Ordnance Schools. (a) Those with an engineering degree; (b) Those with an equivalent engineering knowledge gained by experience; (c) Those who have special mechanical or engineering training; (d) Those with any degree other than engineering; (e) All others. 3. Quartermaster School. (a) Those who have had academic training or practical experience in accounting, animal husbandry, business administration, engi- neering, food chemistry, highway, water or rail transportation, traffic management, industrial engineering, law, public utility management, or textile engineering; (b) Those with any degree; (c) All others. 4. Finance School. (a) Those who have had academic or practical experience in accounting, business administration, banking, commerce, economics, law, finance, or statistics; (b) Those with any degree; (c) All others. 5. Medical Administrative School. (a) Those who have had academic train- ing or practical experience in hospital management, maintenance of hospital records, medical supply accounts, or mess management of large institutions; (b) Those with any degree; (c) All others. 6. All other candidate schools. (a) Those with any degree; (b) Those with the equivalent knowledge of any degree; (c) All others. (15) How submitted. Application for attendance at an officer candidate school will . be submitted by the applicant in letter form and, even though disapproved by inter- mediate commanders, applications will be forwarded through channels to the commander authorized to convene examining boards. The applicant may indicate alternate choices of schools. Each application will be accompanied by: (a) W. D., A. G. O. Form No. 170 (Application for Appointment and State- ment of Preferences of Reserve Officers) in duplicate, both copies signed by applicant. 1. Item 1 of this form will indicate the legal residence, if any, of the applicant, not the post or station at which he is stationed. A satisfactory permanent address may be that of a relative or other person with whom arrangements may be made to forward mail. 2. Evidence of naturalization of applicants who are not citizens by birth may be in the form of a certificate by an officer as follows: “I certify that I have this date seen the original certificate of citizenship No. . . . . . . . . (or certified copy of the court INTRODUCTION . 39 order establishing citizenship) stating that . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . was admitted to the United States citizenship by the U. S. District Court for the . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . at . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . On . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The following were named in the certificate as minor children, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . » age . . . . . . . . . . 29 (b) W. D., A. G. O. Form No. 63 (Report of Physical Examination) Final type physical examination will be accomplished and properly entered on this form. Where facilities are not immediately available for giving the final type physical examination, a preliminary examination will be given and the final type examination deferred until the applicant appears before the board which makes selection of candidates. If this is not feasible, applicants whose examination, to the extent possible by local facilities, does not reveal gross physical defects may be ordered to schools without having the final type examination. If the final type physical examination, when given, reveals minor dis- qualifying defects the applicant may request a waiver of the defects by letter to the com- manding general of the army, corps area, or department under whose jurisdiction he is serving. These commanders are authorized to grant such waivers. Appearance of candi- dates before examining boards will not be delayed pending decisions on requests of waiver. Action on requests for waivers will be expedited. (16) Transfer of selected applicants. (a) Applicants selected to attend officer candidate schools will be transferred to the schools in grade and rating for the purpose of attending the officer candidate course and later assignment to duty and new permanent duty station. Orders for transfer and travel to the officer candidate schools will be issued by those authorized in paragraph 6a above to appoint examining boards. The duty at schools being of a temporary nature, transportation at Government expense of dependents and of household goods to the schools will not be authorized. Transportation at Govern- ment expense of household goods of all candidates (within the authorized allowances), and of dependents of nongraduates to new permanent duty stations will be effected upon relief from attendance at the schools. (b) Candidate will not be permitted to reside off the posts at which schools are located. Government quarters are not available at such posts for dependents of candi- dates, and the housing situation in communities near schools seriously limits suitable quarters. (c) Warrant officers and noncommissioned officers of the first three grades who are drawing monetary allowances in lieu of quarters at the stations from which they are transferred to schools will continue to draw such allowances during the period they are in attendance at the schools. Should they be occupying Government quarters and assign- ment thereto be terminated by the post, camp, or station commander, they will be en- titled to draw monetary allowance in lieu of quarters. In either case, the commanding officer of the post, camp, or station will provide each candidate with a certificate to the effect that Government quarters are not being provided or occupied. (17) General. (a) Commandants of candidate schools are authorized to approve the written request of candidates for relief from schools at any time during the course. (b) Commandants of candidate schools are authorized to retain for the next successive course any candidate who failed to complete the course through no fault of his own. (c) Unsuccessful candidates will not be transferred from schools back to the regiment or smaller separate unit or detachment from which they were sent to schools. (18) Status of candidates. All insignia of grade will be removed from candidates' clothing during the school term and all candidates will be considered on equal status as students. For official and pay purposes only, candidates will retain their grades and ratings in which transferred to the schools unless reduced or disrated for disciplinary reaSOInS. (19) Disposition of successful graduates. (a) Upon the successful completion of courses at officers candidate schools graduates will be commissioned and ordered to active duty as follows: 1. Graduates will be appointed second lieutenants in the Army of the United States under the provision of the act of Congress approved 22 September, 1941 (Sec. II, 40 * INTRODUCTION Bull. No. 32, W. D., 1941), and will be ordered to extended active duty in accordance with current instructions. 2. Letters of appointment and commissions for those listed in 1 above will be forwarded by The Adjutant General so as to reach the commandant of the school no later than 1 day prior to graduation. Those who are qualified will be notified early on the date of graduation. The oath of office will be administered immediately upon delivery to gradutes of notices of appointment, after which each graduate will be given his discharge from his prior status. 3. Date of commission. All successful candidates will be commissioned on the date of graduation which will be the same as the prescribed date for completion of training. 4. Separation from prior service. (a) Service records and allied papers will ... be closed and discharges will be prepared as of the day preceding awarding of commis- sions. Final indorsement of service records will show the reason for discharge as “Con- venience of the Government (sec. X, AR 615-360) to accept appointment as a second lieutenant and active duty in the A. U. S.” (b) Discharges will only be delivered to graduates after the oath of office as an officer has been administered. f (c) All candidates who are discharged to accept commissions will be author- ized to retain permanently in their possession serviceable clothing. 5. Physical examination. Present regulations pertaining to final type physical examination for appointment in the Army of the United States will be disregarded if a final type physical examination was given within the 6-month period immediately pre- ceding graduation. Each candidate will be given the prescribed physical examination for discharge from his prior status. If this examination reveals defects resulting from intervening illness or injury since the final type examination referred to above, discharge and appointment as an officer will be deferred until completion of another final type examination. (20) The basic and predominating consideration governing selections to officers candidate schools will be outstanding qualities of leadership as demonstrated by actual service in the army. 38. The Enlisted Reserve Corps. The Enlisted Reserve Corps consists of persons voluntarily enlisted therein. The period of enlistment is three years, and is limited to persons eligible for enlistment in the Regular Army who have had such military or technical training as may be prescribed by regulations of the Secretary of War. “The President may form any or all members of the Enlisted Reserve Corps into tactical organizations similar to those of the Regular Army, similarly armed, uniformed, and equipped, and composed so far as practicable of men residing in the same locality, may officer them by the assignment of reserve officers or officers of the Regular Army, active or retired. . . .” (55) Although the Act provides for an Enlisted Reserve Corps its existence has been negligible. 39. The Organized Reserves. The Organized Reserves consist of the Officers' Reserve Corps and of enlisted men of the Enlisted Reserve Corps. Its units are actually desig- nated and form a part of the general scheme for a war army. In peace time these units usually include only officers and in some cases key noncommissioned officers. 40. The Reserve Officers’ Training Corps. a. Introduction. During World War I the necessary additional officers were obtained by sending selected individuals to train. ing camps to be developed into officers. They were trained intensively for three months, and the successful ones were then commissioned. These new officers had a long period in which they continued their own training while they, in turn, trained their soldiers. This was possible solely because the Allies held the enemy in check for nearly a year and a half from the time of our declaration of war until the time that we placed an army on the battlefield. At the end of World War I, Congress decided to adopt means to train in time of peace a large reserve of officers, so that in case of a future war our Army might be INTRODUCTION 41 able to take the field more promptly. Congress concluded that the best way to accomplish this was to offer military training to selected men in schools and colleges and in Citizens' Military Training Camps. It therefore authorized the establishment of units of the Reserve Officers' Training Corps in such educational institutions as might request this training. (The number of ROTC units must be limited by the War Department accord- ing to the funds and equipment available.) b. Basic laws. The National Defense Act states: The President is hereby authorized to establish and maintain in civil educational institutions a Reserve Officers' Training Corps, one or more units in number, which shall consist of a senior division organized at universities and colleges granting degrees, including State universities and those State institutions that are required to provide instruction in military tactics under the Act of Congress of July 2, 1862, donating lands for the establishment of colleges where the leading object shall be practical instruction in agriculture and the mechanic arts, including military tactics, and at those essentially military schools not conferring academic degrees, specially designated by the Secretary of War as qualified, and a junior division organized at all other public and private educational institutions, and each division shall consist of units of the several arms, corps, or services in such number and such strength as the President may prescribe: Provided, That no such unit shall be established or maintained at any institution until an officer of the Regular Army shall have been detailed as professor of military science and tactics, nor until such institutions shall maintain under military instruction at least one hundred physically fit male students, except that in the case of units other than infantry, cavalry or artillery the minimum number shall be fifty: Provided further, That except at State institutions described in this section, no unit shall be established or maintained in an educational institution until the authorities of the same agree to establish and maintain a two years' elective or compulsory course of military training as a minimum for its physically fit male students, which course, when entered upon by any student, shall, as regards such student, be a prerequisite for graduation unless he is relieved of this obligation by regulations to be prescribed by the Secretary of War. (40) c. Eligibility to membership in the Reserve Officers' Training Corps shall be limited to students of institutions in which units of such corps may be established who are citizens of the United States, who are not less than fourteen years of age, and whose bodily condition indicates that they are physically fit to perform military duty, or will be so upon arrival at military age. (44) Under these provisions the Reserve Officers' Training Corps has become an important part of the well-integrated system of national defense upon which the nation now relies. The essential soundness of the basic Acts is well attested by consideration of the amending legislation through the years which has been concerned largely with matters of improvement or clarification. Based upon, a concept which adheres strictly to American principles and ideals, the policy of military training in educational institutions has proven itself by its economy, its efficiency, and the excellence of the very large number of Reserve officers who have been commissioned into the Army of the United States. d. Mission. The mission of the ROTC is to qualify the student as a leader whether in peace or in war, to help prepare him to discharge his duties as a citizen and to awaken in him an appreciation of the obligations of citizenship. Primarily, it is an agency for the production of Reserve officers for those arms which are restricted as to their sources of production, and it should produce for those arms the number of Reserve officers required in the initial periods of a general mobilization. There is a very important by-product which accrues to the benefit of the nation from our system of military training in schools and colleges. Those of our citizens who know from study or experience the futility of national weakness are not readily swayed by the specious arguments of the few among our people who seek to weaken or destroy our system of national defense. The presence in all professional groups of an increasing per cent of leaders who have enjoyed the benefits of military instruction serves as a stabilizing influence over the whole nation which supports and champions a sympathetic understanding of the needs of the military establishment and its purposes. 42 INTRODUCTION Students who complete the course, according to their own abundant testimony, secure personel benefits which are valuable to them in their occupations. They are better citizens because they have had inculcated an understanding of the responsibilities of citizenship. They realize more fully that the benefits their own generation enjoys were secured by the sacrifices made by their predecessors. They learn the necessity for disci- pline, the responsibility of an individual to the group as a whole, and the methods by which discipline is developed and enforced. Finally, they learn the principles of leader- ship and have an opportunity to exercise this art to a greater extent than that which is available to them in any other phase of their scholastic instruction. Thus our system of military education in schools and colleges provides valuable benefits to the nation, to the Army of the United States, and to the individuals who participate in its activities. In a democracy this is the better way. e. Senior and Junior Divisions. The ROTC includes a senior division in universities and colleges which grant degrees, and in essentially military schools not conferring degrees, and a junior division in other schools, public or private. f. Basic and advanced courses. The four years' ROTC course of the senior division is divided into the basic course and the advanced course. The basic course consists of the first two years in the department of military science and tactics which correspond to the Freshman and Sophomore years in the academic departments. The advanced course consists of the last two years in the department which corresponds to the Junior and Senior years. The purpose of the basic course is to give the student a knowledge of the fundamental training requirements of his arm or service and to qualify him to instruct untrained civilians in the duties of privates, corporals and sergeants. The purpose of the advanced course is to qualify the student for a commission in the Officers' Reserve Corps. Upon the completion of his advanced course, including camp, the student should be qualified to lead a platoon, and should have received instruction in the duties of the next higher command. Students electing the ROTC training courses do so for only two years at a time. The first election is for the two years' basic course, and completion of the basic course is a prerequisite for advancement. Upon the completion of the basic course, if a student be recommended for further training, he may elect the advanced course. A recent change in regulations permits the discharge, at the end of their first year of the advanced course, of ROTC students who in the interest of the Government should not be com- missioned in the Officers' Reserve Corps. Entrance into the advanced course is both voluntary and selective in that it is entirely optional with the student as to his application, and entirely optional with the professor of military science and tactice whether he shall be accepted. Attendance at one summer camp for six weeks' duration is a requirement of the advanced course. g. Hours of instruction. The minimum number of hours of instruction required to be given in the Basic Course is an average of 3 hours per week (96 hours per year); and in the Advanced Course, 5 hours per week (160 hours a year plus a summer en- campment of six weeks). An exception is made for medical units in which 90 hours per annum is required in both Basic and Advanced courses. An hour in the program of instruction represents the customary academic hour or 50 minutes. h. Annual encampments. To supplement the academic construction given during the college year annual encampments of not more than six weeks in any one year are held to familiarize the students with the tactical functions of troop units and administra- tion. The students are organized into provisional units and given all possible oppor- tunity for training in command and leadership. Students in the advanced course are provided with uniforms, travel allowances to and from camps of instruction, shelter, and medical and hospital service during the period of the encampment. During the period of camp training in the advanced course the students receive the pay authorized for soldiers of the Regular Army at the beginning of their service. i. Pay and commutation of subsistence. hen any member of the senior division of the Reserve Officers' Training Corps has completed two academic years of service in that division, and has been selected for advanced training by the president of the in- INTRODUCTION 43 stitution and by the professor of military science and tactics, and has agreed in writing to continue in the Reserve Officers’ Training Corps for the remainder of his course at the institution, devoting five hours per week to the military training prescribed by the Secretary of War, and has agreed in writing to pursue the course in camp training prescribed by the Secretary of War, he may be furnished at the expense of the United States commutation of subsistence at such rate, not exceeding the cost of the garrison ration prescribed for the Army, as may be fixed by the Secretary of War, during the remainder of his service in the Reserve Officers' Training Corps not exceeding two years (47c). w Advanced course students in attendance at the required ROTC camp (AR 145-30) are paid for attendance at such camps at the rate prescribed for soldiers of the seventh #. of the Regular Army. As subsistence at camp is furnished in kind, the student oes not receive commutation of subsistence during this period. A student who completes the advanced course and the camp receives approximately $200 in commutation of subsistence and pay. While this is an attractive feature which may stimulate some additional enrollments, many students who work during the summer months regard this income as recompense, in part, for their inability to obtain employment during the summer in which they attend camp. The cost of ROTC texts and the expense for their initial outfit of uniforms and necessary equipment are factors which reduce the actual net proceeds to the student. The reimbursement of students in the advanced course may have little effect upon total enrollment, but it assures a student that his initial outlay for uniforms will be offset by this income. j. The Senior Division. Institutions at which senior division units are, or shall be, established are classified as follows: Class MC. Military Colleges and universities which grant degrees, which graduate students at an average age of not less than 21 years, which require all students to pursue military training throughout the course and to be habitually in uniform, which con- stantly maintain military discipline, and which have as objectives the development of the student by means of military training and the regulation of his conduct in accordance with disciplinary principles. Educational institutions which have this classification are Norwich University, Penn- sylvania Military College, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Virginia Military Institute, North Georgia College, Clemson Agriculture College, The Citadel, and the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas. Class CC. Civil colleges and universities which are not essentially military, but which grant degrees and graduates students at an average of not less than 21 years. Class MI. Institutions in this classification are essentially military schools, specially designated by the Secretary of War as in Class MI, which do not confer academic degrees and at which the average age of students at graduation is less than 21 years, but which otherwise meet the requirements of Class MC and accept and maintain the course of in- struction prescribed in the War Department program of instruction for senior division un1tS. Educational institutions which have this classification are: Valley Forge Military Academy, Culver Military Academy, New Mexico Military Institute, and Oklahoma Military Academy, k. The Junior Division. Institutions at which junior division units are, or shall be, established are classified as follows: Class MS. Essentially military schools, which are not specially designated by the Secretary of War as in Class MI, at which the curriculum is not sufficiently advanced to carry with it a degree and the average age of students at graduation is less than 21 years, but which otherwise meet the requirements of Class MC and accept and maintain the course of instruction prescribed in the War Department program of instruction for junior division units at essentially military schools. - Class CS. High schools and other educational institutions which do not meet the re- quirements of any of the classes mentioned above. l. Government aided schools. Those institutions which provide military instruction but do not maintain a unit of the ROTC may secure government assistance under the prw 44 INTRODUCTION visions of Section 55c, National Defense Act as amended. The administrative procedures for such units are to be found in AR 350-3300. In order for an institution to secure assistance from the federal government under the provisions of this enactment it must comply, in general, with the same requirements as the institutions which have units of the ROTC. If no officer or noncommissioned officer is assigned as an instructor by the War Department the institution must provide an instructor satisfactory to the gov- ernment. In 1939 one officer was assigned to full duty with a government-aided institution, and two officers were assigned in addition to other duties. m. Extent of military education. During the academic year 1939-40, The Army List and Directory records 310 educational institutions which maintain one or more units of the ROTC. The classification of these institutions according to the above listing is as follows: Class MC: 8 CC: 124 MI: 4 MS: 42 CS: 96 GA: 36 (Government aided) n. Supervision by the War Department. The War Department is the agency of the Federal Government charged by law with the preparation of regulations and instructions carrying into effect the provisions of the national defense act and other federal statutes relating to the ROTC, and is likewise charged with the supervision of the execution of the provisions of pertinent law and regulations. In general, the supervisory powers of the War Department are delegated to the corps area commanders who act as the immediate repre- sentatives of the War Department in all relations with the educational institutions, and they are responsible that the requirements of law and regulations relating to this subject are effectively carried out. o. Courses of instruction. Courses of instruction are furnished by the Adjutant Gen- eral and it is required that all instruction be conducted in accordance therewith. These programs and courses are prepared by the chief of the respective arms and services. p. Equipment. In addition to instructors represented by commissioned personnel, warrant officers and enlisted men, the National Defense Act gives the Secretary of War authority to issue to institutions where one or more units of the ROTC are maintained, transportation (animal drawn and motorized), tanks, armament, ammunition, tentage and such other equipment as may be necessary. The institution is required to put up a bond to the Federal Government in the value of the property and to provide for its care and safe keeping. { q. Appointment of graduates as Reserve officers. Graduates of ROTC courses who fulfil the requirements may be commissioned into the Army of the United States as Reserve officers. Appointments are made only in the lowest authorized grade of the proper section. The candidates must have arrived at the age of twenty-one years and “shall agree, under oath in writing, to serve the United States in the capacity of a reserve officer of the Army of the United States during a period of at least five years from the date of his appointment as such reserve officer, unless sooner discharged by proper authority.” A recent regulation provides that graduates of the Senior division ROTC units who have not attended camp or are not members of the graduating class of 1942, will be required to attend a camp subsequent to graduation before being com: missioned. Graduates meeting all other qualifications may be commissioned after reaching the age of eighteen years. Graduates of other than senior units may be commissioned under certain circumstances. r. Growth of the ROTC. The annual increment of young Reserve officers into the Officers’ Reserve Corps is a very important addition to the national defense. As the years pass, there is an ever-decreasing number of officers with World War experience, and the per cent of officers trained for the Reserve in the ROTC increases accordingly. Table I shows the strength of the ROTC from its inception to include the academic year 1940–41. INTRODUCTION 45 41. Citizens' Military Training Camps. These camps are conducted each summer in every part of the country, affording opportunity for a limited number of young men of good moral standing and physical fitness to take the training. The encampments are ordinarily of thirty days' duration, and four camps, the Basic, the Red, the White, and the Blue, constitute a complete course. The training fits young men to be commissioned as second Lieutenants in the Officers' Reserve Corps. If he does not complete the blue courses he has received training which fits him to be a noncommissioned officer. These camps are suspended during the period of the present emergency. 42. Industrial Preparedness. The National Defense Act authorizes the President, in war or when war is imminent, in addition to the present authorized method of purchase, to place an order with any individual or firm for such product as may be re- quired and which is of the nature and kind usually produced by such firm. Compliance with all such orders for products of materials is made obligatory on any firm and shall take precedence over all other orders and contracts. TABLE L STRENGTH OF THE R.O.T.C. Graduates Year Jr. Divi Senior Divº Graduates Appointed To ORC 1919–20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45,139 43,605 (No record) 135 1920-21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46,538 44,253 1,272 934 1921-22 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37,225 51,742 2,774 2,465 1922-23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37,346 57,505 4,143 3,786 1923–24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40,324 63,570 4,370 4,048 1924-25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42,190 69,368 5,069 4,884 1925-26 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38,225 68,553 5,919 5,728 1926-27 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38,148 70,809 5,956 5,836 1927-28 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39,978 72,371 6,127 6,013 1928–29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40,521 71,903 6,293 6,049 1929-30 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41,334 73,030 5,969 5,684 1930-31 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41,637 75,786. 6,062 5,602 1931-32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40,556 73,989 6,447 5,418 1932-33 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39,466 66,729 6,663 6,497 1933-34 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38,728 65,419 6,495 6,490 1934-35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41,053 76,260 6,390 6,350 1935-36 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53,202 92,688 5,663 5,619 1936-37 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57,777 101,728 5,960 5,848 1937-38 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61,791 106,041 6,425 6,337 1938–39 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65,282 111,614 6,565 6,700 1939-40 . . . . . . . . . . . • * * * * * * 68,895 117,855 7,992 6,444 1940–41 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72,151. 125,647 *8,627 *8,000 1 In secondary schools. * In colleges, universities and essentially military schools. * Approximate number. In the event that an individual or firm shall refuse to give the United States preference in the matter of orders, or shall refuse to manufacture the kind, quantity, or quality, of munitions ordered by the Secretary of War, or shall refuse to furnish such munitions at a reasonable price, the President is authorized to take possession of the plant and operate it through the Ordnance Department; and, any individual or firm, failing to comply with the provision of this section (120) shall be deemed guilty of felony, and upon conviction shall be punished by imprisonment for not more than three years and a fine not exceed- ing $50,000. The Secretary of War shall make a complete list of all privately owned plants in the United States equipped to manufacture arms and ammunition or the component parts thereof. He shall obtain full information regarding the kinds of arms and ammunition that can be manufactured by each plant and the maximum capacity thereof. He shall also 46 INTRODUCTION prepare a list of privately owned manufacturing plants in the United States capable of being readily transformed into ammunition factories, where the capacity of the plant is sufficient to warrant transforming such plant or plants into ammunition factories in war or when war is imminent; and concerning all such plants, the Secretary of War shall obtain full information pertaining to their equipment, and shall prepare comprehensive plans for transforming each into an ammunition factory in which to manufacture such parts of ammunition as, in the opinion of the Secretary of War, the plant is best adapted to produce. The president is authorized, by this act, to appoint a Board on Mobilization of In- dustries Essential for Military Preparedness, non-partisan in character, to organize and coordinate this work. (Section 120). Questions 1. What constitutes “the militia” of the United States? 2. What are the components of the Army of the United States? 3. What is the purpose of the Regular Army in peace time? 4. What is the Regular Army Reserve? 5. From what sources are the officers of the Regular Army commissioned? 6. What is the dual role of the National Guard of the several states? 7. What control has the Federal Government over the National Guard? 8. When can the National Guard be called into the Federal Service? 9. How are officers of the National Guard appointed? 10. What constitutes “the Organized Reserve?” 11. What is the object of the Reserve Officers' Training Corps? 12. Who is eligible to membership in the ROTCP 13. Into what divisions is the ROTC divided. 14. What pay and commutation of subsistence does an ROTC student receive? 15. In general what does the National Defense Act provide with reference to in- dustrial preparedness? CHAPTER X THE SELECTIVE TRAINING AND SERVICE ACT OF 1940 AND THE ACT AS AMENDED 43. General. The Selective Training and Service Act of 1940 was based upon its predecessor of 1917. It was adopted by the Congress after the lengthy debate which is inherent to democratic processes. Its approval by the Executive marks a most important departure from previous military policy. Under its provisions the United States, for the first time in peace, determined to have a reserve of trained military manpower available on call to meet hazards to the national security. War broke out before a reserve could be built up but the passage of the act placed in the field a large number of trained men. 44. Significant Legislation of 1940. The Selective Training and Service Act of 1940 ordering members and units of Reserve components into active military service is quoted in full below. ENACTMENT FOR ORDERING MEMBERS AND UNITS OF RESERVE componeNTS AND RETIRED PERSONNEL OF THE REGULAR ARMY INTO ACTIVE MILITARY SERVICE To strengthen the common defense and to authorize the President to order members and units of reserve components and retired personnel of the Regular Army into active military service. Resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of Amerioa in Congress assembled, That during the period ending 30 June 1942, the President be; and is hereby authorized from time to time to order into the active military service of the United States for a period of twelve consecutive months each, any or all members and units of any or all reserve components of the Army of the United States—except that any person in the National Guard of the United States under the age of 18 years so ordered into the active military service shall be immediately issued an honorable discharge from the National Guard of the United States and retired personnel of the Regular Army, with or without their consent, to such extent and in such manner as he may deem necessary for the strengthening of the national defense: Provided, That the members and units of the reserve components ºff the Army of the United States ordered into active Federal service under this authority shall not be employed beyond the limits of the #.*º- except in the Territories and possessions of the United State, including the hilippine Islands. INTRODUCTION 47 Sec. 2. , All National Guard, Reserve, and retired personnel ordered into the active military service of the United States under the foregoing authority, shall from the dates on which they are respectively required by , such order to report for duty in such service, be subject to the respective laws and regulations relating to enlistments, reenlistments, employment, conduct, rights, and privileges, and discharge of such personnel in such service to the same extent in all pººr" as if they had been ordered into such service under existing general statutory author- Z8,tlCIMS. Sec. 3. (a) Any member of any reserve component of the land or naval forces who is on active duty or who may be assigned to active duty and who, in the judgment of those in author- ity over him, satisfactorily completes such active duty, and any person so ordered into active military service of the United States who, in the judgment of those in authority over him, satisfactorily completes the period of service required under this joint resolution, shall be entitled to a certificate to that effect upon the completion of such active duty or such period of service, which shall include a record of any special proficiency or merit attained. In addition, each such person who is assigned to such active duty or ordered into such active military service shall be given a physical examination at the beginning of such active duty or service and a medical statement showing any physical defects noted upon such examination; and upon the completion of the period of such active duty or service, each such person shall be given another physical examination and shall be given a medical statement showing any injuries, illnesses or disabilities suffered by him during such period of active duty or service. (b) In the case of any such person who in order to perform such active duty or such service, has left or leaves a position, other than a temporary position in the employ of any employer and who (1) receives such certificate, (2) is still qualified to perform the duties of such position, and (3) makes application for reemployment within forty days after he is relieved from such service, active duty or— (A) if such position was in the employ of the United States Government, its Territories or possessions, or the District of Columbia; such person shall be restored to such position or to a position of like seniority status and pay: (B) if such position was in the employ of a private employer, such employer shall restors such person to such position or to a position of like seniority status and pay unless the employer's circumstances have so changed as to make it impossible or unreasonable to do so; (c) if such position was in the employ of anv State or political subdivision thereof it is hereby declared to be the sense of the Congress that such person should be restored to such position or to a position of like seniority status and pay. (c) Any person who is restored to a position in accordance with the provisions of paragraphs (A) or (B) or subsection (b) shall be so restored without loss of seniority, insurance particlpation or benefits, or other benefits, and such persons shall not be discharged from such position without cause within one year after such restoration period. (d) In case any private employer fails or refuses to comply with provisions of subsection (b) or subsection (c), the district court of the United States for the district in which such private employer maintains a place of business shall have power, upon the filing of a motion, petition, or other appropriate pleading by the person entitled to the benefits of such provisions to specifically require such employer to comply with such provisions. The court, shall order a speedy hearing in any such case and shall advance it on the calendar. Upon application to the United States District Attorney for the district in which such private employer maintains a place of business, by any person claiming to be entitled to the benefits of such provisions, such tſnited States District Attorney, if reasonably satisfied that the person so applying 18 entitled to such benefit, shall appear and act as attorney for such person in the amicable adjustment of the claim or in the filing of any motion, petition or other appropriate pleading and the prosecution thereof to specifically require such Temployer to comply with such provisions; pro- vided, that no fees or court costs shall be taxed against the person so applying for such benefits. (e) Any member of any reserve component of the Army of the United States below the rank of Captain who is ordered into the active military service of the United States pursuant to this joint resolution, who has any person or persons solely dependent upon him for support, and who has no other means of support except the wages, salary or other compensation for personal services that he earns, may resign or shall be discharged upon his own request made within 20 days of his entry into such active military service. Sec. 4. (a) The benefits of the Soldiers' and Sailors' Civil Relief Act, approved 8 March 1918, are hereby extended to all National Guard, Reserve, and retired personnel Ordered into the active military service under authority of this joint resolution, so long as such personnel are tri such service and for sixty days thereafter, an except as hereinafter provided, the provisions of such Act Rhall be effective for such purposes, (b) For the purposes of this section— (1) the following provisions of such Act of 8 March 1918, shall be inoperative: Section 100; and paragraphs (1), (2), and (5), of section 101; article 4; article 5; paragraph (2) of Bection 601; and Section 603. (2) the term “persons in military service,” when used in such, Act, shall be deemed to mean persons ordered into the active military service under the authority of this joint resolution. (3) the term “period of military service,” when used in such Act, when applicable with respect to any person, shall be deemed to mean the period beginning with the date on which such person is ordered into such active military service and ending With the date on which he is relieved from such service. Sec. 5. All laws and parts of laws in conflict herewith are hereby suspended to the extent that they may be in conflict with any provision hereof. 45. Important Features. Some of the important features of the act are the following: 1. All male citizens and certain resident aliens between the ages of 21 and 36 were required to register. The first registration day, October 16, 1940, resulted in the registra- tion of some sixteen million men. The act authorizes the President to designate addi- tional registration dates. 2. The President is authorized to call such numbers as may be needed for a year of training. The period of training is for one year subject to extension by the Congress. Not more than 900,000 can be in service under the Act at any one time. (See following paragraphs for amendments.) They cannot be called upon to serve outside the western hemisphere except in our territorial possessions and the Philippines. 48 INTRODUCTION 3. Exemptions and deferments are provided to humanize the law and to protect the needs of essential defense industries. Strong penalties are provided for its violation. 4. After the year of service this manpower passes to the reserve and is subject to call. These trained men remain in reserve until they reach the age of 45, or until they have served ten years on reserve status, or until they serve two additional years with the Regu- lar Army or active National Guard under prescribed conditions. 5. The act increased the pay of enlisted men. 6. Execution of the law is divided between the civil and military agencies of the government. Registration, classification, selection, and delivery for induction are civil functions. Induction, reception, and training are military functions. 7. Except for certain specific provisions and unless continued in effect by the Con- gress, the act becomes inoperative on and after May 15, 1945. - 46. Service Extension Act of 1941. The Service Extension Act of 1941 is quoted in full in this paragraph. This act amended the Selective Training and Service Act of 1940 in several important particulars. Be it enacted, etc., That the Congress, acting in accordance with and solely for the purpose of carrying into effect the provisions of section 3 (b) of the Selective Training and Service Act of 1940, hereby declares that the national interest is imperiled. Sec. 2. The President is hereby authorized, subject, however, to the condition hereinafter stated. to extend, for such periods of time as may be necessary in the interests of national de- fense, the periods of service, training and service, enlistment, appointment, or commission, of any or all persons inducted for training and service under said act, members and units of the Reserve components of the Army of the United States (including the National Guard of the United States), retired personnel and enlisted men of the Regular Army, and any other members of the Army, who are now, or who may hereafter be, in or subject to active military service, or training and service: Provided, That extension of the periods of active military service or train- ing and service, in the case of any person subject to the provisions of this section, shall not, without his consent, exceed 18 months in the aggregate; except that whenever the Congress declares that it is in the interests of national defense to further extend such periods of active military service and training and service, such periods may be further extended by the President, in the case of any such persons, for such time as may be necessary in the interests of national defense: Provided further. That the authority hereby conferred is subject to the condition that the delegation of such authority may be revoked at any time by concurrent resolution of the Congress. Sec. 3. Any person whose period of active military service or training and service is ex- tended under section 2 and who was (a) ordered to active Federal service under Public Resolu- tion No. 96, Seventy-sixth Congress, or (b) inducted under the Selective Training and Service Act of 1940, as amended, prior to the enactment of this act, shall, notwithstanding the limita- tion in Section 602 (a) of the National Service Life InsurancCe Act of 1940 upon the time within which application for National Service Life Insurance may be made, be granted insurance under such section without further medical examination if application therefor is filed within 120 days after the date of enactment of this act. Sec. 4. The Secretary of War shall, when not in conflict with the interests of national defense, release from active military service those persons who apply therefor through the 1 egular military channels and state their reason for such release, and whose retention in active military service would, in the judgment of the Secretary of War, subject them or their wives or other dependents to undue hardship if retained on active military service. Any person, so re- leased who, in the judgment of those in authority over him, has serve satisfactorily , shall be entitled to a certificate to that effect, which shall be in the same form and have the same force and effect as a certificate issued under the provisions of section 8 of the Selective Training and Service Act of 1940, as amended. Any person so released shall be transferred to, or remain in, as the case may be, a reserve component of the land forces for the same period and with the same rights, duties, and liabilities as any person transferred to a reserve component of the land forces under the provisions of section 3 (c) of such act. Sec. 5. Section 3 (c) of the Selective Training and Service Act of 1940, as amended, is amended by adding at the end thereof the following: “The active military service or training and service of any person pursuant to section 2 of the Service Extension Act of 1941 shall be credited against the service in a reserve component required by this section or section 3 of the Service Extension Act of 1941.” Sec. 6. The President is hereby authorized to order retired personnel of the Regular Army to active duty and to employ them as he shall deem necessary in the interests of national defense. Sec. 7. Any person who, subsequent to 1 May 1940, and prior to the termination of the authority conferred by section 2 of this joint resolution, shall have entered upon active military or naval service in the land or naval forces of the United States shall be entitled to all the re- employment benefits of section 8 of the Selective Training and Sarvice Act of 1940 to the same extent as in the case of persons inducted under said act: Provided, That the provisions of Sec- tion 8 (b) (A) of said act shall be applicable to any such person without regard to Whether the position which he held shall have been covered into the classified civil service during the period of his military or naval service. Section 8. (a) Any person inducted into the land or naval forces of the United States for active training and service, under section 3 (b) of the Selective Training and Service Act of 1940 shall, in addition to the amounts otherwise payable to such person with respect to such training and service, be entitled to receive the sum of $10 for each month of such training and service in excess of 12. The provisions of this section shall also apply (1) to any enlisted per- sonnel of the National Guard of the United States or of any other reserve component of the Army of the United States ordered into the active military service under the authority of Public Resolution Numbered 96, approved 27 August 1940, or section 37a of the National Defense Act of 1916, as amended, for any such service so rendered by any such personnel in excess of 12 months, and (2) to any enlisted personnel of the Regular Army for each month of military service rendered by him after the date of enactment of this joint resolution, and after his $obal military service (rendered before or after such date) exceeds 12 months. & INTRODUCTION 49 (b) The provisions of this section shall be applicable only during the period of the un" limited emergency declared by the President on 27 May 1941. Sec. 9. During the existence of the authority conferred by section 2 of this joint resolution and for 6 months thereafter the limitation on the number of men who may be in active training and service at any one time under section 3 (b) of the Selective Training and Service Act Of 1940 is hereby suspended: Provided, That the Secretary of War shall report to the Congress each jº, º number of men in active training and service in the land forces under section 3 (b) QI S2, 3.Ct. º Sec. 10. During the existence of the authority conferred by section 2 of this joint resolu- tion, enlistments in the Army of the United States, without regard to component, are hereby authorized in the manner provided by the concluding paragraph of section 127a of the National Defense Act, as amended. Sec. 11:... Section 1 of Public Resolution Numbered 96, Seventy-sixth, Congress, approved 27 August 1940, is hereby amended (1) by inserting after “30 June 1942,” the following: “or 6 months after the termination of the authority conferred by section, 2 of the Service, Extension Act of 1941, whichever is the later” and (2) by adding at the end thereof...the following: “Not- withstanding the foregoing provisions of this section the President is authorized to order the same member or the same unit into the active military service of the United States for more than one period, except that in the case of any such member any active military service unºer authority of this resolution in excess of 12 months shall be deemed an extension of active military service within the meaning of section 2 of the Service Extension Act of 1941. Sec. 12. This joint resolution may be cited as the “Service Extension Act of 1941." 47. Amendments. Of first importance is the extension of the period of service for an additional eighteen months. The world conditions had grown far worse instead of better. The United States had a large army partially trained. Failure to pass the legis- lation would have disrupted the entire process at a time when such interference would have been disastrous. If this had not been done, the error of “short-term enlistments” which caused so many evils from the time of the Revolution, the War of 1812, the War with Mexico, the Civil War, and the War with Spain would have been repeated with results none could have foretold. Section 4 of the act granted authority to the Secretary of War to release from active military service those persons who apply and whose retention would subject them or their wives or other dependents to undue hardships. By administrative ruling, persons over 28 years of age were made eligible to apply for discharge from active service. Enlisted men were authorized an increase of pay of $10 per month after completing twelve full months of service. The limitation on the number of men who could be in service at one time under the provisions of the act was removed. 48. Joint Resolution of Congress. A Joint Resolution of Congress, approved Decem- ber 13, 1941, permitted units and persons in the Army of the United States to be used anywhere in the world, and extended the service of all members of the Army of the United States six months beyond the cessation of hostilities. 49. Amendment to the Selective Training and Service Act, December 20, 1941. The amendment (approved on December 20, 1941) to the Selective Training and Service Act of 1940 has the effect of making all components of the Army of the United States equally responsible for service under all conditions. - The important changes brought about by this amendment are as follows: a. All male citizens between the ages of 18 and 65 are required to register for military service. b. In general, every male citizen who is between the ages of 20 and 45 at the time fixed for his registration, or who attains the age of 20 after his registration, is liable for training and service in the land or naval forces. c. Important rights to insurance benefits are extended, including provisions benefitting those who failed to apply for insurance. 50. Civil Functions. a. Organization. Plate 10 shows the organization of the civil agencies for the administration of the act. Civil agencies include a national head- quarters, a headquarters for each state, local boards, registration machinery, agencies for appeals of classification, and agencies to conduct the preliminary physical examina- tions of registrants. (1) Director of selective service. The Director of Selective Service is responsible to the President. He is charged with the administration of the selective service law. He is authorized to prescribe regulations, issue orders and notices, obligate funds, appoint assistants, and is given powers of organization and supervision necessary for the accom- plishment of his heavy responsibility. Dr. Clarence A. Dykstra, President of the Uni- 50 INTRODUCTION versity of Wisconsin, was the initial appointee. Brigadier General Lewis B. Hershey was appointed assistant to the director. - (2) State director of selective service. The Governor of each State has charge of the administration of the selective service law within his state. He is authorized to desig- nate for appointment an official to whom he may delegate his administrative functions relative to the project. This official is called “State Director of Selective Service.” - (3) Registration boards, local boards, medical boards, and boards of appeals within each state function under the State Director of Selective Service. (4) Local boards. Local boards are responsible for classification of registrants, selection of men to serve, and delivery of selected men into military control. NATIONAL HEADQUARTERS STATE HEADQUARTERS Medicol Boord Advisory of Boord Appeals 2" i . LOCAL : Exomining BOARD w Government i Physician Appeol Agent Registrant Advisory Boord Election Machinery REGISTRANTS for Registrofion º --> Plate 10. Organization of Civil Agencies, Selective Training and Service Act. Each state is divided on a basis of population into local board areas. Each such area was planned to have a population of about 30,000 but with the requirement that there be at least one board per county. A board consists of three or mere members and is assisted by one or more examining physicians. Members are appointed by the President upon recommendation of the several governors. INTRODUCTION 51 (5) Registration boards. Each county clerk is required to appoint a registration board for each election precinct consisting of a chief registrar and as many registrars as may be required. Registrants report at announced places of registration on the date prescribed. (6) Other boards and adjuncts. While registration boards and local boards are the principal agencies in the selection system, other groups are provided. A Registrant Advisory Board is appointed to which registrants may go for counsel; a Medical Ad- visory Board coordinates the work of the medical examiners; a Board of Appeals and a Government Appeal Agent are provided to act upon objections to decisions by local boards. The State Director of Selective Service is assisted by a State Medical Adviser and a State Adviser on Occupational Deferment. b. Registration. The first step in the process is registration. The President pro- claimed October 16, 1940, as the date of the first registration and commanded all citizens and certain resident aliens to report at designated places in their own localities for the purpose. - At each place of registration registrars fill out a form for each man. This form in- cludes such matters as the name and address, telephone number, and the name of some person who will always know the address of the registrant; the name and place of busi- ness of the employer; the age, place of birth, and a description of the registrant. Each man is given a card certifying to his registration to prove compliance with the law. Registration cards are turned over to the county clerk who delivers them to the chair- man of each local board. c. Classification. Classification of registrants and determination of the order in which men are to be furnished for active military service are functions of local boards. After the registration cards are received from the county clerk they are checked to eliminate those which should have been forwarded to another local board and then the cards are placed in a pile. The cards are then shuffled, or mixed, so that the position of any card in the pile is a matter of chance. Starting with the first card on the top of the shuffled pile, the cards are numbered serially, the first being “No. 1,” the next “No. 2,” and so on. The local board then publishes this list of registrants showing the serial number assigned to each man. The next step is to determine the exact order in which men are to be called for service, or for consideration, in determining the men who are to be designated or selected for service. This was determined at the lottery held in Washington, D. C. Capsules con- taining numbers corresponding to each serial number assigned to registrants by the more than 6500 local boards were placed in a container where they were thoroughly stirred until the position of each capsule within the bowl was a matter of chance. Blindfolded individuals then drew capsules from the bowl. The first number drawn was No. 158. Accordingly, the man in each local board area who was assigned serial number 158 be- came the first to be called in his own local board area under the act. His “order num- ber” becomes No. 1. The drawing continued until all capsules were drawn, and in this manner the order numbers of all registrants was determined. The next step is the mailing of questionnaires to registrants by each local board. The form includes complete information about each registrant on which the local board is to make its decision. Here is placed the registrant's condition as to dependents, employ. ment, other matters necessary for classification, especially the information on which a registrant may seek a deferred status. Classification is the key to selection. The act requires the entire administration to be free from political influence. There is to be no discrimination for or against any person because of his race, creed, color, or because of his membership in any labor, politi- cal, religious, or other organization. Based upon the information contained in the questionnaire registrants are placed in four main groups with Classes I and IV further broken down as shown below. Selection of those who are to serve is from Class I-A. Class I–Available for service. A—Available; fit for general military service. B—Available; fit only for limited military service. 52 INTRODUCTION C—Member of land or naval forces of United States. D—Student fit for general military service; available not later than July 1, 1941. E—Student fit only for limited military service; available not later than July 1, 1941. * Class II—Deferred because of occupational status. Class III—Deferred because of dependents. Class IV—Deferred specifically by law or because unfit for service. A—Man who has completed service. B—Official deferred by law. C—Nondeclarent alien. D–Minister of religion or divinity student. E—Conscientious objector available only for civilian work of national im- portance. - F—Physically, morally, or mentally unfit. The local boards then announce the classifications as they have been determined. Regis- trants may appear before the board to seek a change in classification. The initial classi- fication is not permanent and may be changed by the local boards when the condition on which deferment was granted, for example, no longer exists. Medical examiners work with each local board and examine such registrants as may be designated. The function of medical examiners is to eliminate those who are unfit for military service. This is not the final physical examination; selected men pass before an Army examining board before induction into the service. d. Appeals from classification. Registrants have the right to appeal from the classifica- tion determined by local boards. A Board of Appeals is provided on a basis of about each 70,000 registrants and serves several local boards. A government appeal agent may appeal any case should he believe, for example, that a man has been deferred when he should not have been, or he may appeal in behalf of a registrant. The decision of appeal boards is final unless reversed by the President and it is noteworthy that under pre- scribed conditions some appeals may reach the President for decision. e. Fixing of quotas. The total number of selectees to be trained at any one time is fixed by law. Selected men are to be brought into the armed forces as they are re- quired and as facilities for their housing and equipment are considered adequate. Hence, “calls” are made by the War Department upon the National Director of Se- lective Service. The gross quota is determined for each state. Credits are allowed for men who are members of the armed forces on volunteer status. A net quota for each state is then determined. This, in turn, is broken down into a net quota to be fur- nished by each local board. This number of men is then selected by the local board based upon the classification, and men are furnished in the order of numbers deter- mined by the national lottery; for example, those men with number 158, the first number drawn in the lottery, in each local board area who were placed in Class I-A are the first to serve, and so on. Volunteeers are accepted to fill local board quotas; a “volunteer” in this connection is a registrant placed in Class I-A who elects to serve in advance of the time his number would be reached in the normal course of events. At the proper time, selected men are assembled by each board preliminary to de- livery into military control. f. Delivery of selected men. After the assembly of the selected men by each local board a leader and assistant leader are appointed for the group; meal and lodging tickets are distributed, if necessary, and the required records turned over to the leader for delivery. The board then announces a specific order charging the selected men to report to the induction station under the leader. s The process of induction is under Army or Navy control. The responsibility of the civil agency terminates when they have turned over the required number of men at an induction station and these men have been accepted as members of the military service. g. Services rendered gratis. Officers should know that many of the arduous and re- sponsible tasks required by this law are performed by public spirited citizens without remuneration of any kind. There are serious decisions to be made about each regis- trant. It is quite possible that these patriotic citizens may receive inadequate recogni- INTRODUCTION 53 tion and appreciation for the important services they perform. But members of the Army for whom they work can recognize their accomplishments and appreciate them. Their service is essential to the success which must be attained. The following per- sonnel are required to serve without remuneration: Members of Local Boards. Members of Boards of Appeals. Members of Medical Advisory Boards. Members of Advisory Boards for Registrants. Government Appeal Agents. Examining Physicians. Interpreters. 51. The Military Functions. a. General. The function of the military is to provide for induction, reception, training, organization of units, and all of the steps necessary for the development of a field force capable of accomplishing any tactical mission, and finally to transfer this trained manpower to reserve status. See Plate 11. b. Induction. An “induction station” is any camp, post, ship or station of the land or naval forces at which selected men are received from the local boards and, if found acceptable, are inducted into military service. At the induction station decision is reached whether to accept or reject each selectee and to induct those accepted into the military service. The records forwarded by local boards are checked. A physical examination is given under the supervision of a medical officer of the Army of the United States. Local boards supply replacements for men rejected. If any fail to report they are similarly replaced. An officer of the Army, Navy, or Marines will administer a prescribed oath to each of the men who are accepted. He will then inform them that they are members of the land or naval forces and will ex- plain their obligations and privileges. The stay of inducted men at induction stations is short, and in the usual case will be less than 24 hours. They are forwarded to reception centers. c. Reception. A reception center is an installation for the reception of newly procured manpower, including the completion of all necessary records, the issue of individual equipment, classification as to occupation, completion of immunization for smallpox and typhoid, assignment, and forwarding to tactical units or to other installations such as replacement centers. The stay of inducted men at reception centers should consume about two weeks. An important function of reception centers is the interview of each man. A quali- fication card is made out for each individual and based upon this information, verified in some instances by testing, inducted men may be placed where they can do the job they know how to do, and where the Army can gain the most from their service. The card lists, among other data, the education, military experience, civil experience and special aptitudes. By utilizing business machinery of a unique type cards of men of any listed special aptitude may be gathered at once; for example, all men who have ex. perience as plumbers may be determined at once so that a wise selection can be made. The locations of the several reception centers are as follows: FIRST CORPS AREA Ft. Benning, Ga. Ft. Devens, Mass. Camp Blanding, Fla. SECOND CORPS AREA § Bragg, N. C. Ft. Dix, N. J. amp Forrest, Tenn. Ft. Jackson, S. C. Camp Livingston, La. Ft. McClellan, Ala. Ft. Niagara, N. Y. Camp Upton, N. Y. THIRD CORPS AREA Ft. McPherson, Ga. Camp Lee, Va. Ft. Oglethorpe, Ga. Ft. Geo. G. Meade, Md. Camp Shelby, Miss. New Cumberland Gen. Depot, Pa. FIFTH CORPS AREA FOURTH CORPS AREA Ft. Benjamin Harrison, Ind. Ft. Barrancas, Fla. - Ft. Hayes, Ohio Camp Beauregard, La. Ft. Thomas, Ky. ; i Local Local Local Local Selection Board Board Board Board and Delivery Examinati Induction induction º 1 On Station Station Induction - (one day) ſ Processing Reception l (two weeks) Center Basic Training Replacement Training Center Corps Area Requisitions Headquarters vices (three months) l for arms and ser- Training in Units of the Field Forces (eight-nine months) Reserve of Trained Man- power Subject to Call Plate 11. operation of the selective Training and service Act. INTRODUCTION 55 Ft. F. E. Warren, Wyo. EIGHTH CORPS AREA SIXTH CORPS AREA Ft. Custer, Mich. Camp Grant, Ill. Ft. Bliss, Texas Scott Field, Ill. - Ft. Sam Houston, Texas Ft. Sheridan, Ill. Ft. Logan, Col. SEVENTH CORPS AREA Ft. Sill, Okla. Camp Wolters, Texas NINTH CORPS AREA Ft. Douglas, Utah Ft. Lewis, Wash. Ft. MacArthur, Cal. Presidio of Monterey, Cal. Ft. Des Moines, Iowa Ft. Crook, Neb. Jefferson Barracks, Mo. Ft. Leavenworth, Kan. Camp J. T. Robinson, Ark. Ft. Snelling, Minn. d. Forwarding of men from reception centers. After the required measures have been completed at reception centers they are forwarded either direct to tactical units or other installations or to replacement centers. Initially, these men are forwarded to units of the Regular Army or National Guard to raise to authorized strength the tactical units already in being. - e. Replacement training centers. Replacement training centers are large installations for the training of men. The mission of the replacement training centers is to provide for the selected men the training necessary to fit them for duty as members of tactical units. The period of training covers approximately three months. It is a continuous process in that new groups of selectees arrive to start the cycle as their predecessors take their places in existing units or form new units. Arm or Service Name and Location Air Corps Jefferson Barracks, Mo. (For Technicians) Armored Force Cavalry Chemical Warfare Coast Artillery Engineers Field Artillery Infantry Medical Ordnance Quartermaster Signal Branch Immaterial Fort Knox, Ky. Fort Riley, Kans. Edgewood Arsenal, Md. Camp Callan, San Diego, Cal. Fort Eustis, Va. Camp Wallace, Galveston, Texas Fort Belvoir, Va. Fort Leonard Wood, Rolla, Mo. Fort Bragg, N. C. Camp Roberts, Nacimiento, Cal. Fort Sill, Okla. Camp Croft, Spartanburg, S. C. Camp Crowder, Mo. Camp Roberts, Nacimiento, Cal. Camp Joseph T. Robinson, Ark. Camp Wheeler, Macon, Ga. Camp Wolters, Mineral Wells, Texas Camp Grant, Rockford, Ill. Camp Barkeley, Texas Camp Lee, Petersburg, Va. Camp Joseph T. Robinson, Ark. Aberdeen Proving Grounds, Md. Camp Lee, Petersburg, Va. Fort F. E. Warren, Wyo. Fort Monmouth, N. J. Camp Crowder, Mo. Fort McClellan, Ala. 56 INTRODUCTION It is noteworthy that the course of training for selectees of the several arms and services is relatively identical except for technical and tactical training. All must be developed into “good soldiers.” All must be physically hardened to endure the rigors of military life, they must be trained to march, to be skillful in the firing of their weapons, to care for themselves under field conditions, and to care for their equipment and transportation. Combat training of small units is included in the program, and firing tests with live ammunition must be completed by units of the arms. It is a gigantic soldier-training project. The training at the replacement training centers is required to be conducted along functional lines. For example, the programs provide for training for each type of infantry company (rifle company, heavy weapons company, etc.) rather than for each type of weapon or platoon. The program is based on a 44-hour training week—five 8-hour and one 4-hour training days. The Air Corps replacement training centers receive all new aviation cadets for a period of four weeks prior to assignment to an elementary flight school. The Air Corps replacement training center for technicians conducts training for a like period whereupon those who are qualified are sent to technical schools as vacancies occur. *: f. Requisitions on replacement centers. Men are obtained for units of the field forces by requisition submitted to the appropriate corps area commander who, in turn, calls upon the replacement center for trained men in the numbers and aptitudes required. In this manner units are brought to the strength contemplated in tables of organization. 52. Summary. From the above analysis it is seen that the civil agencies for adminis. tering the Selective Training and Service Act are responsible for registration, classifica- tion, action upon appeals, selection and delivery for induction into the armed forces. The organization and agencies which execute these missions are the National Headquarters, a headquarters for each state, local boards for each county or for each 30,000 of popula- tion in cities, registration machinery, appeal boards and agencies, advisory boards, and medical boards. The military agencies for the administration of the act consist of induction stations, reception centers, and replacement centers, as well as the tactical units of the Army of the United States. Execution of the act, with existing units and with the enactment providing for ac- tive duty for members of the National Guard and of the Officers' Reserve Corps, is designed to provide the bulk of the men needed for the military service. Questions 1. What was the purpose of the Selective Training and Service Act of 1940? 2. What was the effect of the amendments to this act? 3. For what are the civil agencies administering this act responsible? 4. What part do the military agencies play in carrying out the provisions in this act as amended. CHAPTER XI THE UNITED STATES AND WORLD WAR II 53. General. , Japan treacherously attacked the United States on December 7, 1941. The next day the Congress declared war. The text of the declaration read as follows: “Whereas the Imperial Government of Japan has committed unprovoked acts of war against the Government and the People of the United States of America: Therefore be it Resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, that the state of war between the United States and the im. perial Government of Japan which has thus been thrust upon the United States is hereby formally declared; and the President is hereby authorized and directed to employ the entire naval and military forces of the United States and the resources of the Government to carry on war against the Imperial Government of Japan; and to bring INTRODUCTION 57 the conflict to a successful termination, all the resources of the country are hereby pledged by the Congress of the United States.” * On the morning of December 11, Germany and Italy declared war on the United States which was followed on the same day by a declaration of war by the United States against them. 54. Principal Events Prior to World War II. The Kellogg-Briand Anti-war Treaty affecting sixty-two countries was announced as ratified by President Hoover on July 24, 1929. In spite of this solemn obligation to denounce war as an instrument of national policy world peace conditions began to deteriorate. a. Mussolini in Italy. Previous to the ratification of the Kellogg-Briand pact Benito Mussolini, head of the Fascist party in Italy took over the government and became its dictator in 1922. His rise to power has been attributed to the fear of Communism which was said to be spreading in Italy, and to economic conditions. Italy also felt that she had not received her just desserts under the Treaty of Versailles. b. Japan seizes Manchukuo. In direct violation of treaty obligations Japan seized Manchuria from China in 1931 and set up a puppet state now known as Manchukuo. The United States protested this seizure and refused to recognize the new state. This action on part of Japan is noteworthy as it marks the first of a series of aggressions by nations that later came to be known as Axis powers. It has been stated that one of the factors that caused the present world conflagration was the failure on the part of the liberal or democratic nations to force Japan to disgorge her prey. c. Adolph Hitler in Germany. The year 1933 is important for it was in this year that Adolph Hitler came to power in Germany. Heading his National Socialist Party (Nazi) he won an election which was used as a pretext for the absolute power granted him by the German Reichstag shortly afterwards. His rise was due to poor economic conditions, the spread of Communism, and the discontent felt in Germany at the pro- visions of the Treaty of Versailles. d. Japan continues aggressions. In the same year, 1933, Japan continued her aggressive tactics in China seizing from the latter the province of Jehol and setting up a puppet state. Nothing but protests—no real action—followed this seizure. Again Japan was allowed by the democratic powers to go unmolested. & e. Italy conquers Ethiopia. Following a border clash in December 1934, Italy made war on Ethiopia (Abyssinia) and finally conquered that country in 1936. This aggres- sion was met by the application of economic “sanctions” by the League of Nations. This attempt at punishment was resented by Italy and in this attitude she was backed up by Germany thus initiating a friendship that was to later develop into the Rome- Berlin Axis. Again the action of the democratic powers was ineffective and a predatory nation was allowed to seize territory in complete disregard of treaty rights. f. Civil war in Spain. In 1936, civil war broke out in Spain. The Spanish Govern- ment which was republican in form was assailed by reactionary forces under General Francisco Franco. Russia aided the Loyalist Government while Italy and Germany sent troops and equipment to help Franco. The democratic nations again failed to take effective action in Spain and that country joined the list of dictator-ridden countries. g. Rhineland occupied. In March, 1936, German troops occupied the demilitarized Rhineland Zone in flat defiance of the Treaty of Versailles. France and Great Britain took no action to stop this movement. h. Treaty repudiated. In the year 1937, several events occurred which had a bearing on the war that was to flare up two years later. In January of this year Hitler told the German Reichstag that Germany had repudiated the treaty of Versailles. Nothing was done about this by the democratic powers. + i. The “China Incident.” In July, 1937, fighting broke out in China between Japan and China, Japan as usual being the aggressor, and the fighting has continued until the present. The Japanese refused to declare war on China, and have referred to their aggressiveness there as the “China Incident.” j. The U.S.S. “Panay” sunk. The Japanese sank the U. S. Gunboat “Panay" which was on patrol in the Yangtze River, in accordance with our treaty rights with China. Japan apologized and paid an indemnity. - 58 INTRODUCTION k. Irish Free State. The Irish Free State, which embraces all except a few counties in northern Ireland, became the State of Eire and a member of the Commonwealth of British Nations in 1937. This granting of dominion status by Great Britain was to deprive her of badly needed air and naval bases in the war that was to come two years later. l. U. S. Neutrality Resolution. In response to a feeling of dissatisfaction with Euro- pean affairs; the desire to keep out of any future wars in Europe; the repudiation of debts by European countries owed to the United States; and a genuine wish to remove any possible cause of our entering a war, the United States passed a Joint Resolution of Congress in 1933, known as the “Neutrality Resolution.” This was amended in 1936 and again in 1937. The Neutrality Resolution, under certain circumstances: (1) Prohibited the shipment of arms and implements of war to belligerents or those engaged in a civil war, (2) Contained a cash-and-carry plan which was designed to prohibit American ships from entering belligerent zones with arms and implements of war, (3) Contained a provision which prohibited the extension of credits to belligerent countries, (4) Prohibition against American citizens traveling on ships of a belligerent nation, and (5) A clause prohibiting American vessels from engaging, in commerce with belligerent States. Most of the provisions of this resolution were subsequently rescinded. m. Germany seizes Austria. 1938 was a fateful year for the peace of the world. In March Germany seized Austria. This brought heated protests, but no offensive action from Great Britain and France. n. Munich pact. In September, Hitler made a claim to the Sudeten area of Czecho- Slovakia. He claimed that the inhabitants were German and should be incorporated in the German Reich. These people were of German origin, but had never at any time in their history been a part of Germany proper. A four-power conference was held between Great Britain, France, Italy and Germany at Munich, and a pact was signed permitting Germany to annex Sudetenland. Hitler promised, in return for this concession, that Germany had no further territorial designs in any part of Europe. The Prime Minister of Great Britain, Neville Chamberlain, reported that this pact meant—“Peace in our time.” This pact represents the “appeasement” policy pursued by the British and French governments, and is considered by many as one of the important causes of the war. Notwithstanding solemn promises to the contrary, Ger- many seized the whole of Czecho-Slovakia in March, 1939. The United States refused to recognize this aggression. o. Russo-German Pact. Probably the most important event of 1939, next to the be- ginning of World War II, was the non-aggression pact signed between Germany and Russia on August 20, 1939. This pact left Hitler free to carry out his designs without interference from Russia. It was a correspondingly severe blow to Great Britain and France. p. Rome-Berlin Axis. On May 22, 1939 Germany and Italy signed a ten-year offensive and defensive alliance which became known as the Rome-Berlin Axis. This later was expanded into Berlin-Rome-Tokyo Axis. It had an important bearing on the war that was to come as it gave Germany an ally to the south, with access to the Mediterranean Sea. Friendly relations between Italy and Germany were initiated originally when Germany sided with Italy on the sanctions imposed by the League of Nations against Italy in the Ethiopian War. These relations between Hitler and Mussolini bore fruit when Italy acquiesced in the seizure of Czecho-Slovakia. q. Japanese treaty abrogated. In July of this year the United States served notice on Japan that the commercial treaty existing between the two countries would be abrogated in six months. r. Germany attacks Poland. On September 1, 1939 Germany attacked Poland, thus plunging the world into what promises to be the bloodiest and most costly of all wars of all times. Subjecting Poland to a new application of tactical principles based by co- ordinated action by air, mechanized and other forces, known as the “Blitz” or “Light- ning” method of warfare, that country was overrun by September 23. Italy, with INTRODUCTION º 59 Hitler's advice and consent, remained neutral. Great Britain and France, however, in accordance with their treaty obligations to Poland, declared war on Germany on September 3. Japan remained neutral “to settle the China affair” on September 4, and on the following day the United States declared its neutrality. s. Russia enters Poland. On September 16, 1939, Russia entered Poland “to protect Russian interests,” but declared that she was neutral. On September 22, Russia and Germany partitioned Poland between them. On September 29 Russia incorporated Esthonia, and in quick succession Latvia and Lithuania. t. Russo-Finnish War. On November 30, 1939, Russia invaded Finland. The Finns were at first successful in resisting the Russians, but were finally forced to make peace (March 12, 1940), which resulted in the cession of valuable territory to Russia. u. Cash-and-Carry Plan. A joint neutrality resolution was passed by Congress amend- ing the neutrality resolution so as to allow belligerents to purchase arms on a cash-and- carry basis. v. Maginot Line. On the old “western front” of World War I, and chiefly behind the famous “Maginot Line” which paralleled the French-German border (but did not extend along the Belgian border) the war settled down to a static affair, often referred to by war correspondents as a “phony” war. Great Britain and France seemed content to allow the war to become one of attrition and blockade. w. Europe overrun. On April 9, 1940, this period of unnatural calm came to an abrupt end. In rapid succession Denmark, Norway, Holland, Belgium, Luxemburg, and France fell to Germany. France collapsed in thirty-nine (39) days, an armistice being signed on June 22, 1940. Italy, taking advantage of France's hour of peril, de- clared war on her on June 10, 1940. Just prior to the signing of the armistice, Winston Churchill, the new Prime Minister of Great Britain, had offered to merge the French with the British Empire, but this plea was rejected by Marshal Petain who succeeded Reynaud on June 16, 1916 as Premier of France. When King Leopold of Belgium surrendered his army of 500,000 on May 28, 1940, the British army was left with one flank exposed and cut off from a retreat through France. It, together with some French units fell back to Dunkirk, where, due to the magnificent work of the Royal Air Force and the presence of fog, the greater part of the British Army and some French units were evacuated to England. z. Battle of England. The Battle of England began on August 11 when waves of German planes struck at Portsmouth and the Thames River naval installations, London and other points. The Royal Air Force of Great Britain replied with vigor and brought down a great number of German planes. They caused the Germans to stop mass bombings in the day time. The Germans failed to gain sufficient mastery of the air to justify an invasion of England. y. Destruction of French Fleet at Oran. A part of the French fleet was destroyed on July 3, at Oran by the British, when the French Commander refused to surrender his ships or to scuttle them. + 2. Russia enters war. On June 28, 1940, Russia occupied the provinces of Besserabia and northern Bukovina in Rumania. On August 19, the British withdrew from British Somaliland. Japanese troops entered French Indo-China on September 22 and established a base from which China could be attacked. Japan joined the Berlin- Rome Axis on September 27. Greece, which had been throwing the Italians back and was in a fair way of wresting Albania from Italy was attacked by Germany on October 28. During the latter part of November, 1940, Hungary, Rumania and Slovakia joined the Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis. Among the important military events of the year 1941 were the fighting in Libya between the British and the Germans and Italians, the absorption and conquest of the Balkans by Germany, the seizure of Crete by German parachute and airborne troops, the occupation of Syria by the British and Free French, the domination of Irak by the British and of Iran by the British and Russians. Russia entered the war on June 21, 1941, when Germany declared war against her and marched into Russian territory. Although the Russians were forced back and gave up more of their territory than in World War I, the Russian armies were not destroyed 60 INTRODUCTION . and the principal cities of Moscow and Leningrad withstood all German attempts to take them. When the winter set in the Russians counterattacked and have at this writing (March, 1942) been driving the Germans steadily back. 55. Effect of World Events on the United States. a. As in World War I, opinion in the United States with reference to the war abroad was divided. While there were practically no open adherents to Axis policies as announced by Hitler, Mussolini, and Japanese leaders, there was a real division of opinion in the country as to the part the United States should play in the world crisis. “Isolationists” and other groups believed that the nation should keep out of “Europe’s wars” and should do nothing whatever to embroil the United States in them. Other groups felt that “all measures short of war” should be taken to help the nations battling the Axis. A few groups felt that the United States should enter the war on the side of the liberal powers. Nearly all groups believed that the nation should prepare itself against attack. b. Preparedness for national defense. In response to the general feeling in the United States the Congress appropriated large sums of money for the armed forces and for war supplies. The President declared a “limited national emergency” shortly after war broke out in Europe. After the fall of France in 1940 plans for national defense were speeded up. The Selective Training and Service Aet of 1940 was passed which was to provide a total of not to exceed 900,000 men for military training in a given year; the National Guard was called into active training for a year; and the Regular Army and the Navy were greatly increased. There were set up boards and agencies which were designed to change American industry from its peace time pursuits to war time production not only for our own defense needs but so that America could become the “arsenal of democracy.” p - c. Aid to nations fighting the Axis powers. As early as December 1940, President Roosevelt in a radio address asked that the people of the United States stand behind him in his proposal to furnish Great Britain with the munitions of war. In January, 1941 he stated that an Axis victory would provide no security for the United States. On March 11, 1941, the Lend-Lease Act was passed which provided aid for those countries fighting the Axis powers. Fifty destroyers were turned over to Great Britain and the warships of that country were permitted to be repaired in our shipyards. The United States obtained from Great Britain the use of certain land and airplane bases. Upon the entry of Russia in the war in June 1941, the President offered to aid that country in her fight against the Axis powers. As a result of the policy stated above large shipments of airplanes, tanks, weapons and other implements of war were and are being sent to the foes of the Axis. d. Sea policy of the United States. As the war in Europe grew in intensity, feeling in the United States began to take shape that the cargoes of Lend-Lease aid should be protected en route to their destinations. This feeling was intensified as shipping losses in the North Atlantic began to mount as a result of submarine sinkings and of attacks on American ships. Accordingly, on September 11, 1941, the President an- nounced that the United States would protect seas vital to its interests. The Navy was ordered to aid in the shipment of supplies to Great Britain. Shortly before this an- nouncement, and in order to facilitate the protection of these shipments, United States forces occupied Iceland. This was done with the consent of the Danish Government. This policy was to bear fruit. Supplies began to reach Great Britain in greater quanti- ties. Germany retaliated by damaging the U. S. Destroyer “Kearney” and by sinking the U. S. Destroyer “Reuben James.” e. Relations with Latin-American countries. The Roosevelt administration adopted what came to be known as the “good neighbor” policy with reference to our relations with Latin-American countries. In furtherance of this policy a treaty with Cuba in 1939 removed the provisions of a previous treaty by which the United States, under certain circumstances, could intervene in Cuban affairs. The Marines were withdrawn from Haiti and Nicaragua and the customs control from the Dominican Republic. The policy began to bear fruit when all of the Latin-American countries and the United States signed an anti-war pact in 1939 and later in the same year condemned the in- INTRODUCTION 61 vasion of Holland, Belgium, and Luxemburg by Germany, and declared for hemispheric defense in case of attack. At the conference held at Rio de Janiero shortly after the United States entered World War II, the Axis powers were labeled the aggressors and solidarity was expressed with the United States. It reached its fruition when as a result of his policy of understanding, Costa Rica, Cuba, Nicaragua, Dominican Republic, Honduras, Haiti, El Salvador, Guatamala, Panama, and Bolivia declared war against Germany and Italy, and when Mexico broke off relations with the Axis powers and Colombia relations with Japan. f. Relations with Japan. (1) Relations between the United States and Japan took an unfriendly turn when Japan seized Manchuria in 1931, and became strained when China was attacked and the “China Incident” begun in 1937. The sinking of the U. S. Gunboat “Panay” in the Yangtze River by the Japanese added fuel to the fire, although Japan apologized and paid an indemnity. In 1940 a long-standing commercial treaty between the two countries was allowed to lapse by the United States. In the same year Japan signed a treaty with Thailand (Siam) which gave the Japanese certain advantages in that country. Then in September, with the consent and the connivance of the Vichy Government of France, Japan gained a foot-hold in Indo-China. This gave the Japanese a vantage point from which an attack could be launched against the Philippines, Malaya, Singapore, Burma and India, the Netherlands East Indies, and Australia. Following this partial occupation of Indo-China, the Japanese Premier on August 1, 1940, declared Japan's intention of spreading its dominion southward over not only French Indo-China but the Netherlands East Indies as well. As Japan sent more and more forces to Indo-China tension between the United States and the Japanese became more acute until in August 1941 the President issued an order “freezing” all Japanese assets in the United States, prohibited any Japanese in this country from spending more than $500 a month, and stopped all business operations without a Treasury license. The Panama Canal was closed to Japanese ships. These actions on part of the United States marked the end of a policy which had hitherto been followed by the President towards Japan. With reference to that policy the President said: “. . . One of our efforts, from the very beginning, was to prevent the spread of that world war in certain areas where it hadn't started. One of those areas is a place called the Pacific Ocean—one of the largest areas of the earth . . . There happened to be a place in the South Pacific where we had to get a lot of things—rubber, tin, and so forth and so on, down in the Dutch Indies, the Straits Settlements and Indo-China. And we had to get the Australian surplus of meat and wheat and corn for England. “It was very essential from our own selfish point of view of defense to prevent a war from starting in the South Pacific. So our foreign policy was—trying to stop a war from breaking out down there. . “All right, and now here is a nation called Japan. Whether they had at that time aggressive purposes to enlarge their empire southward, they didn't have any oil of their own up in the north. Now, if we cut the oil off, they probably would have gone down into the Dutch East Indies a year ago, and you would have had war. “Therefore, there was—you might call—a method in letting this oil go to Japan, with the hope—and it has worked for two years—of keeping war out of the South Pacific for our own good, for the good of the defense of Great Britain and for the freedom of the seas. . . .” º In addition to these economic moves the President placed all the forces in the Philippines, American and Filipino under Lieutenant General Douglas MacArthur. In retaliation for these measures Japan “froze” all American credits in Japan and con- tinued the occupation of Indo-China, and from bases in that country bombed the Burma Road, the only route by which American supplies could reach China. (2) Negotiations between the two countries. Negotiations between the two coun- tries began in April 1941. An honest effort was made on the part of the United States to settle the differences between the two countries but Japan used the time to prepare for war. The sessions came to an abrupt end on December 7, 1941 when Japan without warning broke off the negotiations after having attacked the United States. 62 INTRODUCTION (3) The text of the proposals made by the United States were as follows: (Secretary of State Cordell Hull made public Dec. 7 the proposals which the United States made to Japan Nov. 26, and which were rejected by Japan Dec. 7, in a note to Secretary Hull). Steps to be taken by the Government of the United States and by the Government of Japan #. Government of the United States and the Government of Japan propose to take steps as follows: 1. The Government of the United States and the Government of Japan will endeavor to con- clude a multilateral nonaggression pact among the British Empire, China, Japan, the Nether- lands, the Soviet Union, Thailand and the United States. 2. Both governments will endeavor to conclude among the American, British, Chinese, Japanese, the Netherlands, and Thai Governments an agreement whereunder each of the governments would pledge itself to respect the territorial integrity of French Indo-China and, in the event that there should develop a threat to the territorial integrity of Indo-China, to enter into immediate consultation with a view to taking such measures as may be deemed necessary and advisable to meet the threat in question. Such agreement would provide also that each of the governments party to the agreement would not seek or accept preferential treatment in its trade or economic relations with Indo-China and would use its influence to obtain for each of the signatories equality of treatment in trade and commerce with French Indo-China. 3. The Government of Jappan will withdraw all military, naval, air and police forces from China and from Indo-China. 4. The Government of the United States and the Government of Japan will not support— militarily, politically, economically—any government or regime in China other than the National Government of the Republic of China, with capital temporarily at Chungking. 5. Both governments will give up all extra-territorial rights in China, including rights and interests in and with regard to international settlements and concessions, and rights under the Boxer Protocol of 1901. Both governments will endeavor to obtain the agreement of the British and other governments to give up extraterritorial rights in China. including rights in internatonal settlements and in concessions and uder the Boxer Protocol of 1901. 4. 6. The Government of the United States and the Government of Japan will enter into negotla- tions for the conclusion between the United States and Japan of a trade agreement, based upon reciprocal most-favored-nation treatment and reduction of trade barriers by both Countries, in- cluding an undertaking by the United States to bind raw silk on the free list. 7. The Government of the United States and the Government of Japan will, respectively, re- move the freezing restrictions on Japanese funds in the United States and on American funds in Japan. 8. Both governments will agree upon a plan for the stabilization of the dollar-yen rate, with the allocation of funds adequate for this purpose, half to be supplied by Japan and half by the United States. y 9. Both governments will agree that no agreement which either has concluded with any third power or powers shall be interpreted by it in such a way as to conflict, with the fundamental purpose of this agreement, the establishment and preservation of peace throughout the Pacific 8.Tea. * 10. Both governments will use their influence to cause other governments to adhere to and to give practical application to the basic, political and economic principles set forth in this agree- YY1910 U. (4) Japan's rejection of proposals. The rejection of the proposals of the United States which follow were characterized by Secretary of State Cordell Hull as “infamous falsehoods and distortions on a scale so huge that I never imagined until today that any government on this planet was capable of uttering them.” “1. The Government of Japan, prompted by a genuine desire to come to an amicable under- standing with the Government of the United States in order that the two countries by their joint efforts may secure the peace of the Pacific area and thereby contribute toward the realiza- tion of world peace, has continued negotiations with the utmost sincerity since April last with the Government of the United States regarding the adjustment and advancement of Japanese- American relations and the stabilization of the Pacific area. * The Japanese Government has the honor to state frankly its views concerning the claims the American Government has persistently maintained as well as the measures the United States and Great Britain have taken toward Japan during these eight months. 2. It is the immutable policy of the Japanese Government to insure the stability of East Asia º: to promote world peace and thereby to enable all nations to find each its proper place in e WOrld. - Ever since the China affair broke out owing to the failure on the part of China to com- prehend Japan's true intentions, the Japanese Government has striven for the restoration of peace and it has consistently exerted its best efforts to prevent the extension of warlike dis- turbances. It was also to that end in September last year Japan concluded the Tripartite pact with Germany and Italy. g However, both the United States and Great Britain have, resorted to every possible measure to assist the Chungking regime so as to obstruct the establishment of a general peace between Japan and China, interfering with Japan's constructive endeavors toward the stabilization of East Asia. Exerting pressure on the Netherlands Indies, or menacing French Indo-China, they have attempted to frustrate Japan's aspiration to the ideal of common prosperity in coopera- tion with these regions. Furthermore, when Japan in accordance with its protocol with France took measures of joint defense of French Indo-China, both the American and British Gov- ernments. . willfully misinterpreting it, as a threat to their own possessions and inducing the Netherlands Government to follow suit, they enforced the assets freezing order, thus severing economic relations with Japan. While manifesting, thus an obviously hostile attitude, these countries have strengthened their military preparations perfecting, an encirclement of Japan, and have brought about a situation which endangers the very existence of the empire. Never. theless, to facilitate a speedy settlement, the Premier , of Japan proposed, in August last, to meet the president of the United States for a discussion of important problems between the two countries covering the entire Pacific area, . However... the American Government, while accepting in , principle the Japanese proposal, insisted, that the meeting should take place after an agreement of view had been reached on fundamental and essential questions. INTRODUCTION 63 3. Subsequently, on Sept. 25, the Japanese Government submitted a proposal based on the formula proposed by the American Government, taking fully into consideration past American claims and also incorporating Japanese views. Repeated discussions proved of no avail, in producing readily an agreement of view. The present Cabinet, therefore, submitted a revised proposal, moderating still further the Japanese claims regarding the principal points of difficulty in the negotiation and endeavoring strenuously to reach a settlement. But the American Gov- ernment, adhering steadfastly to its original assertions, failed to display in the slightest degree a spirit of concillaton. The negotiatlon made no progress. Therefore, the Japanese Government, with a view to doing its utmost for averting a crisis in Japanese-American relations, submitted on Nov. 20 still another proposal in order to arrive at an equitable solution of the more essential and urgent questions which simplifying its previous proposal, stipulated the following points: (1) The Governments of Japan and the United States undertake not to dispatch armed forces º of the regions, excepting French Indo-China, in the Southeastern Asia and the Southern Pacific area. (2) Both governments shall cooperate with the view to securing the acquisition in the Netherlands East Indies of those goods and commodities of which the two countries are in need. (3) Both governments mutually undertake to restore commercial relations to those pre- valling prior to the freezing of assets. The Government of the United States shall supply Japan the required quantity of oil. (4) The Government of the United States undertakes not to resort to measures and actions prejudicial to the endeavors for the restoration of general peace between Japan and China. (5) The Japanese Government undertakes to withdraw troops now stationed in French Indo- China upon either the restoration of peace between Japan and China or the establishment of an equitable peace in the Pacific area; and it is prepared to remove the Japanese troops in the southern part of French Indo-China to the northern part upon the conclusion of the present agreement. As regards China, the Japanese Government, while expressing its readiness to accept the offer of the President of the United States to act as “introducer" of peace between Japan and China as was previously suggested, asked for an undertaking on the part of the United States to do nothing prejudicial to the restoration of Sino-Japanese peace when the two parties have Com- menced direct negotiations. The American Government not only rejected the above-mentioned new proposal, but made known its intention to continue its aid to Chiang Kaishek; and in spite of its suggestion men- tioned above, withdrew the offer of the President to act as so-called “Introducer” of peace between Japan and China, pleading that time was not yet ripe for it. Finally, on Nov. 26. in an attitude to impose upon the Japanese Government those principles it has persistently maintained, the American Government made a proposal totally ignoring Japanese claims, which is a source of profound regret to the Japanese Government. 4. From the beginning of the present negotiation the Japanese Government has always aintained an attitude of fairness and moderation, and did its best to reach a settlement, or which it made all possible concessions often in spite of great difficulties. As for the China question which constitutes an important subject of the negotiation, the Japanese Government showed a most conciliatory attitude. As for the principle of non-discrimination in international commerce, advocated by the American Government, the Japanese Government expressed its desire to see the said principal applied throughout the world, and declared that along with the actual practice of this picture in the world, the Japanese Government would endeavor to apply the same in the Pacific area including China, and made it clear that Japan had no intention of excluding from China economic activities of third powers pursued on an equitable basis. Furthermore, as regards the question of withdrawing troops from French Indo-China, the Japanese Government even volunteered as mentioned above, to carry out an immediate evacuation troops from Southern French-Indo China as a measure of easing the situation. It is presumed that the spirit of concillation exhibited to the utmost degree by the Japanese Government in all these matters is fully appreciated by the American Government. On the other hand, the American Government, always holding fast to theories in disregard ol realities, and refusing to yield an inch on its impractical principles, caused undue delay in the negotiations. It is difficult to understand this attitude of the American Government and the Japanese Government desires to call the attention of the American Government especially to the following points: 1. The American Government advocates in the name of world peace those principles favorable to it and urges upon the Japanese Government the acceptance thereof. The peace of the world may be brought about § by discovering a mutually acceptable formula through recognition of the reality of the situation and mutual appreolation of one another's position. An attitude such as ignores realities and imposes one's selfish views upon others will scarcely serve the pur- pose of facilitating the consummation of negotiations. Of the various principles put forward by the American Government as a basis of the Japanese- American agreement, there are some which the Japanese Government is ready to accept in principle, but in view of the world's actual condition it seems only a Utopian ideal on the part of the American Government to attempt to force their immediate adoption. Again, the proposal to conclude a multilateral non-aggression pact between Japan, the United States, Great Britain, China, the Soviet Union, the Netherlands and Thailand, which is pat- terned after the old concept of collective security, is far removed from the realities of East Asia. 2. The American proposal contained a stipulation which states—“Both governments will that no agreement, which either has concluded with any third power or powers, shall be interpreted by it in such a way as , to conflict with the fundamental purpose of this agree- ment, the establishment and preservation of peace throughout the Pacific area.” It is pre- sumed that the above provision has been proposed with a view to restrain Japan from fulfilling its obligation under the tripartite pact when the United States participates in the war in Europe, and as such, it cannot be accepted by the Japanese Government. The American Government, obsessed with its own views and opinions, may be said to be scheming for the extension of the war. . While, it seeks on the one hand, to secure its rear by stabilizing the Pacific area, it is engaged, on the other hand, in aiding Great Britain and pre- paring to attack, in the name of self-defense, Germany and Italy, two powers that are striving to establish a New Order in Europe. Such a policy is totally at variance with the many principles upon *. American Government proposes to found the stability of the Pacific area through peaceful means. 3. Whereas, the American Government, under the , principles , it rigidly upholds, objects to settle international issues through military pressure. It is exercising in and upon other nations pressure by economic power. Recourse to such pressure as a means of dealing with international relations should be condamned, as it is at times more inhumane than military pressure. 64 INTRODUCTION 4. It is impossible not to reach the conclusion that the American Government desires to maintain and strengthen, in coalition with Great Britain and other powers, its dominant posi- tion it has hitherto occupied not only in China but in other areas of East Asia. It is a fact of history that the countries of East Asia for the past hundred years or more have been com- pelled to observe the status quo, under the Anglo-American policy of imperialistic exploitation and to sacrifice themselves to the prosperity of the two nations. The Japanese Government cannot tolerate the perpetuation of such a situation since it directly runs counter to Japan's fundamental policy to enable all nations to enjoy each its proper place in the world. The stipulation proposed by the American Government relative to French Indo-China is a good exemplification of the above-mentioned American policy. Thus the six countries—Japan, the United States, Great Britain, the Netherlands, China, and Thailand—excepting France, should undertake *...* themselves to respect the territorial integrity and sovereignty of French Indo- China and equality of treatment in trade and commerce would be tantamount to placing the territory under the joint guarantee of the governments of those six countries. Apart from the fact that such a proposal totally ignores the position of France, it is unacceptable to the Japanese Government in that such an arrangement cannot but be donsidered as an extension to . French Indo-China of a system similar to the Nine Power Treaty structure which is the chief factor responsible for the present predicament of East Asia. 5. All the items demanded of Japan bv. the American Government .# China, Such as wholesale evacuation of troops or unconditional application of the principle of non-discrimina- ion in international commerce, ignored the actual conditions of China, and are calculated to destroy Japan's position as the stabilizing factor of East Asia. The attitude of the American Government in demanding Japan not to support militarily, politically or economically any regime other than the regime at Chungking, disregarding thereby the existence of the Nanking Government, shatters the very basis of the present negotiation. This demand of the American Government, falling, as it does, in line with its above-mentioned refusal to cease from aiding the Chungking regime, demonstrates clearly the intention off the American GOVernment to obstruct the restoration of normal relations between Japan and China and the return of peace to East Asia. 6. In brief, the American proposal contains certain acceptable items, such as those concerning commerce, including the conclusion of a trade agreement, mutual removal of the freezing restrictions, and stabilization of yen and dollar exchange, or the abolition of extraterritorial rights in China. On the other, hand, however, the proposal, in question, ignores, Japan's sacrifices in the four years of the China affair, menaces the empire's existence itself and disparages its honor and prestige. Therefore, viewed in its entirety, the Japanese Government regrets that it cannot accept the proposal as a basis of negotiation. 7. The Japanese Government, in its desire for an early conclusion of the negotiation, pro- posed, simultaneously with the conclusion of the Japanese-American negotiation, agreements to be signed with Great Britain and other interested countries. The proposal was accepted by the American Government. However, since the American Government has made the proposal of Nov. 26 as a result of frequent consultation with Great Britain, Australia, the Netherlands and Chungking, and presumably by catering to the wishes of the Chungking regime in the questions of China, it must be concluded that all these countries are at one with the United States in ignoring Japan's position. 8. Obviously, it is the intention of the American Government to conspire with Great Britain and other countries to obstruct Japan's efforts toward the establishment of peace through the creation of a new order in East Asia, and especially to preserve Anglo-American rights and interests by keeping Japan and China at war. This intention has been revealed clearly during the course of the present negotiation. Thus, the earnest hope of the Japanese Government to adjust Japanese-American relations and to preserve and promote the peace of the Pacific through cooperation with the American Government has finally been lost. The Japanese Government regrets to have to notify hereby the American Government that in view of the attitude of the American Government it cannot but consider that it is impossible to reach an agreement through further negotiations.” (5) Text of War Message of President Roosevelt on Japan. “Yesterday, December 7, 1941—A date which will live in infamy—the United States of America was suddenly and deliberately attacked by naval, and air forces of the Empire of Japan. The United States was at peace With that nation and, at the Solicitation of Japan, was still in conversation with its Government and its Emperor looking toward the maintenance of peace in the Pacific. Indeed, one hour after Japanese air Squadrons had commenced bombing Oahu, the Japanese Ambassador to the United States and his colleague delivered to the Secretary of State a formal reply to a recent American message. While this ºgy stated that it seemed useless to continue the existing diplomatic negotiations, it contained no threat or hint of war or armed attack. It will be recorded that the distance of Hawaii from Japan makes it obvious that the attack was deliberately planned many days or even weeks ago. During the intervening time, the Japanese Government has deliberately sought to deceive the United States by false statements aſod expressions of hope for continued peace. The attack yesterday on the Hawaiian Islands has caused severe damage to American naval and military forces. Very many. American lives have been lost. In addition, American ships have been reported torpedoed on the high seas between San Francisco and Honolulu. Yesterday the Japanese Government also launched an atttack against Malaya. Last night Japanese forces attacked Hong Kong. Last night Japanese forces attacked Guam. Last night Japanese forces attacked the Philippine Islands. Last night the Japanese attacked Wake Island. This morning the Japanese attacked Midway Island. Japan has, therefore, undertaken a Suprise offensive extending throughout the Pacific area. The facts of yesterday speak for themselves. The people of the United states have already formed their opinions and well understand the implications to the very life and safety of our nation. As Commander in Chief of the army and navy I have directed that all measures be taken for Our defense. §y..." * rººt the ºº:: the º: against us. o matter how Iong Inay e us to OVerCOme 8 premeditated invasion people in their righteous might will, win through the absolute victory. , the American I believe I interpret the will of the Congress and of the people when I assert that we Will act, only defend ourselves to the uttermost but will make very certain that this form of treacher, shall never endanger us again. INTRODUCTION 65 Hostilities exist. There is no blinking at the fact that our people, our territory and our interests are in grave danger. With confidence in our armed forces—with the unbounding determination of our people— we will gain the inevitable triumph—So help us God. I ask that the Congress declare that since the unprovoked and dastardly attack by Japan on Sunday, December 7, a state of war has existed between the United States and the Japanese Empire. FRANKLIN D. ROOSEVELT.” (6) Text of Axis War Message of President Roosevelt. “On the morning of December 11 the government of Germany pursuing its course of World conquest, declared war against the United States. The long-known and the long-expected has thus taken place. The forces endeavoring to en- slave the entire World now are moving toward this hemisphere. Never before has there been a greater challenge to life, liberty and civilization. Delay invites great danger. Rapid and united effort by all the peoples of the World who are determined to remain free will insure a world victory of the forces of justice and of right- eousness over the forces of Savagery and of barbarism. Italy also has declared war against the United States. I therefore request the Congress to recognize a state of war between the United States and Germany and between the United States and Italy. FRANKLIN D. ROOSEVELT.” Declarations of war followed these messages. 56. Attack by Japan. a. Against the United States. On the morning of December 7, 1941, Japan, without warning struck by air and sea at our Pearl Harbor Naval Base and adjacent establishments in the Hawaiian Islands. The attack surprised our forces with the result that in addition to numerous casualties in personnel, three warships were sunk, several damaged, and many airplanes destroyed. Guam and Wake Island were taken by the Japanese after meeting stiff resistance on part of the defenders. Midway Island was attacked but the invaders were repulsed with heavy losses. Japanese attacks were launched against the Philippines but American and Filipino forces under General MacArthur, although greatly outnumbered, hold Bataan Peninsula which pro- tects our island fortress of Corregidor and prevents the enemy from using Manila Bay. (March, 1942) American land, sea, and air forces are operating in the Netherland East Indies and air forces are taking a large part in the defense of Burma and the vital Burma Road. American troops have been sent to Iceland and northern Ireland, and man many bases in the Caribbean Sea and on the shores adjacent to it. The Navy, in cooperation with the naval forces of the United Nations are covering the SCVCI). SeaS. b. Attack by Japan on British possessions and the Netherlands East Indies. Great Britain and the Netherlands East Indies declared war on Japan immediately after our entrance into the war. Due to an immense superiority in land, air, and sea forces Japan was able to take in rapid succession, Hong-Kong, Thailand (Siam), which gave up with only token resistance, Malaya (Jan. 31, 1942), the great naval base of Singa- pore (Feb. 15, 1942), most of the Netherlands East Indies, and parts of Burma. At the present writing Japan is threatening India and Australia. 57. Military Policy. Our naval losses at Pearl Harbor; the destruction by the enemy of the British Battleship “Prince of Wales” and the Battle Cruiser “Repulse” in Ma- layan waters; the lack of sufficient armed forces, particularly air forces; the effectiveness of enemy “fifth column” activities; and the initial underestimation of Japanese military and naval strength and ability, all forced the United Nations to assume the defensive in the South West Pacific Area. That this policy will be changed to the offensive at the proper time is borne out by a recent letter (March, 1942) written by the Chief of Staff of the United States Army General George C. Marshall, to a member of Congress which states:—“The time has now come when we must proceed with the business of carrying the war to the enemy and not permitting the greater portion of our armed forces and our valuable material to be immobilized within continental United States. The enemy, calculating on public reactions, is undoubtedly employing submarines close inshore for the purpose of restraining our efforts to engage our planes and ground troops so far as practicable offensively in distant theaters. Further, I feel that we must expect isolated air raids of a few planes directed against us for no other purpose than to create a public reaction which will adversely affect the sound military purpose of de- fending America by engaging and defeating the enemy in theaters distant from our shores. FA1 (1) 66 INTRODUCTION “I have gone into this matter in some detail because it is of great importance, and the demands for protection within continental United States are piling up in a for- bidding manner. This is a question of public morale, of the courage of our people, and I am hopeful that you gentlemen of the Congress will take the lead in offsetting the present unfortunate reaction. The American people have the courage and resolu- tion to face the harsh necessities of this desperate struggle if they understand the situation.” 58. Conclusion. No one act by our enemies could have united the people of the United States better than treacherous attack on Pearl Harbor by Japan. With one dissenting vote the Congress voted for war against Japan and without a single negative one for war against Germany and Italy. At war with us against Ger- many, Italy, and Japan are: Great Britain, Australia, Canada, China, Free France, The Netherlands, Netherlands East Indies, New Zealand, Poland, Union of South Africa, Costa Rica, Cuba, Nicaragua, Dominican Republic, Honduras, Haiti, El Salvador, Guatamala, Panama, and Bolivia. Our allies who are at war with Germany, Italy, and their European allies only are: Russia, Belgium, Czechoslovakia, Ethiopia, Greece Luxemburg, Norway, and Yugoslavia. Germany, Italy, Slovakia, Hungary and Rumania are at war with the United States, Great Britain, and Russia. Japan, Man- chukuo, and Bulgaria are at war with the United States and Great Britain, and Finland is at war with Russia and Great Britain. In addition to this list of allies, all the coun- tries of Latin America have either broken relations with the Axis powers or have ex- pressed their solidarity with us. The nations at war comprise four-fifths of the terri- tory and population of the world. The Axis group consists of a combination of power- mad nations bent on ruling the world at the expense of the other countries which are made up of peace-loving people who are determined that the Axis and all that it stands for will be driven from the earth. We have entered this war better prepared than in any of our previous conflicts. Never at the outset of a war have we had as large or as well-trained an Army or Navy, or as many supplies, nor have we ever had our industrial machinery as well geared for war as in the present conflict. We have avoided the mistakes of former wars as far as could be foreseen and although un- doubtedly a long and difficult period lies ahead of us no one should have any reason to doubt the outcome—victory. - Questions 1. When was a “limited national emergency” declared by the President? 2. What nations constitute the principal Axis powers? 3. How did preparation for this war by the United States compare with that for previous war? MILITARY COURTESY AND DISCIPLINE CONTENTS Paragraphs Chapter I. Discipline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5 Chapter II. Courtesy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-13 Chapter III. Customs of the Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14–23 CHAPTER I DISCIPLINE 1. General. a. Military discipline is intelligent, willing, and cheerful obedience to the will of the leader. Its basis rests on the voluntary subordination of the individual to the welfare of the group. Discipline is the cohesive force that binds the members of a unit, and its strict enforce- ment is a benefit for all. Its constraint must be felt not so much in the fear of punish- ment which it evokes as in the moral obligation it imposes on the individual to heed the common interest of the group. b. Discipline establishes a state of mind which produces proper action and prompt cooperation under all circumstances, regardless of obstacles. It creates in the individual a desire and determination to undertake and accomplish any mission assigned by the leader. c. Acceptance of the authority of a leader does not mean that the individual soldier surrenders all freedom of action or that he has no individual responsibility. The Ameri- can system of discipline calls for active cooperation from the subordinate. d. True military discipline extends far deeper than and beyond mere outward sign. For example, proper dress and smartness of appearance, while desirable and conducive to good discipline, are not alone conclusive proof of true discipline. A more likely indication is the behavior of indivduals or units away from the presence or guidance of their superiors. 2. Importance. a. Man is and always will be the vital element in war. As an indi- vidual, he is most valuable when he has developed a strong moral fiber, self-respect, self- reliance, self-confidence, and confidence in his comrades. A feeling of unity must be achieved if the group of individuals is to function as a unit instead of a mob. Modern warfare requires self-reliance in every grade; individuals capable of independent thought and action, who are inspired by a distinct feeling that as an individual or as members of a unit they are competent to cope with any condition, situation, or adversary. In spite of the advances in technique, the worth of the individual man is still decisive. His importance has risen due to the open order of combat. Every individual must be trained to exploit a situation with energy and boldness, imbued with the idea that suc- cess will depend upon his action. b. The ultimate purpose of all military training is effectiveness in battle. Only well- disciplined troops exercising cooperative and coordinated effort can win. Without proper discipline, a group of men is incapable of organized and sustained effort. The dispersion of troops in battle, caused by the influences of modern weapons, makes control more and more difficult. Modern combat, therefore, requires more than ever a strong cohesion within a unit in order to give it a sense of unity. This cohesion is promoted by good leadership, pride in the accomplishments, and reputation of the unit, and by mutual confidence and comradeship among its members. 3. Attainment. a. Military discipline is attained only by careful and systematic educa- tion and training. All types of military training which tend to develop a sense of duty, pride, and responsibility, loyalty, morale, respect, confidence, initiative, and teamwork are beneficial. Such training may be conducted in numerous ways and by many different 67 68 MILITARY COURTESY AND DISCIPLINE methods; there is no perfect formula or single rule. No two groups or even two indi- viduals necessarily respond to the same type of training. It is essential to keep in mind that in our country the environment of the soldier may differ materially from that of his previous surroundings. To disregard the civil environment is a serious error. The necessary transition may be a slow, laborious process requiring infinite patience and consideration on the part of the leader. Impossible or unnecessary demands will quickly undermine or even destroy the confidence so necessary in well-disciplined individuals and . units. Drills that require accuracy, mental and physical coordination, precision, and smartness assist in attaining discipline. Short, varied exercises in group physical training are valuable. The fundamentals listed below will be helpful as guides in the attainment of the desired aim. - b. Good leadership, based on personality and character, is essential to the attainment of military discipline. The key to effective leadership is the development of respect and mutual confidence. It is gained when the leader shows in every possible way that he is a member of the unit, and as the ranking member thereof he will leave nothing undone to promote the unit's comfort, welfare, and prestige. Similarly, loyalty and respect are developed through mutual understanding and consideration, through fairness and jus- tice, and by sharing dangers and hardships as well as joys and sorrows. - A commander must live with his troops, and share their dangers and privations as well as their joys and sorrows. By personal observation and experience he will then be able to judge their needs and combat value. A commander who unnecessarily taxes the endurance of his troops will only penalize himself. * Comradeship among officers and men is to be fostered by every available means. The strong and the capable must encourage and lead the weak and less experienced. On such a foundation, a feeling of true comradeship will become firmly established, and the full combat value of the troops will be made available to the higher commander. A willingness to accept responsibility is the foremost trait of leadership. This willing- ness should not, however, manifest itself in a disregard of orders on the grounds of probably having a better knowledge of the situation than the higher commander. In- dependence must not be confused with personal caprice. Officers and men of all grades are expected to exercise a certain independence in the execution of tasks assigned to them and to show initiative in meeting situations as they arise. Every individual from the highest commander to the lowest private must always remember that inaction and neglect of opportunities will warrant more severe censure than an error of judgment in the choice of the means. c. A sense of individual pride and responsibility is essential to good discipline. A soldier must be made to realize that all his acts are reflected on the unit to which he be- longs. He must aspire to the trust that goes with responsibility. Pride in his organization is aroused by making him feel that he has some responsibility in developing it. Leaders must use their ingenuity to create opportunities which place responsibility on individuals appropriate to their training and grade. d. Good morale is conducive to good discipline. It implies contentment and war- rants the leader's closest attention. Suitable living conditions, physical welfare, appetizing food, healthful recreation, and relaxation all contribute to morale. - e. Mutual trust is essential for group unity. It stimulates and fosters that unity of purpose and spirit, which under such names as morale, elan, or esprit de corps, is the very heart of a unit's power. - Troops are strongly influenced by the example, and conduct of their commissioned and noncommissioned leaders. Will power, self-confidence, initiative and disregard of self will enable a leader to master the most difficult situation. A bold and determined leader will carry his troops with him no matter how difficult the enterprise. Mutual confidence between the leader and his men is the surest basis of discipline in an emer- gency. To gain this confidence, the leader must find the way to the hearts of his men. This he will do by acquiring an understanding of their thoughts and feelings, and by showing a constant concern for their comfort and welfare. 4. Maintenance. a. Discipline is maintained in much the same manner as it is at- tained. There is not and should not be a sharply defined line of demarcation between MILITARY COURTESY AND DISCIPLINE 69 the two. For example, common sense, good judgment, fairness and justice, high morale, pride, and responsibility contribute as much to maintaining discipline as to attaining it. b. Self-respect must be maintained at all costs. Corrections are made privately when- ever practicable and are never personal or degrading in nature. c. Commendation for duty well performed is equally as important as admonition, reprimand, or other corrective measures for delinquencies. d. Young and inexperienced leaders must realize that while firmness is a military requisite, it does not necessitate harshness of manner or of tone. 5. Relationship Between Superiors and Subordinates. a. A leader sets the example for his men to emulate. To accomplish this, he exhibits cheerfulness, loyalty to subordinates as well as to superiors, strict observance of military regulations, customs, and courtesies, neatness and smartness of appearance, and punctuality. Through loyalty to his subordi- nates, he will gain their confidence and trust and will make them feel that he demands no more of them than he is willing to do himself. The superior will do much toward creating and maintaining the proper relationship with his subordinates by conducting himself with such dignity and demeanor that his position in the unit is unquestioned. Excessive familiarity between them is avoided. On the other hand, aloofness must be avoided since it will discourage mutual confidence and close relationship between leader and subordinate. w The combat value of a unit is determined by the soldierly qualities of its leader and members and its “will to fight.” An outward mark of this combat value will be found in the set-up and appearance of the men, in the condition, care, and maintenance of their weapons and equipment, and in the readiness of the unit for action. Superior combat value will offset numerical inferiority. The greater the combat value of the troops, the more powerful will be the blow struck by the commander. Superior leader- ship combined with superior combat value of troops constitutes a reliable basis for success in battle. b. Superiors are forbidden to injure those under their authority by tyrannical or capricious conduct or by abusive language. They habitually employ an ordinary con- versational manner and tone of voice in addressing subordinates. Firmness and dignity are essential, but an officious, discourteous manner is harmful to the end sought. Arrogance will breed contempt, sap morale, and destroy discipline. Questions 1. Define military discipline. 2. What is the key to effective leadership? 3. What is essential for group unity? 4. How is the combat value of a unit determined? 5. Arrogance breeds what reaction in subordinates? CHAPTER II COURTESY 6. General. a. Courtesy implies polite and considerate behavior toward others, whether senior or junior, and whether or not members of the military service. ,” b. In general, juniors habitually give the same precedence to and show the same deference toward their seniors that any courteous person does to his elders. These courtesies should be shown promptly and smartly. Slovenly and half-hearted execution of these acts is in itself discourteous. Army Regulations state: “Courtesy among military men is indispensable to discipline.” Courtesy is hardly less important in civil life. We cannot enjoy friendships nor have loyal subordinates in any walk of life unless we treat other people with courtesy. Courtesy must be second nature to the soldier, and it should be second nature, that is an almost unconscious habit, to everyone. Courtesy pays the largest returns for the least effort, of anything one can do. Courtesy in civil life is nothing more than the : © | ޺ $º 5. Yºr Sº Y º GENERAL LT. GENERAL MAJ, GENERAL BRIG. GENERAL COLONEL (SILVER) (SILVER) (SILVER) (SILVER) (SILVER) ſº •) ſº &#| |& | = } MAJOR CAPTAIN IST LIEUTENANT 2P LIEUTENANT (GOLD) - (SILVER) (SILVER) (GOLD) Plate 1. Officer's Insignia of Grade, Army and Marine Corps. | LT COLONEL (SILVER) ADMIRAL CAPTAIN C NDER COMMANDER fº º LIEUTENANT LIEUTENANT JUNIOR GRADE ENSIGN Star denotes line officer. Plate E. Sleeve Ornamentation, Naval Officers. MILITARY COURTESY AND DISCIPLINE . 71 habit of being gentlemanly, thoughtful, kindly and considerate towards others. It has certain forms, such as saying “Good morning,” shaking hands, raising the hat to ladies, etc. In the military service the expressions of courtesy are more formal and precise than in civil life. The most important of them is the military salute. 7. Definitions. a. Structures such as drill halls, riding halls, gymnasiums, and other roofed inclosures used for drill or exercise of troops are considered as “out of doors.” b. When the word “indoors” is used, it is construed to mean offices, hallways, mess halls, kitchens, orderly rooms, amusement rooms, bathrooms, libraries, dwellings, or other place of abode. REAR IEUTENANT LIEUTENANT COMMANDER l- (J.G.) ENSIGN Plate 3. Sleeve Ornamentation, Coast Guard Officers. c. The expression “under arms” will be understood to mean— (1) With arms in hand, or (2) Having attached to the person a hand arm or the equipment pertaining di- rectly to the arm, such as cartridge belt, pistol holster, or automatic rifle belt. Exception: Officers wearing the officers' belt, M1921, without arms attached. 8. Saluting. a. The salute fulfils two functions; to render respect, and to serve as the act of recognition between military personnel. An individual is required to salute when he meets a person entitled to the salute or is addressed by a senior entitled to the salute. Those entitled to the salute are commissioned officers of the Army, Navy, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard. It is also customary to salute officers of friendly foreign countries when they are in uniform. 72 MILITARY COURTESY AND DISCIPLINE The formal salute has been the symbol and sign of the military profession since the dawn of history, and, in some form, was probably practiced before that time. The salute is not a mark of subordination, but its omission is a mark of insubordination and lack of courtesy or a bad state of discipline. It is the equivalent of the “Good morning” of civil life. Regulations require that the salute be rendered by both parties. Naturally the junior should salute first. b. Saluting distance is that distance at which recognition is easy. Usually it does not exceed 30 paces. The salute is rendered before the person to be saluted approaches closer than 6 paces. This permits him time to recognize and return the salute. Plate 4. Hand Salute. c. In executing the salute, the head is turned so as to observe the person saluted. Salute with the hand. (1) The commands are: 1. Hand, 2. SALUTE. At the com- mand Salute, raise the right hand smartly until the tip of the forefinger touches the lower part of the headdress or forehead above and slightly to the right of the right eye, thumb and fingers extended and joined, palm to the left, upper arm horizontal, forearm inclined at 45°, hand and wrist straight; at the same time turn the head and eyes toward the person saluted. (TWO) Drop the arm to its normal position by the side in one motion, at the same time turning the head and eyes to the front. (2) Execute the first position of the hand salute when six paces from the person saluted, or at the nearest point of approach, if more than six paces. Hold the first posi- tion until the person saluted has passed or the salute is returned. Then execute the second movement of the hand salute. A salute is returned by all officers present entitled to it unless they are in a formation, when the senior only returns the salute except as noted in p below. Subparagraph p refers to a case where an officer is talking to a sentinel—if the officer salutes a senior officer, the sentinel will also salute. The salute must never be returned in a casual or perfunctory manner. d. Within the confines of military posts, camps, or stations, an enlisted man dressed l S3) S- t S- ure 1. In uniform, with Figure 2. In uniform, with Figure 3. In uniform, with hat or cap, armed with pistol. &^. Figure 4. In uniform , with hat or cap removed. hat or cap, without arms. Figure 5. In civilian clothes With headdress. Plate 5. Salutes. hat or cap, armed with rifle. Figure 6. In civilian clothes Without headdress. Plate 6. Officer in Civilian Clothes, Soldier in Uniform With Hat or Cap and Without Arms (Or Armed With the Pistol). 74 MILITARY COURTESY AND DISCIPLINE in civilian clothes salutes an officer when he recognizes him, even when both are in civilian clothes. e. Covered or uncovered, salutes are exchanged in the same manner. Plate 7. Soldier in Civilian Clothes, Officer in Uniform. f. The salute is rendered but once if the senior remains in the immediate vicinity and no conversation takes place. If a conversation takes place, the junior again salutes the senior on departing or when the senior leaves. g. Usually the junior salutes first. However, in making reports, the person rendering the report salutes first, regardless of rank. An example of this is the case of a battalion commander rendering a report to the adjutant at a ceremony. Plate 8. Both Officer and Soldier in Civilian Dress. h. A group of enlisted men within the confines of military posts, camps, or stations and not in formation, on the approach of an officer, is called to attention by the first person noticing him; if in formation, by the one in charge. If out of doors, and not in formation, they all salute; in formation, the salute is rendered by the enlisted man in charge. (Plates 9 and 10). sº If indoors, not under arms, they uncover. MILITARY COURTESY AND DISCIPLINE 75 i. The salute is rendered only at a halt or a walk. If a person is running, he comes down to the walk before saluting. Likewise a mounted person at the trot or gallop comes down to the walk before saluting. (Plate 11) j. When reporting to an officer in his office, a junior (unless under arms) removes his headdress, knocks, and enters when told to do so. Upon entering, he marches up to within about 2 paces of the officer's desk, halts, salutes, and says, “Sir, reports to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,” (using names and grades). • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * & Plate 9. Detachment (Not at Ceremony) Armed With Rifle. E ! § Ú & Q? Sz s 23SS- | l, ºl ºzº, Gº Nº Plate 10. Detachment (Not at Ceremony) Armed With Pistol. For example, “Sir, Private Jones reports to Captain Smith.” or “Sir, Private Jones reports to the battery commander.” Conversation after the report is made is carried on in the first person and second person. When the business is completed, the junior salutes, executes about face, and withdraws. One uncovers (unless under arms) on entering a room where a senior is present, 76 MILITARY COURTESY AND DISCIPLINE If the junior reports under arms he does not take off his hat or cap; and he executes the prescribed salute. (Figures 1 and 3, plate 5.) k. Drivers of vehicles salute only when the vehicle is halted. The driver of a horse- drawn vehicle will salute only when halted and both hands are not required to control his team. (Plate 14.) Plate 11. Mounted (At a Halt or Walk). Any other individual in the vehicle renders the hand salute whether the vehicle is halted or in motion. An officer or a noncommissioned officer in charge of a detail riding in a vehicle renders the hand salute for the entire detail. (Plates 13 and 15). Plate 12. Officer Reporting to a Senior Officer, or Soldier to an Officer in an Office. The intent of the two sentences above is that, if a vehicle (horse or motor) is occupied by persons not riding in the vehicle as a detail, or as part of the formation, all of the individuals will salute. Plate 14. Horse-Drawn Vehicle, Halted, and Driver's Hands Necessary to Control Team. Individuals in Vehicle (Not Part of a Detail) All Salute. * * T – * *To —- & 2.T. 3 S- , * mmissioned Officer in Charge of Detail, Rises Renders Hand Salute. Plate 15. Officer or Nonc 8, Iºl . 78 MILITARY COURTESY AND DISCIPLINE If the vehicle is occupied by a detail or part of an organization the individual in charge will, if he is in the body of the vehicle, rise and salute; if he is sitting in the front seat with the driver and it is impracticable because of the construction of the vehicle to rise, he will salute seated. The other members of the detail will not salute. l. Except as noted in paragraph 99, whenever or wherever the National Anthem.” is played or To the color (standard) is sounded, at the first note thereof all dismounted officers and enlisted men present but not in formation will face the music, stand at Attention, and render the prescribed salute, except that at Escort of the color (standard) or at Retreat they will face toward the color (standard) or flag. The position of salute will be retained until the last note of the music is sounded. Plate 16. Sentinel, Armed With Rifle, Saluting When Anthem is Played or “To the Color (Standard)” is Sounded. (If Armed With Pistol, See Figure 1, Plate 5.) Plate 17. In Civilian Clothes, With Plate 18. In Civilian Clothes, With Headdress. No Headdress. Those mounted on animals will halt and render the salute mounted. (Plate 11.) Vehicles in motion will be brought to a halt. Persons riding in a passenger car or on a motorcycle will dismount and salute as directed above. Occupants of other types of military vehicles remain seated in the vehicle at attention, the person in charge of the vehicle dismounting and rendering the hand salute. • Note.—The “Star Spangled Banner” written September 14, 1814, during the “War of 1812.” Francis Scott Key, poet, lawyer and author, is designated by Act of Congress dated March 3, 1531, as the National Anthem. It should be played as written without flourishes or repetitions. It should not be played as part of a medley. MILITARY COURTESY AND DISCIPLINE 79 For example: the person in charge of each vehicle in a convoy (private, noncom- missioned officer or officers) will dismount and salute. It is not sufficient for the officer in charge of the entire convoy to salute. The one exception to this general provision is that tank commanders salute from the turret of the tank or combat car. Plate 19. Persons on Motorcycles (Or in Passenger Cars) Dismount and Salute. Individuals leading animals or standing to horse will stand at attention but will not salute. The same marks of respect are shown the national anthem of any other country when played upon official occasions. m. When passing or being passed by an uncased national color (standard), honors are rendered in the same manner as when the National Anthem is played. n. When personal honors are rendered, officers and men present in uniform (not in formation) salute and remain in that position until the completion of the ruffles, flourishes, and march. Plate 20. Person in Charge of Vehicle Saluting When National Anthem is Played or “To the Color (Standard)” is Sounded. In formation the detail, detachment or organization is brought to attention by the commander who then executes the prescribed salute (Plates 9 and 10). o. Organization or detachment commanders salute officers of higher grades by bringing the organization or detachment to attention before saluting. (Plates 9 and 10.) p. In garrison, sentinels posted with the rifle salute by presenting arms. (Plate 16) Being at order arms. 1. Present, 2. ARMS. At the command Arms, with the right hand carry the rifle in front of the center of the body, barrel to the rear and vertical, 80 . MILITARY COURTESY AND DISCIPLINE grasp it with the left hand at the balance, forearm horizontal and resting against the body. (TWO) Grasp the small of the stock with the right hand. During the hours when challenging is prescribed, the first salute is given as soon as the officer has been duly recognized and advanced. A mounted or dismounted sentinel armed with a pistol salutes by executing the hand salute, except when challenging when he executes RAISE PISTOL and retains that position until the challenged party has passed. A sentinel in conversation with an officer will not interrupt the conversation to salute another officer, but in case the officer salutes a senior, the sentinel will also salute. (See Paragraph 9 k). Plate 22. Stand to Horse. q. At a military funeral, all persons in the military service in uniform or in civilian clothes, attending in their individual capacity, will stand at attention uncovered and hold the headdress over the left breast at any time when the casket is being moved by the casket bearers and during services at the grave, including the firing of volleys and the sounding of Taps. (Plate 17.) During the prayers, they will also bow their heads. MILITARY COURTESY AND DISCIPLINE 81 In cold or inclement weather, they will remain covered and execute the hand salute at any time when the casket is being moved by the casket bearers and during the firing of volley and sounding of Taps. Plate 23. A Soldier (Armed) Saluting Plate 24. A Civilian Saluting the the Colors (Standards). Color (Standard). To Raise Pistol. The commands are: 1. Raise, 2. PISTOL. At the command Pistol, unbutton the flap of the holster with the right hand and grasp the stock, back of the hand outward. Draw the pistol from the holster; reverse it, muzzle up, the thumb and last three fingers holding the stock, the forefinger extended outside the trigger guard, the barrel of the pistol to the rear and inclined to the front at an angle of 30°, the hand as high as, and 6 inches in front of, the point of the right shoulder. This is the position of Raise pistol. - - Plate 25. Raise Pistol. Summary The prescribed salute is as follows: In uniform other than as sentinel or as member of detachment or detail (Plates 4; Figures 1, 2, and 3, Plate 5; and Plate 23). 82 MILITARY COURTESY AND DISCIPLINE Posted as sentinel (Figure 1, Plate 5 and Plate 16). As member of detachment or detail (Plates 9 and 10). In civilian dress with headdress (Figure 5, Plate 5, and Plate 17). In civilian dress with no headdress (Plate 18). Persons on motorcycles (or in passenger cars) (Plate 19). Person in charge of vehicle (Plate 20). Tank or combat car commanders (Plate 21). Leading or holding horse (Plate 22). 9. When Not to Salute. Salutes are not rendered by individuals in the following cases: a. An enlisted man in ranks and not at attention comes to attention when addressed by an officer. The officer or noncommissioned officer in command renders or receives the salute for the entire organization on the approach of the one entitled thereto. b. When an officer enters the messroom or mess tent, enlisted men seated at meals remain seated at ease and continue eating unless the officer directs otherwise. Exception: An individual addressed ceases eating and sits at attention until completion of the conversation. c. Details at work do not salute. The officer or noncommissioned officer in charge, if not actively engaged at the time, salutes or acknowledges salutes for the entire detail. d. When actually engaged at games such as baseball, tennis, or golf, one does not salute. (Plate 27.) e. In a squad room or tent, individuals rise, uncover (if unarmed), and stand at attention when an officer enters. If more than one person is present, the first to perceive the officer calls, “Attention.” f. When standing to horse or leading a horse, one does not salute. g. In churches, theaters, or other places of public assemblage, or in a public con- veyance, salutes are not exchanged. Plate 26. Colors (Standards) Cased—Never Saluted. h. When carrying articles with both hands, or when otherwise so occupied as to make saluting impracticable. i. When on the march, in campaign, or under simulated campaign conditions. j. No salute is rendered to persons by a member of the guard who is engaged in the performance of a specific duty, the proper execution of which would prevent saluting. k. A mounted or dismounted sentinel armed with a pistol does not salute after challenging. He stands at Raise pistol until the challenged party has passed. l. The driver of a vehicle in motion is not required to salute. m. Indoors, salutes are not exchanged except when reporting to a senior. MILITARY COURTESY AND DISCIPLINE 83 10. Uncovering. Officers and enlisted men under arms as a general rule do not un- cover except when— a. Seated as a member of or in attendance on a court or board. (Sentinels, over prisoners do not uncover.) b. Entering places of divine worship. © c. Indoors when not on duty and it is desired to remain informally. d. In attendance at an official reception. 11. Personal Courtesies. a. Except in the field under campaign or simulated campaign conditions, a mounted junior always dismounts before speaking to or replying to a dis- mounted senior. When accompanying a senior, a junior walks or rides on his left. b. Military persons enter automobiles and small boats in inverse order of rank and leave in order of rank; that is, the senior enters an automobile or small boat last and leaves first. Juniors, although entering the automobile first, take their appropriate seat in the car. The senior is always on the right. 12. Titles. a. The following titles are used in intercourse with officers of the Army: (1) Lieutenants are addressed officially as “Lieutenant.” The adjectives “first” and “second” are not used except in official written communications. (2) Other officers are referred to by their titles. In conversation and in nonofficial correspondence, brigadier general, major generals, lieutenant generals and generals are referred to and addressed as “General.” Lieutenant colonels, under the same conditions, are referred to and addressed as “Colonel.” Plate 27. In Athletic Costume—Stand at “Attention.” (3) Senior officers frequently address juniors as “Smith.” or “Jones,” but this does not give the junior the privilege of addressing the senior in any other way than by his proper title. - (4) Chaplains are addressed as “Chaplain” regardless of their grade. A Catholic chaplain may be addressed as “Father.” b. Cadets of the United States Military Academy are addressed as “Cadet” officially and in written communications. Air Corps cadets and candidates of officers training schools are addressed as “Cadet.” c. Warrant officers are addressed as “Mister.” d. Members of the Army Nurse Corps are addressed as “Nurse.” e. Noncommissioned officers are addressed by their titles. Officers address them as “Sergeant,” “Corporal,” etc. Officers address privates as “Smith.” or “Jones.” Master sergeants, technical sergeants, staff sergeants, etc., are all addressed simply as “Sergeant.” In official communications, the full title of an enlisted man is used. f. In the Navy, officers in both line and staff are addressed officially by their titles. Any officer in command of a ship, whatever its size or class, while exercising such com- mand is addressed as “Captain.” 84 MILITARY COURTESY AND DISCIPLINE 13. Visits to War Vessels. a. A vessel of war will be approached and boarded by com: missioned officers and visitors in their company by the starboard side and gangway; all other persons will use the port gangway. The commanding officer of the ship may change this rule, if expedient. -> b. In entering a boat, the junior goes first and other officers follow in order of rank; in leaving a boat, the senior goes first. c. An officer paying a boarding visit to a vessel of war or transport is met at the gangway by the officer of the deck. d. The salutes to be exchanged upon boarding and leaving a vessel of war are prescribed below and conform to regulations of the United States Navy. All members of the Army visiting a vessel of war will conform. (1) All officers and men, whenever reaching the quarter-deck either from a boat, from a gangway, from the shore, or from another part of the ship, will salute the national ensign. In making this salute, which will be entirely distinct from the salute to the officer of the deck, the person making it will stop at the top of the gangway or upon arriving upon the quarter-deck, face the ensign, and render the salute, after which the officer of the deck will be saluted. In leaving the quarter-deck, the same salute will be rendered in inverse order. The officer of the deck will return both salutes in each case, and shall require that they be properly made. (2) The commanding officer will clearly define the limits of the quarter-deck; it will embrace so much of the main or other appropriate deck as may be necessary for the proper conduct of official and ceremonial functions. When the quarter-deck so designated is forward and at a considerable distance from the ensign, the salute to the ensign pre- scribed in (1) above will not be rendered by officers and men except when leaving or coming aboard the ship. (3) The salute to the national ensign to be made by officers and enlisted men with no arms in hand will be the hand salute, the headdress not to be removed. e. All officers in the party salute the ensign, but only the senior renders or returns the salutes, other than that to the ensign, given at the gangway of a naval vessel. (See AR 605-125.) * Questions 1. What does courtesy imply? 2. What type of structures are considered “out of doors” for saluting purposes? 3. What is the word “indoors” construed to mean? 4. What does the expression “under arms” mean? 5. What is saluting distance? 6. Is there any difference in the manner in which salutes are exchanged when covered or uncovered? 7. Who usually salutes first? 8. How do sentinels posted with the rifle salute? 9. Is the salute required by individuals off duty outside the confines of a post? 10. Do details at work salute? 11. Are lieutenants addressed as “first” or “second” lieutenants except in official, written communications? 12. How are warrant officers addressed? CHAPTER III CUSTOMS OF THE SERVICE 14. Titles. a. Army of the United States. (See paragraph 12). A certain amount of familiarity is necessary between seniors and juniors in social intercourse, but young officers should be exceedingly careful to show proper respect to their seniors at all times. Officers of the same grade, except when there is considerable difference in age and dates of commission, generally address one another by their last names. - b. Navy captains. In speaking to or introducing captains of the Navy, it is customary to add after the name, “of the Navy,” in order to indicate that the officer belongs to the Navy and not to the Army or the Marine Corps. The reason for this practice is that the grade of captain in the Navy corresponds to the grade of colonel in the Army. c. Relative rank between officers of the Army and the Navy. General with admiral. Lieutenant general with vice admiral. Major general with rear admiral. & Brigadier general (no corresponding grade). Colonel with captain. Lieutenant colonel with commander. Major with lieutenant commander. Captain with lieutenant. First lieutenant with lieutenant (junior grade). Second lieutenant with ensign. 15. Calls of Courtesy. a. General. The interchange of visits of courtesy between officers is of great importance, and the well-established customs of the Army in this respect will be scrupulously observed. Failure to pay the civilities customary in official and polite society is to the prejudice of the best interests of the Service. Calls are made at a time convenient to the officer upon whom the call is to be made. As calling customs vary somewhat at different posts, camps, and stations, it is wise to ascertain local practices from the adjutant. It is customary for officers to call on a new arrival as soon as he is situated so that callers can be received comfortably and without embarrassment. If the newcomer is married and his family is present, ladies call with their husbands. b. Formal. Formal calls are those made in the discharge of an obligation. A formal call ordinarily should not exceed 15 minutes' duration. An officer should be exceedingly punctilious about formal calls. Calls should ordinarily be returned within 10 days. An officer arriving at a post whether for duty or for a visit longer than 24 hours, will call on the post commander at his office and at his quarters unless directed other- wise by the adjutant. He ascertains from the adjutant what other calls are customary, when they should be made, and complies therewith. If unable to wear uniform, an explanation is made for appearing in civilian clothes. The official visits to the post and intermediate commanders should be repeated at their residences during proper calling hours within 24 hours after arrival. If the commander is married and his wife is present on the post, it is customary for the officer making the visit at the residence to be accompanied by his wife. These calls are formal and ordinarily should last no longer than 15 minutes. It is normally not necessary for the new arrival to make other calls until the officers of the battalion, regiment, or garrison have called on him. It is customary for all officers of a unit or garrison to call upon the commanding officer on New Year's Day. When ordered to duty in Washington, an officer leaves cards at the White House and calls on the Chief of Staff; before doing so, however, it is advisable to inquire as to the desired procedure. If the officer's presence in Washington is transitory, it is sufficient to sign the officers' register in The Adjutant General's Office. He then calls on the chief of his arm or service in the latter's office. An officer who is assigned or attached to a place and who is about to depart permanent. 35 86 MILITARY COURTESY AND DISCIPLINE ly therefrom makes a parting visit to his immediate commanding officer and to the commander of the post, camp, or station. (See AR 605-125.) c. Calling hours. Inquiry should be made of the adjutant as to the normal calling hours in effect at the post, camp, or station concerned. Evening calls are usually made between 7:30 and 9:00 P.M. d. Dress when calling. Proper uniform is worn. (See AR 600-35 and 600-40.) e. Calling cards. Leave cards when making formal calls. A man should leave one card for each adult member of the household, including guests. Ladies leave one card for each adult lady of the household. More than three of any one card should never be left, however, regardless of the number of people being called upon. 16. Messes. In garrison, the officers’ mess is important as a meeting place of bachelor officers, and customs of the service have laid down strict rules regarding it. These rules vary at different post and in different messes. However, in general, an officer never attends a meal unless he is properly dressed. The senior officer at the table is the president of the mess and receives due consideration as such. Similarly, this may apply to the senior officer at any table in the mess. Usually the evening weekday meal and the Sunday midday meal are formal. At these meals, it is customary in some messes to await the arrival of the senior officer before being seated. Normally, no one leaves the table until the senior officer present has finished his meal or otherwise excuses them. Exceptionally, when departure is necessary, the officer requests to be excused. If a member of the mess arrives late, he expresses his regrets to the president of the mess before taking seat. Discussions of orders of the commanding officer are out of order. It is customary for officers of an organization and sometimes their families also, when invited, to eat certain meals in the mess of their organization on holidays. 17. Social Functions. It is customary for all officers to attend garrison social functions and to make them pleasant affairs. Procedure is similar to that at like civilian functions. Officers of all grades make a point of presenting themselves to seniors, especially to their commanding officers and their families. Visitors must not be neglected. They must be considered as guests of the assembled group. All officers must be solicitous for their entertainment and well-being. Official subjects are avoided at these functions. 18. General Rules. Distinguished visitors, either military or civilian, are generally honored by appropriate receptions, either by the commander or by the officers of the garrison. Although such gatherings are primarily social, nevertheless they have an official aspect. Attendance is regarded as obligatory and absence therefrom should occur only for those reasons which necessitate absence from a military formation. When the commanding officer says, “I desire,” or “I wish,” rather than “I direct you to do so-and-so,” this wish or desire has all the authority of an order. Custom demands that officers be meticulous about their personal appearance and es- pecially so when in uniform. Their behavior at all times must reflect only credit on the military service. Avoid the impolite practice of approaching a senior officer, whom you know or re- member well, expecting him to remember your name and where he has known you be- fore. When you speak to an officer, introduce yourself by name and refresh his memory regarding where he has known you. The same rule applies when approaching members of a receiving line. Explanations are made only when called for. Courtesy should be habitual. Courtesy to subordinates is equally as important as courtesy to superiors. Conversation between military personnel is conducted in the first and second person except when making an official report, Punctuality should be a habit, MILITARY COURTESY AND DISCIPLINE 87 19. Courts-Martial. The following example illustrates a soldiers' conduct when a wit- ness at a court-martial: The judge advocate calls for the witness, “Private Smith.” Former- ly, witnesses wore side arms and hence did not remove the headdress until about to be sworn. Under present regulations (Par 55, AR 600-40) side arms are prohibited, and the proper procedure would be to remove headdress before entering the room. The wit- ness salutes the president of the court. If gloves have been prescribed the right glove is removed by the witness before he is sworn. When the judge advocate says: “You will be sworn as a witness in this case,” the witness raises his right hand above his head, palm to the front, and when the oath has been repeated by the judge advocate, he replies: “I do” or “So help me God.” He sits in the chair indicated by the judge advocate. In an- swer to the question by the judge advocate: “Do you know the accused, if so state who he is,” he answers: “I do, Private Joe Doe, Company A, 6th Engineers.” The witness then answers all other questions, addressing his answers to the court. When excused he rises, salutes the president, and leaves the room. 20. At the Pay Table. The company is formed in the order in which the names ap- pear on the payroll. It is customary for the men to wear side arms. Each man, as his name is called, answers “Here” in a loud, clear tone, steps up to the table, salutes the paymaster, counts his money as the paymaster spreads it before him, but does not touch it until the paymaster has finished counting it and has pushed it toward him. He then picks it up quickly and leaves the room. The paymaster does not return the salute of the soldier as he is too much occupied with his duties. 21. Miscellaneous. Because of the unfavorable comment which may arise as a result thereof, officers of the Army are prohibited from using, or permitting to be used, their military title in connection with commercial enterprises of any kind. Personnel of the Army are prohibited from soliciting contributions for gifts or presents to those in superior official position. Likewise no persons will accept “any gift or present offered or presented to them as a contribution from persons in Government em- ploy receiving less salary than themselves.” (See AR 600-10.) 22. Display of Flag. While there is no law or regulation on the subject, the following procedure should be observed in displaying the national flag: a. When not flown from a staff, the flag should always be suspended flat, whether indoors or out. b. When used on a rostrum, the flag should be displayed above and behind the speaker's stand. c. The flag should never be used as a drape for a platform, desk, chair, or bench. For such purpose, and for general decoration, bunting of the national colors should be used. For correct use of the flag under various circumstances, see Plate 28. 23. The Flag of the United States. a. Our flag is the visible symbol of our nation, and as such is held sacred by all loyal citizens. It is regarded as a living thing. b. In the service the flag is designated also as “color,” “standard” or “ensign” accord- ing to its use. A color is a flag carried by dismounted troops; a standard is carried by mounted or motorized troops; an ensign is a flag flown on a ship or boat. The flag has 7 red and 6 white stripes, representing the original 13 states, and a union of white stars on a blue field, one star for each state now in the union. Colors and standards are trimmed with a knotted fringe, with a cord and tassels on the staff or pike. The following customs for display of the flag are in further explanation of Paragraph. 22. (Plate 28) When on a staff or pole the inner upper corner of the union is at the peak of the staff, with the stripes perpendicular to the staff. The edge attached to the staff is called the heraldic dexter or right edge. (2) When carried with another flag or flags the national emblem is always on the right. (Plate 23.) (3) When a number of flags are: grouped and displayed from staffs the national emblem should be in the center or at the highest point of the group. (4) When hung either horizontally or vertically on a wall the union should be up and to the flag's right (the observer's left.), (5) When displayed across a street the flag is hung vertically, with it right edge ſ : : i 7 º \Y % 3. º / | % \ § W \ *º : w o :== 3-, * * * * * * * * sº º a “* * * * W sº º Aº, º a º Aº º • * * * v- S - a 㺠º e s sº º, º º e ºl | ;- §§ º. º; i - - # º: - 3. i §º- /*-** = . º # º º, –Z ; * - š . ; * Yº-t i -** #:#; #= tº- l'avvæ, ri lº Ǻ | *º 90 MILITARY COURTESY AND DISCIPLINE secured to a cable stretched at right angles across the street. The union should be up . and to the north in an east or west street or to the east in a north or south street, and the flag should be at such a height that it is well clear of all traffic in the street. (6) When displayed on the same staff or pole with another flag or flags the national emblem is always placed at the peak (top) of the staff. In time of peace the flag of one nation may not be displayed above that of another. If two national emblems are displayed together they should be on separate staffs and at the same level. (7) On occasions of mourning the flag may be flown at half-mast or half-staff. It is first raised to the peak and then lowered to half-staff position. Upon being taken down it is first raised to the peak and then lowered to the ground. (8) The national emblem may be used to cover the casket at a military funeral. It is placed with the union at the head and over the left shoulder of the deceased. It is not lowered into the grave. (9) Colors and standards, when not on display or during inclement weather, re- main on their staffs and are covered with a waterproof case. When stowed away for the night, or at any time when not on display, a flag is folded as described in “Interior Guard Duty.” (10) The national emblem is never dipped in salute. Regimental colors and standards are dipped in salute by lowering the staff to an inclination of about 45 degrees. (11) The flag is always displayed flat. It should not be looped or festooned. It should not be used to drape or cover anything (except a casket), nor should anything be placed on or above it. For such decoration red, white and blue bunting may be used with the blue uppermost. (12) The flag is never allowed to touch the ground. (13) No lettering is ever placed upon the flag. It should not be used for advertising nor decorative purposes, such as part of a costume, at the head of a letter, embroidered upon a cushion, etc. * (14) Dimensions: Garrison flag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 by 38 feet Post flag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 by 19 feet Storm flag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - © e º º 5 by 9% feet Colors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 1/3 by 5% feet Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 by 4 feet Questions 1. What is the equivalent rank in the Navy to a captain in the army? 2. What is the position of the National emblem when carried with another flag or flags? 3. What is the position of the union when the flag is hung either vertically or hori- zontally on a wall? 4. Is the National emblem ever dipped in salute? 5. Is the flag ever allowed to touch the ground? MILITARY SANITATION AND FIRST AID CONTENTS Paragraphs Chapter I. Responsibility for Health Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-13 Chapter II. Personal Hygiene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-22 Chapter III. Communicable Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-33 Chapter IV. Control of Intestinal and Insect Borne Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-47 Chapter . V. Venereal Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48–60 Chapter VI. First Aid Treatment of Wounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61-68 Chapter VII. Treatment of Fractures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69-73 Chapter . First Aid in Common Emergencies, and Transportation of the & Sick and Wounded . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74-88 CHAPTER I RESPONSIBILITY FOR HEALTH MEASURES 1. Definitions. a. Sanitation is the art by which we adjust our living conditions in accordance with the laws of hygiene. Methods of application of sanitary art may change —the simplest effective methods are the best. b. Military sanitation is the science of sanitation as applied to the military and is shaped according to the environment in which the military situation occurs. It employs all the sanitary methods used in civilian communities and, in addition, those special methods found necessary to preserve the health of troops living under conditions peculiar to military service. c. Hygiene is the science which deals with the principles and laws of health. Hygienic laws are basic, made by nature, and never change. d. Military hygiene is the science of preserving and promoting the health of military personnel. It is the system of securing and maintaining proper personal hygiene by individual members of a military organization. 2. Relationship of Hygiene and Sanitation. The art of sanitation is founded upon a knowledge of hygiene. Commanders of troops who have a clear understanding of the fundamental hygienic principles may intelligently select and apply the sanitary methods required to meet the needs of their troops under various conditions. 3. Purpose of Sanitation. When troops take to the field they leave behind all the on spoq ‘speau IIoun 12Ao Iolpus oup :uouezHAI2 unopoul Jo soouelidde pue suojuoo sleep in, safe drinking water from a handy faucet, cooking ranges, toilets, and bath tubs—in a word all that is accepted so naturally without thought in our daily life at home. And yet these things are necessary and must be provided. Impure water cannot be used; human excreta, manure, and garbage must be disposed of in an efficient and sanitary manner; clothing infested with parasites must be sterilized; food must be preserved from flies and other insects; and bathing, laundry, and toilet facilities must be provided. 4. Responsibility for Health Measures. Commanding officers of all grades are responsible for sanitation and for the enforcement of the provisions of sanitary regula- tions and orders within their organizations and the boundaries of areas occupied by them. The issuance of proper orders and regulations regarding military sanitation will not produce satisfactory results unless they are intelligently enforced and implicitly obeyed by all, from the highest to the lowest. Generous use should be made of the technical knowledge and advice of Medical Department officers, but commanding officers retain full responsibility for the initiation and enforcement of suitable measures for the correction of sanitary defects. Even though the sick are not seen by the organization commander in person, he can do much in the prevention and control of communicable disease. When he signs the 91 92 MILITARY SANITATION AND FIRST AID Daily Sick Report, he receives definite information as to the state of health of his command. A sick rate of 1 to 2 per cent of the total strength of his command— varying according to the environment and seasoning of his troops—may be regarded as normal. Among new troops a sick rate of even 3 per cent may be expected at times. A sick rate of 3 to 4 per cent should be viewed with alarm and should call for prompt investigation of the general sanitary conditions. A sick rate of 4 to 5 per cent calls for drastic measures, with the closest supervision of environmental conditions. An unusual number of injuries should cause the organization commander as much concern as an excessive number of sick men. The commander must so maintain the health of his command as to keep at the minimum the number of men absent from duty each day on account of sickness or injury. 5. The Medical Department and Health Measures. a. The Medical Department is responsible for investigating, reporting on, and making recommendations relative to all matters affecting the health of the Army, including the location of camps and stations, the source and methods of purification of the water supply, the methods and efficiency of waste disposal, the food supply and the sanitation of messes, the suitability of clothing and housing of troops, efficiency of training in personal hygiene and sanitation, the elimination of insects, and all other measures for the prevention or control of disease. The functions of officers of the Medical Department in the realm of sanitation are, therefore, mainly of an inspectorial and advisory nature. Recommendations submitted by them constitute a basis for the initiation of sanitary measures by appropriate higher military authority. When practical these recommendations should be submitted in form suitable for issue as a sanitary order if and when approved. Medical Department officers exercise no command except in Medical Department installations. When, how- ever, a commanding officer authorizes a medical officer to give orders in his name for the correction of sanitary defects, as is advisable under proper limitations, the duties and responsibilities of the latter are correspondingly increased. The Medical Department is responsible for the execution of health measures which require skilled technical train- ing, such as artificial immunization, inspection of food, and physical examination. It does not furnish labor, funds, or equipment for such activities as water purification, waste disposal, or insect control. b. Medical inspectors. The senior medical officer of a command under the com- manding officer is charged with general supervision of Medical Department activities within the command. The medical inspector is an assistant to the surgeon, and under him is charged especially with the supervision of the sanitation of the command. The veterinarian of a command is in like manner considered a medical inspector as regards animal sanitation, inspection of foods of animal origin, and dairy hygiene. 6. The Quartermaster Corps and Health Measures. In peace, or in the zone of the interior in war, the Quartermaster Corps is normally responsible for the conduct of such sanitary measures as the operation of water systems, sewage disposal systems, delousing plants, camp or station incinerators and dumps when two or more units have common disposal, and for the actual work connected with control of mosquito breeding places. If for any reason the Quartermaster Corps does not carry on these activities, the work is performed by the units concerned. g 7. The Corps of Engineers and Health Measures. In a theatre of operations the Corps of Engineers assumes responsibility for the procurement and purification of water and for the disposal of wastes when it is practicable to install and operate water works, water distributing points, sewage disposal systems, dumps and incinerators, or similar utilities to serve several units. When such is not the case, these activities are carried on by the units concerned. 8. The Sanitary Code of the Army. Army Regulations, together with local orders based on or in amplification of them, constitute the sanitary code of the Army. Certain pro- cedures for the protection and promotion of the health of the troops are universal through- out the military establishment and are directed by the War Department. Certain other procedures may be considered necessary for a general locality, such as a corps area, and are directed by the commander of troops therein. The commanding officer of a unit is MILITARY SANITATION AND FIRST AID 93 responsible for the enforcement within his command of all such orders issued by higher authority. All officers have an individual responsibility in the enforcement of sanitary orders or instructions issued by higher authority. 9. Historical. In most wars the loss of military man power from disease has greatly exceeded the loss of men in battle. Even during the World War our losses from disease exceeded our battle casualties. History is full of examples of important campaigns which have failed because of outbreaks of disease among the troops. The map of the world, as we now know it, undoubtedly would have been quite different if outbreaks of disease had not prevented military leaders from accomplishing their missions, at times even leading to their defeat. Nearly all these enormous losses were due to preventable diseases and, in all fairness, while mankind was steeped in relative medical ignorance. It is only recently, comparatively speaking, that we have come to know much about the basic causes of the diseases that wrought such havoc among men assembled in armies, and have devised ways and means to tend to prevent such losses. 10. Military Objectives. Battles are won by healthy, vigorous soldiers, and by them alone. Morale, stamina, and courage do not long exist apart from physical health and vigor. Unless soldiers be placed on the firing line physically fit to fight they are not only useless but are a burden. Ability to march, use his weapons, and care for himself in the field are recognized as fundamental objectives in the basic training of the individual soldier. 11. Individual Interest. The prevention of disease by personal hygienic practices, and by community cleanliness, is the duty of everyone in the military establishment. It is also the wisest procedure from the point of view of the individual as no one in the world is quite so interested in his health and well-being as he is himself. Conditions pictured in this text are often ideal and are seldom, if ever, found in their entirety in the theatre of operations. The same principles that underlie proper function- ing under ideal conditions must be applied when adverse conditions are encountered. An officer's success or failure is determined by his interpretation and application of these principles and by his ability to improvise. He must “make bricks without straw.” He must develop a sense of what is essential under every condition, favorable or adverse. In military hygiene and sanitation, as in other practices of vital importance, he must ever strive to obtain for his command the most favorable conditions possible under the circumstances confronting him. 12. Cooperation of Line with Medical Officers. The advice of the medical officer is invaluable in the conservation of the health of troops, and the wise commanding officer will lean heavily upon his surgeon in all matters pertaining to the health of his men. Usually, the recommendations of the experienced medical officer are accepted without question and are carried out just as fully and as promptly as possible. All the reasonable recommendations of a medical officer should be given serious consideration by the commander concerned. 13. Military Importance of Health Preservation. Experienced officers have long recog- nized that for the preservation of the health of their troops—and thereby their effective strength—sanitary requirements are exceeded only by military necessity; and that the military necessity which must disregard sanitary requirements exists but very seldom, and then only when in actual contact with an enemy. Higher authority holds subordinate commanders strictly and personally responsible for the health and well-being of their commands. Reasonable recommendations in this con- nection are, therefore, not lightly rejected. Questions 1. Who is responsible for the health of the army? 2. What daily report provides the organization commander with information as to the health of his men? 3. State briefly what part the Medical Department does in maintaining the health of the army. 4. Who issues the sanitary orders for the army? 5. What is the keynote of successful conservation of the health of troops? CHAPTER II PERSONAL HYGIENE 14. Definition. Personal hygiene refers to those measures or precautions which every person should take with the primary object of maintaining his own health and physical well-being. It requires the application of a few common-sense rules, the observance of wholesome habits, and the avoidance of excesses of all kinds. It is a phase of the larger subject of hygiene, which deals with the principles and laws of health. These principles and laws are basic and made by nature. Community cleanliness is merely the result obtained within a compact group in which all members obey the principles of personal hygiene. An important by-product is the prevention of the spread of com- municable disease. Therefore, the application by each individual of health-saving, per- sonal hygienic measures is the cornerstone of the maintenance of group health and of the field of preventive medicine. Personal hygiene is the basis of military hygiene. 15. Responsibility for Personal Hygiene. Before being allowed to enlist in the Army, the soldier is given a thorough physical examination to determine the absence of disease. It then becomes his duty to keep himself in the best possible physical con- dition. In so doing, attention to personal hygiene is of great importance. 16. Importance of Early Medical Treatment. If at any time a soldier feels sick or for any reason believes that he has contracted a disease, he should report at once to his first sergeant or to the noncommissioned officer in charge of quarters, who will send him to a medical officer for examination. Soldiers should never try to treat themselves since many medicines may be harmful or possibly even fatal in unskilled hands. Furthermore, a sick person may be a source of danger to his associates. 17. Causes of Disease. Most acute disease and many chronic ones are caused by micro-organisms or viruses commonly called “germs.” The usual ways in which dis- ease-producing germs gain entrance to the body are as follows: a. By eating food or by drinking water or other liquids which contain the germs. b. By breathing in certain germs which float in the air. c. Through the skin, the germs having been injected into the body by the bites of mosquitoes, lice, ticks, or fleas, or introduced through cuts, scratches, or abrasions. d. By contact with diseased persons. 18. Measures to Improve General Health. Every individual has some degree of natural resistance to infection. This resistance is improved by any measures which serve to improve his general health. Among measures serving that purpose are the following: a. Protection from cold and chilling by suitable clothing, blankets, and housing facilities. b. Adequate and proper food. c. Physical training, including athletics. d. Sufficient sleep (at least 7 to 8 hours, each night). e. Avoidance of undue fatigue. (This is particularly important in training camps in the presence of epidemics of respiratory diseases.) f. Recreation of suitable nature. (The morale of an organiza- tion has a definite relation to the physical condition of its members.) 19. Care of the Body. a. General. An unclean body may favor the entry of disease germs. Therefore the entire body should be bathed at least twice a week. The hands should always be washed before eating and after going to the toilet. When facilities for a complete bath are not available, the body should frequently be scrubbed with a wet cloth, paying particular attention to the armpits, crotch, and feet. Underwear and shirts should be changed and washed at least twice a week. If water is not available, clothing should be crumpled up, shaken well, and exposed to the sun for at least two hours. - b. Mouth. It is very important to brush the teeth at least twice a day, one of these brushings to occur before going to bed. In cleaning the teeth, brush the inside and outside surfaces away from the gums and toward the cutting surfaces. Particles of food between the teeth should be promptly removed, care being taken not to injure the gums. c. Feet. The most important factor in the marching ability of the soldier is the care 94 MILITARY SANITATION AND FIRST AID * 95 of the feet, Serious defects of the feet can be prevented by properly fitted shoes and socks and by proper care of the feet. (1) Shoes. Only field shoes issued by the Quartermaster Corps should be worn in the field by enlisted men. Company commanders are responsible that all men of their commands are equipped with properly fitted shoes. Each shoe is fitted to the foot of the wearer so that no undue constriction or pressure will occur at any point when the foot is expanded by the weight of the body and pack. It is equally important that shoes not be so large as to permit friction. Because of the structural irregularities of the foot, shoes can be properly fitted only by actual test. This testing can be done either by shoe-fitting machine or by hand. (a) The shoe-fitting machine is a device for measuring the size of the foot when bearing weight and for proving that the size selected is the proper one. These machines together with instructions for their operation are issued as needed. Selected noncom- missioned officers should be trained in their use. + 1. Effect of too short a shoe. 2. Effect of pointed toe shoe. 3. A good to: in a Well-fitted Oe. Plate 1. Shoe Fitting. Care of Feet. (b) Fitting without shoe-fitting machine. The shoe is laced snugly and the wearer with a 40-pound burden on his back places his entire weight on the foot wearing the shoe. The leather of the shoe in front of the instep above the ball of the foot should then be grasped between the fingers and thumb. As the finger and thumb are brought together, the leather should be loose enough to prevent the fingers slipping easily over the surface but not sufficiently lax to produce a wrinkle. If it wrinkles under the grasp, the shoe is too wide, and if there is no looseness apparent, it is too narrow The proper length of the shoe is determined by measuring the space between the end of the great toe and the end of the shoe. This space should be not less than % inch when all the body weight plus that of a 40-pound burden is borne by the foot being fitted. This space is measured by pressing down the leather with the thumb. The width of the thumb may be considered as representing the desired width between the toe and the end of the shoe. All shoes should be well broken in and adjusted to the feet before being used for marching. Shoes, may be rapidly adjusted to the feet by thoroughly wetting the leather and then walking on a level surface until they become dry. After this the leather should be softened by greasing. (2) Socks. Only woolen socks (light or heavy) should be worn for marching. Cotton socks should never be worn unless ordered by a medical officer. Socks should be large enough to permit free movement of the toes but not so loose as to permit wrinkling. Woolen socks should be one-half size larger than cotton socks in order to allow for shrinking. Darned socks or socks with holes in them should never be worn on the march since they will cause abrasions and blisters. Wearing two pairs of socks will aid in preventing friction between shoes and the feet. 96 MILITARY SANITATION AND FIRST AID (3) Care of feet. (a) Clean feet are as important to the avoidance of foot defects as are properly fitted shoes and socks. The feet should be washed and the socks changed each day. This is especially important on a march. As soon as possible after reaching camp after a march, the feet should be washed (not soaked) with soap and water and the soldier should then put on clean socks and change his shoes. Until the feet are hardened they should be dusted with foot powder before and after each day's march. Applying lard to the feet before a march may prevent irritation of the feet. (b) If blisters have appeared on the feet they should be painted with iodine and emptied by pricking them at the lower edge with a pin which has been passed through a flame. The skin should not be removed. The blister should then be covered with zinc oxide adhesive plaster. Serious abrasions on the feet, corns, bunions, and ingrown nails should be treated at the dispensary or aid station. BLISTER *-NEEDLE NEEDLE PROFER METHOD OF ORENING A BLISTER ADHESIVE PLASTER THIN GAUZE BLISTER COMPLETED DRESSING Plate 2. Care of Blisters on Feet. (c) The toenails should be kept short and clean. They should be cut straight across, and not on a curve. If this precaution is observed, most of the troubles from ingrowing nails will be avoided. . . . . . . (d) Ringworm of the feet or “Athlete's foot” is a common and frequently in- capacitating foot infection. Diligent attention should be directed toward its prevention, and toward prompt and thorough treatment of all cases developing. MILITARY SANITATION AND FIRST AID 97 (4) Foot inspection. The feet of the men should be inspected periodically by a company officer, and a careful inspection should always be made before a march of more than a few hours duration. (Note: Where applicable, “troop” or “battery” can be substituted for the term “company.”) This inspection should be made sufficiently far in advance of the march to permit obtaining proper shoes and socks and the correction of defects found. If the inspection is made preparatory to a march, particular care should be taken that all men have properly fitting shoes and woolen socks and that none are wearing repaired socks or socks with holes. Plate 3. Care of the Feet. Toenails Properly Trimmed. 20. Rules for Avoiding Disease. Do not drink water which has not been declared safe by a medical officer unless it has been purified by boiling or chlorination. Do not take water from a water sterilizing bag by dipping a cup into the bag or by putting your mouth to the faucet. Do not soil the ground with stools or urine. Always use the latrine or the night urine can provided in the company street. | - Be sure that the mess kit, knife, fork, and spoon are thoroughly washed in soapy water and rinsed in boiling water after they are used. Use a mosquito bar in regions where mosquitoes are prevalent. See that it is well tucked in and is free from holes. Do not sit or lie directly on the damp ground. Avoid drafts when perspiring or while the clothing is damp. Ditch the tents as soon as put up, even if the camp is only for one night. Prepare the beds before dark. In temporary camps or bivouac, raise the beds if suitable material, such as straw, leaves, or boughs, can be obtained. The raincoat should be used as a ground sheet. Never use a cup which is used by others. Do not exchange pipes, cigars, musical instruments played with the mouth, gas masks, handkerchiefs, towels, or shaving outfits. In camp where water is plentiful, drink plenty of water at intervals during the day but do not drink a large amount at one time either in camp or on the march, especially when overheated after exertion. On the march do not drink water every time you feel thirsty. The rule should be to drink as little as possible at a time and endeavor to arrive at the end of the march with some water still left in the canteen. Acquire the habit of having the bowels move regularly once each day and at as nearly the same time as possible. & - Wear clothing of proper weight for the climate. Clothing should fit loosely. Wet clothing, particularly shoes and socks, should be changed as soon as opportunity permits. Keep the hair cut short and the fingernails clean. Never throw pieces of food or refuse around the camp or in the trench. Such debris attract flies, and flies carry disease organisms. º If possible, avoid all contact with diseased persons. Avoid venereal diseases. These diseases are almost always contracted by sexual inter- course with an infected woman. If sexual intercourse is had, report as soon as possible (should be within an hour after exposure) to the hospital or other designated place for “prophylaxis.”. This prophylactic treatment must be carried out thoroughly and the directions followed exactly if its full protective value is to be obtained. FA1 (1) - 98 MILITARY SANITATION AND FIRST AID 21. Improvised Bathing Facilities. Wash benches or improvised showers should be constructead in any camp lasting more than one day. They should be located at the end of the company street nearest the latrine. The wash water may be disposed of in shallow trenches or even onto the surface of the ground if the camp is to be of brief duration. Otherwise, a grease trap and soakage pit or trench should be installed, since accumulation of a soap film will eventually prevent soakage into the ground. Bathing in streams is an excellent solution to the problem of personal cleanliness, pro- viding a reasonably clean stream is convenient to the camp. The part of the stream marked for bathing only should be used. 22. Monthly Physical Inspection. A monthly physical inspection is conducted by a medical officer; it is required that an officer from each organization be present during this inspection. The organization officer should promptly arrange for correction of any defects found. In the absence of a medical officer or contract surgeon this inspection is conducted by an officer of the organization concerned. This examination is not, as often erroneously believed, for the sole purpose of detecting venereal disease. It should include: an examination of the feet and foot wear, the mouth and teeth, and the state of personal cleanliness; investigation for evidence of communicable diseases, including venereal disease and vermin infestation; and inspection for evidence of chronic disease. * Questions . What is personal hygiene? . Who is responsible for the personal hygiene of soldiers? . Why should we bather . Why do we brush our teeth? . Who is responsible for the condition of soldier's feet? . Why is the care of the soldier's feet so important? Why are monthly physical inspections conducted by a medical officer? i CHAPTER III COMMUNICABLE DISEASES 23. Definition. Communicable diseases are those diseases which can be transmitted from one person to another. The term “communicable disease” is synonymous with “infectious,” “contagious,” or “epidemic disease.” They are all caused by “germs” of one kind or another; in some, the specific germ is known, while in others it is not known. They are the diseases which, under suitable conditions, appear in epidemic form. 24. Importance. Communicable diseases as a group account for a considerable part of the admissions to sick report both in peace and in war. Soldiers are subject to the same diseases as people in civil life. In some respects they encounter greater health threats. Their lives involve concentration in compact military communities, with a resulting exposure to large doses of mixed and crossed infectious material. Their ex- posure to hardships and hunger, which lower natural resistance, and to sudden changes of environment tends to make soldiers more susceptible to the communicable diseases than would be the case under normal civilian conditions. 25. Epidemics. An epidemic exists when a large number of persons in a community are affected simultaneously by a certain disease or suffer its effects within a short space of time. To have an epidemic outbreak of communicable disease, three things are necessary: A focus, or source, of the disease. Susceptible individuals. Proper contact between the susceptible individuals and the source of the disease. 26. Classification of Communicable Diseases. Communicable diseases are best classi- fied for control purposes according to the manner in which the causative organisms or viruses leave the body or are transferred to other persons. They are: a. Respiratory. Those diseases in which the causal agents are eliminated in discharges from the mouth, nose, throat, and lungs. MILITARY SANITATION AND FIRST AID 99 b. Intestinal. Those diseases in which the causal agents are eliminated in the urine and feces. c. Insect borne. Those diseases which are transmitted by bloodsucking insects. In these diseases the causal organisms or viruses are contained in the blood and cannot escape from the body except in the blood. d. Venereal. Those diseases which are usually transmitted during sexual intercourse. e. Miscellaneous. Those diseases which are preventable but which do not readily fall into the above groups. Among these are tetanus (lockjaw), rabies, scabies, trichophytosis (ringworm), and anthrax. w 27. Sources of Disease. a. Biological sources. Every case of communicable disease comes from some other case of that disease; air, water, food, utensils, insects, and all other such means, are merely the agents which carry the germs from sick to well persons. b. Geographical sources. The geographical source of the communicable diseases that play such an important part in the health of the soldier is the civil community from which he comes as a recruit, or the civil community adjacent to the military community where he is living. (1) Areas at large. In a concentration of military man power some men will arrive at the rendezvous while in the earliest, or incubation, stage of measles, mumps, or some other communicable disease. In a few hours, or a few days, they will be sick. These men are not aware of their exposure, and until symptoms appear there is no way for anyone to know of their impending sickness. In the meantime they are necessarily coming in more or less intimate contact with other men among whom will be a certain proportion who are susceptible to the disease in question. After a short time some of these susceptible contacts will become sick with this same disease; by that time an epidemic has probably started and, unless vigorous measures are taken to stop it, it will continue until all the susceptible material has been exhausted. Such infections increase in virulence by being exchanged between individuals who have been unaccustomed to them. (2) Local areas. Men in a military community will naturally come in contact with people of the adjacent civil community. Many of the communicable diseases are present at all times in civil communities, and susceptible soldiers will almost certainly be ex- posed to such diseases, acquire them and, of course, introduce them into the military community with the results outlined above. 28. Methods of Transmission of Communicable Diseases. a. Direct contact. Trans- mission by direct contact occurs when a susceptible person comes in close or intimate physical relationship with a person sick with the disease in its infective stage. A few examples are: measles, mumps, smallpox, respiratory diseases, and the venereal diseases. b. Indirect contact. Transmission by indirect contact occurs where the susceptible per- son uses some article which has recently been used by a person sick with the disease in its infective stage. Some common examples of indirect transmission are: using towels, dishes, eating utensils, pipes, lighted cigars, cigarettes, and the like, that were in recent intimate contact with, or soiled by the sick person. For example, influenza may be spread by unsterilized eating utensils. Almost all the diseases transmitted by direct contact may also be transmitted by indirect contact. c. Special agents. Transmission by a special transmitting agent occurs where the sus- ceptible person's only contact with the sick person is through some animate carrier of the germs of the disease. Examples are: the mechanical transmission of typhus fever by lice; the biological transmission of malaria by the mosquito. 29. Prevention and Control of Communicable Diseases. The prevention and control of communicable diseases may be classified under four general headings: a. Control of sources. Supervision of cases and carriers with a view to preventing the transference of the causal agents to others. - b. Control of transmitting agencies. Proper ventilation of barracks and tents. Prevention of overcrowding. Purification of water. Proper sanitation of messes. 100 MILITARY SANITATION AND FIRST AID Proper waste disposal. Control of disease-bearing insects. c. Protection of susceptibles. Use of all possible measures for improvement of the general health of all individuals. Vaccination against smallpox, typhoid fever, and such other diseases as may be directed by competent authority. d. Individual education. Instruction of all individuals in the fundamentals of personal hygiene, and the rigid observance by them of its rules. 30. Definition of Special Terms. In the application of control measures against com- municable diseases the following terms are frequently used: Contact. A person who has been closely associated with a sick person is known as a COIntact. Suspect. A person who has been exposed to a communicable disease and is ill, but in whom the symptoms and signs present are insufficient to warrant a diagnosis of the particular disease, is spoken of as a suspect. Isolation. In the Army, cases of communicable diseases are hospitalized if possible, and are there segregated from other persons. This is termed “isolation.” Incubation period. The incubation period of a disease is the time between exposure and the earliest symptoms of the disease. It varies with different diseases and in different persons. Carrier. A carrier is a person who, without displaying visible symptoms of harboring a communicable disease, disseminates to others its specific micro-organisms. As dis- tinguished from a “carrier,” the term “infected person” designates a person in whose tissues the causative agent of a communicable disease is lodged and produces symptoms. CASES | CONTACT | | AND FooD AND water2--SUSCEPTIBLES CARRIERS | INSECTS - Plate 4. Factors in the Control of Communicable Diseases. 31. Individual Resistance. a. Every person has a certain amount of natural resistance to infection by the communicable diseases. This resistance is relative, some persons having more than others. Resistance to disease is also “general” or “specific.” The person of good physique and robust health is likely to have a good general resistance. Specific resistance, or immunity, applies to a given disease and is generally acquired in one of three ways: (1) By having had an attack of the disease itself by which more or less permanent immunity is conferred (only a few diseases confer lasting immunity). Measles is a good example of immunity acquired by having had the disease. (2) By repeated ex- posure to small doses of infectious material by which a resistance is built up without the individual ever being actually sick with that disease. Diphtheria is an example; most adults are immune to diphtheria, yet few have had the disease. (3) By artificial immuni- zation through vaccination against a given disease. Smallpox is an example of such a disease, vaccination producing almost complete protection. There are many factors which contribute to an individual's general resistance to disease, or to his lack of such resistance, as the case may be. Previous environment, age, vitality, and race are among the more important ones. b. Previous environment. Previous environment has much to do with the amount of resistance to disease a person has acquired by the time he reaches adult life. In general, persons from populous communities have been more.frequently and more intimately ex- posed to infective material of many kinds than those from thinly populated areas. For example, the recruit who has always lived in the city very rarely reaches adult life without having had measles, while the young man who has always-lived on a farm, and has had MILITARY SANITATION AND FIRST AID 101 very few contacts with people other than his immediate neighbors, may or may not have had measles. c. Age. Age is an important factor in the resistance of an individual; children have very little resistance. As individuals mature they attain more and more resistance, reach- ing their maximum in late middle life. d. Vitality. Vitality is another important factor in resistance. Men who are weakened by lack of adequate and proper food, by exposure to wet and cold, by physical or mental exhaustion, by confinement in close quarters, and by lack of proper exercise, are apt to fall sick from whatever communicable disease is prevalent. e. Race. Racial resistance to some diseases is found where several generations of a people have been subjected to the perils of a given, locally prevalent, disease. Part of this racial resistance is hereditary and part is environmental. 32. Preventive Measures. a. In addition to the natural resistance of the individual, there are many precautionary measures which should be taken in order to prevent the outbreak and spread of communicable disease. They may be divided into four general classes: (1) Conferring personal, specific immunity upon the individual by artificial means. (Specific prophylactic treatment.) (2) Early recognition of the sick, and their separation from the well. (3) Measures designed to maintain the health and vitality of the man. (4) Providing an environment that will prevent or limit the dissemination of infective material. b. Specific prophylaxis. Specific prophylaxis, or personal specific immunity by artificial means, is limited to a very few diseases. At the present time the most important ones, from the military standpoint, are the typhoid fevers and smallpox. In the military service, protection of the individual against these diseases is a routine matter ordered by higher authority. But the company commander has a very definite responsibility to con- tribute to this protective procedure by seeing to it that all his men have received, or promptly receive, the necessary prophylactic treatment. c. Early recognition of sickness. Early recognition of the fact that a man is sick is a very important factor in disease control. No special knowledge of medicine is required to recognize that a man is sick with some acute disease. Company officers are not ex- pected to make diagnoses, but they are expected to recognize that a man is probably sick. The specific diagnosis is for the doctor to determine. In a great many instances even the most experienced doctors cannot make a definite diagnosis the first time they see a sick man, especially one in the initial stage of a communicable disease, because almost all such diseases, initially, present similar symptoms. The detection of sickness is not as difficult as commonly believed. Company and platoon commanders make frequent inspections of their men, with special reference to their clothing and equipment. Dirty clothes, an unshaven face, or a dirty rifle will seldom be overlooked. It is an equally simple matter to look at men with attention directed to their physical condition. In a short time the alert officer will do so unconsciously and, as in other inspections, the man who is normal in appearance leaves no lasting impression, but the sick man stands out prominently. Sick men should be immediately removed from intimate contact with well men. Segregation of the sick, and of contacts or suspected contacts, is a form of quarantine—a very common and very efficient procedure in handling communicable disease and preventing their spread. The instant recognition and proper disposition of the sick or disabled men of an organization will save three-fourths of the time they would otherwise spend in hospital. Likewise, early recognition of the sick may prevent many unnecessary contacts and prevent the spread of a communicable disease if the ill person detected has such a disease. d. Health warnings. The unit commander receives definite information every day as to the state of health of his command when he signs the Daily Sick Report. See paragraph 4, Chapter I. e. Health and vitality. Measures designed to maintain the health and vitality of the individual include several factors, some of which are personal and some are environmental. To keep up the general health and strength is the best insurance against sickness. Proper food, proper clothing, activity (work and exercise), and rest and sleep, are all important. Personal hygiene is of paramount importance; it is discussed later. 102 MILITARY SANITATION AND FIRST AID (1) Food. Good food, nutritionally adequate, properly prepared and served, is vitally necessary to good health and discipline. Nothing contributes more to the contentment and morale of the soldier than a good mess. Few things contribute more to good health, buoyant vitality, and natural resistance to disease than adequate nutrition. (2) Rest and sleep. In the care of the soldier, probably next in importance to proper food is adequate rest, relaxation, and sleep. Work periods should be interspersed with short rest periods. In training troops, the type of work should be changed often enough to prevent monotony and provide relaxation. Sleep is a natural process in the mainte- nance of health, and loss of sleep rapidly lowers the vitality. The average person requires 7 to 8 hours of sleep in 24 hours, which should be taken at regular times; however, if needed, sleep at any time is beneficial. Sleep should always be had under the most favorable conditions; in a quiet place, with plenty of fresh, cool air, without drafts; in a comfortable bed with sufficient covering. Night clothes should be worn whenever possible. (3) Activity. Work and exercise must be tempered to suit the physical condition of the men and their environment. Activity improves the general health, especially out- door work and exercise. Even during severe epidemics it is much better to keep the well men busy out doors. Working or exercising men until they become slightly tired does no harm, but fatigue is to be scrupulously avoided, especially during an epidemic, or a threatened epidemic. (4) Clothing. Clothing should be appropriate to the climate and season. Clothes should fit easily, and should be clean. While there is little the company officer can do about the clothing available for issue, there is much he can do to see that each man of his organization is properly and comfortably clad. iBEEE A—Inlet. B–Outlet. Plate 5. Ventilation of a Squad Room, Showing Method of Arranging Window Openings. f. Environmental preventive measures. The provision of an environment that will prevent or limit the dissemination of the infective material of communicable diseases broadly covers the whole field of sanitation, including: housing and shelter (control of respiratory diseases); water supply and purification (control of intestinal diseases); food control and protection, disposal of wastes, field sanitary devices (control of in- testinal diseases); and the control of insects (control of insect borne diseases). 33. Control of Respiratory Diseases. Housing and shelter are important in the pre- vention and control of communicable diseases, especially respiratory diseases. Over- crowding, though unavoidable at times, should never be condoned; it contributes a great deal to epidemics by increasing the number and intimacy of contacts and by lowering the vitality of individuals. Under average conditions a minimum of 60 square feet of floor space (exclusive of that occupied by furniture or fixtures, other than' the bed and foot locker) and 720 cubic feet of air space should be allotted for each bed. Calculation of minimum floor space should not include any that extends to a distance of more than 4 feet from either end of the bed. In an emergency the minimum floor space may be reduced to 50 square feet per bed, provided ventilation is adequate. MILITARY SANITATION AND FIRST AID 103 Ventilating facilities should be adequate, and they should be used. Overheating is normally an evidence of poor ventilation. Lack of freshness when a room or tent is first entered also indicates improper ventilation. Windows should be opened from the top on the windward side and from the bottom on the opposite side. The hood of a Plate 6. Head to Foot sleeping Arrangements. PRINCI PAL CONTROL OF PROTECTION SOURCE TRANSMISSION TRANSNA ISS|ON - OF AGENCIES AGENCIES SUSCEPTIELES A R VENTILATION OF ISOLATION OF BARRACKS. BED CASE & CARRIERS. SPACING IN SQUAD º,& ROOM. CUBICILEO C e CONTACT BEDS, PREVENTION $º. PER— BY OF CROWDING. SONAL CLEANLINESS A R | M. MUNIZATION. HAN DS CASE OR HAN DS PERSONAL FOOD CLEAN LINESS CARRIERS . AND MESS FOOD AND MESS | - EQUIPMENT EQUI PMENT DISINFECTION OF Pºss PROTECTED SANTATION OF TROOPS KITCHENS. CLEAN LINESS AND SUPERVISION OF POOD HANDLERS. Plate 7. General. Factors in the Control of Respiratory Diseases. tent should be open to allow air to escape. The side walls should be raised sufficiently to allow air to enter at the bottom of the tent. Officers should inspect the men's sleeping quarters at night to see that they are properly ventilated. When beds are less than 5 feet apart the men should sleep “head to foot.” To increase space between the head of the occupants the beds may be staggered. If respiratory infections are present in the command, cubicles should be constructed by 104 MILITARY SANITATION AND FIRST AID using the shelter tent halves and shelter tent poles. Fasten the pole to the head of the bed and stretch the half toward the foot of the bed. This will separate the occupant of the bed from the occupant in the adjacent bed. The principal sanitary control of respiratory diseases is to separate and spread out the exposed individuals. This method reduces the chance of “droplet infection” caused by sneezing and coughing. Squad rooms should be kept scrupulously clean. Soldiers' quarters should be taken care of in accordance with the best housekeeping standards and practices. For control of intestinal diseases and insect borne diseases, see Chapter IV. Questions . Are all soldiers more subject to communicable diseases than are civilians? Why? . What are the basic elements of an epidemic? . By what methods are communicable diseases transmitted? . What is the basic source of the communicable diseases that affect soldiers? . How are communicable diseases prevented and controlled? . What is the best natural way to prevent sickness? . What factor is most important in environmental sanitation? : CHAPTER IV - CONTROL OF INTESTINAL AND INSECT BORNE DISEASES 34. General Control Measures of Intestinal Diseases. The control of intestinal dis- eases is based on the control of environmental conditions with a view to preventing the transmission of the causal organisms by water and food. General measures for the control of intestinal diseases include water purification, food protection and control, waste disposal, and control of the housefly. Prophylactic immunization is employed as a routine measure in the control of typhoid fever; at times it may be utilized in the control of other intestinal diseases, particularly paratyphoid fever, cholera, and bacillary dysentery. Immunization of all army personnel against yellow fever is in effect. CONTROL OF INTESTINAL DISEASES Water Supply and Field Purification 35. Importance of Pure Water. The importance of pure water cannot be over-em- phasized. Until the method of spread of intestinal diseases was understood and the part that water played in the conveyance of these diseases recognized, they were the largest cause of morbidity and sickness in the armies of the world. 36. Potable (Safe) Water. Pure water is, of course, the quality of water desired but seldom found. Even though a natural source of pure water is available in a given area when a body of troops arrives to occupy it, the likehood of such a water remaining pure is very remote, as water becomes polluted easily. Contrary to popular impres- sion, it is not possible to determine, by simply looking at it, whether or not a particular water supply is safe for drinking in its natural state. The cool sparkling water from the clearest spring may be laden with disease producing germs. On the other hand the water from a muddy or discolored stream may be suitable to drink in its raw state. The only safe method of dealing with water from an unknown source is to assume it to be dangerous until it is proven otherwise. Even water from a community's public water supply system cannot be taken for granted as being a safe water just because it happens to be from a public supply system. The safety of such a water can be quickly and easily ascertained, and such action should be taken before it is pronounced safe for troops. 37. Sources of Water. The common sources of water are rivers and streams, lakes, wells, springs, tube borings, and distillation. - Water from rivers and streams cannot be considered safe. Lakes, if large, are usually clean in the center. The action of the sun and of oxygen purifies the water far from the shore. Shore water is never safe. MILITARY SANITATION AND FIRST AID 105 Spring water is of two kinds, namely land and main springs. Land springs are formed by water that percolates through the ground and appears at lower levels. It may be heavily contaminated. Main springs are derived from underground reservoirs lying between two impermeable strata. Such water has usually been filtered through a con- siderable depth of soil and is usually, but not necessarily, free of disease-producing germs. All such water of course contains soil bacteria and is not sterile, though it may be potable and safe for human consumption. Well water is subsurface water and not necessarily safe just because it is not on the surface. Shallow wells may drain the surface almost directly, and deeper wells in the vicinity of privies and barnyards may, in porous soil, be heavily contaminated. No well water should be accepted as safe until it has been proven so bacteriologically. To be safe, wells should penetrate through an impermeable stratum, be lined so as to exclude surface drainage, covered to prevent surface contamination, and equipped with pumps, etc. so that nothing is introduced, such as buckets, from the outside. - TRANSMISSION CONTROL OF AGENCIES TRANSMISSION AGENCIES | £ºorfereoav Mºn. 6p' ººoººº. IMMUNIZATION Jº WAG-4 ºf £490ſ/84. ACPA'ſ NST Avº//rcarrow of WA7F/2 ſuppºv A&OTf Crow of Avº///£o WATEAE TYPHOTO 6 PARAIYPHOiD ſtytº WATER FOOD Jupéry/frow of Jawrary coworrowf wbtº wrºſcow Aood ºf fºoducto. 724A/AORTED AWD f/O/24 O AM&Ay wav5^écrow A4ſ rºve traytow of Awaar CASE OR CARRIER FOOD £4/Atlawarrow of cowra Muavaré o Aood JUAEA'ſ ºf 6 º' /AVſ/’6 C7 to/V Awyſ/c44 &rAAM/A/Arrow of ºooo AºA/V/O4 &Aºf 79 & 1/44/AVATE CAAPR/EAPſ PROTECTED TROOPS F Aſviº J/CAf FLIES CLEA/wº wava ſſ. Of WAVO/V/OC/44 food AyAAwda £/2J JAwſarrow of warchéaw [1][S Corwrºot of 88s fourvo placeſ HANDS A&ore cryoav of food fºow firef Befºrſºucrow or 442ver £1. Ef HANDS JNouvubuat ee ºorwat clearwa wavéſ, l Plate 8. General Factors in the Control of Intestinal Diseases. Artesian water obtained by tube borings is usually safe. Such water comes from underground supplies formed by water draining from hills underneath impermeable strata of soil. It is best obtained in valleys and at the lowest points of plains. . Distilled water is bacteriologically pure but is not obtainable in sufficient quantities. 38. Responsibility for Water Supplies. In the army, the Quartermaster Corps is respon- sible for the quantity and quality of all water supplies in time of peace, and for the zone of the interior in time of war. The Corps of Engineers is responsible for the quantity and quality of the water supplies for troops in the theatre of operations to divisions and higher mobile units. Organizations below the division generally have to provide their own water supply, usually under the general supervision of the Corps of Engineers. The Medical Department is responsible for determining the potability of, and advising as to the sanitary suitability of, all water supplies for military personnel at all times and places. The unit commander is responsible for the water discipline of his organization and for the execution of standing orders pertaining to the purification of water by and within his own organization. 39. Water Requirements. All living things require water. Experience has shown that the minimum amount of water that must be provided for troops under ordinary con- ditions of march or in bivouac is 1 gallon per man per day, 1% guarts for drinking and 2% quarts for cooking and drinking with meals either as water, as coffee, or other bev- erage. However climatic conditions and the effort of march may alter this minimum. Let us suppose that the commanding officer of a body of troops desires to move camp 106 MILITARY SANITATION AND FIRST AID to another location. He is anxious to know how much water will be required per man per day during the march and in the new location. The medical officer is asked to estimate these requirements and to advise on the plan. What then are the water require- ments in the various situations, in permanent camps, in semipermanent camps, on the march, or in bivouac? The following will serve as a guide in this estimation. Permanent camps: One should estimate a per capita consumption of 50 gallons per day where there is a water-borne sewer system and where there are the usual lawns and other features requiring water. - Temporary camps: One should estimate 5 gallons per person per day and 10 gallons per animal. This amount should not be greatly exceeded since waste water must be dis- posed of by improvised methods and an excess will collect as unsanitary surface water. ANY ANY *—DISTANCE—-I-5O YOS->|<- 50 YDS.--I*DISTANCE-- WASH ING WATER FOR WATER FOR VEHICLES LAUN DRY BATHING ANI MALS DRINKING & COOKING Plate 9. Location of Water Sources (Stream). Bivouac and march: Two gallons per capita are necessary, except under unusual con- ditions when 1 gallon is the obsolute minimum as indicated above. This is based on 1 gallon for cooking and drinking purposes and 1 gallon for washing. The animals will each require 4 to 10 gallons depending on whether the weather is cold or hot. In combat: The amount necessary to retain efficiency, should not be less than the minimum of 1% gallons per capita per day. In extreme conditions animals can be limited to 5 gallons per animal per day. 40. Protection of Water Supply Sources. Every source of water supply, civilian or military, should be carefully guarded against pollution. The principal and most dangerous pollution is human and animal excrement or sewage; these wastes are often intentionally placed in water to dispose of them or are washed in from deposits of excrement on or near the surface of the ground. During droughts, surface and ground waters are more likely to be polluted than under average conditions. During floods high water reaches deposits of excrement and washes them into the watercourses. Such deposits would not ordinarily be dangerous. Water supply sources for military forces can be, and usually are, carefully guarded MILITARY SANITATION AND FIRST AID 107 so as to minimize the possibility of local pollution. Latrines are placed so that surface or underground drainage from them cannot reach the water source. Great care must be taken that the watershed is not contaminated by careless individuals. When streams are used as a source of water, points along the stream are designated at which water for various purposes may be drawn. Beginning upstream, the following points are desig- nated: water for drinking and cooking, water for animals, water for bathing, water for laundry, and that for washing vehicles (Plate 9). It is often necessary to place a “water guard” to enforce compliance with such instructions. N |W., | .x.yº. sº-ºº-ººm' * * --- * -- -—- T &º se------" * * * * * * º ſº s: • - • - ºf: assº .* * * Nºa Z - - - Plate 10. Water Sterilizing Bag, with Tripod. 41. Purification of Water. a. The average person surrounded by the benefits fur- nished by modern public health service gives little thought to the machinery behind it and the efforts that are put out to conserve the public health. The medical officer quickly realizes this when upon him is suddenly thrown the responsibility for the health of large bodies of troops. In time of war and of public peril the civilian practitioner or the medical officer may be the ultimate factor in bringing about a successful or unsuccess- ful outcome, particularly as regards the Army. He becomes a small public health service and is expected to function for the good of his community in preserving its health. Among his most important duties is the overseeing of the water supply and advising as to its purification. Some practical method must be employed to purify water that is easy to carry out, that can be used with small numbers of troops as well as large, that can be carried on in the field and so be available at all times, and that will be efficient and dependable. * Distillation, while it is a certain method of obtaining pure water, is usually out of the question. Boiling sterilizes water and can be used on a small scale but is impracticable on a 108 MILITARY SANITATION AND FIRST AID large scale. A company of 250 men requires three barrels of water daily for drinking purposes alone. The amount of labor and time required to boil so much water daily is almost prohibitive, so that this method can never be of wide application, especially with moving commands. Therefore some other method must be sought. The most reasonable solution is to devise some method of purifying water chemically, and this is exactly what has been done. An Army medical officer, Major Darnall, discovered the principle of chlorination of water and in 1910 originated the liquid chlorine method of purification. Utilizing this knowledge, a small field chlorinating outfit has been devised and is used by the Army. It is one of the most important contributions to military sanitation that has ever been made. (See Plate 10). This simple and yet important outfit is known as the water-sterilizing bag. Before using chlorination, the water should be clarified, if that is necessary as related in the following paragraph. Before water is rendered free of bacteria chemically it should be clarified if it is muddy or contains a large quantity of organic material. This may be accomplished by construct- ing small settling beds or by damning streams. A settling bed may be made by digging out a pool and lining it with a woven brush cylinder, or gabion, a barrel or box with both ends removed or with stones. The space between the lining and the earth is filled with puddled clay. Water is allowed to settle in such a bed until the major portion of the solids have sunk to the bottom. Water may also be clarified by a rude sort of filtration if the soil on the banks of the stream is pervious. In this case pits are dug alongside the stream and the water is allowed to enter these by seepage. Or water may be strained through gauze or blankets to clear it. While these methods remove the solids they in no way free the water from its bacterial content. - Chlorination is one of the most effective measures of purifying water from pathogenic organisms. It is an accepted fact that one part of chlorine per million parts of water will kill most, if not all, of the bacteria contained in the water, providing sufficient time is allowed for the action to take place. In practice, calcium hypochlorite or chloride of lime is used, preferably the Grade A calcium hypochlorite which contains about 70 per cent available chlorine. The amount used should be such that the residual chlorine in the treated water will be less than 0.5 part per million. Four-tenths part per million produces a marked taste, but more than that amount of residual chlorine in the presence of organic matter will produce a definite objectionable taste. The use of sodium thiosulphate is not recommended to neutralize the excess chlorine and to remove tastes and odors, unless strictly supervised by a competent officer acquainted with the procedure. It is best to use a small amount of Grade A calcium hypochlorite initially, testing it with orthotolidine immediately after the addition of hypochlorite solution until sufficient residual chlorine ICIn alſ).S. b. Purification of water in the field. An unknown water can be rendered potable in the field by a very simple procedure, that of adding a small amount of chlorine to the water. The efficacy of this procedure (chlorination) has long been recognized in the military service and is provided for by a simple apparatus that is very easily transported and operated. The equipment consists of a canvas water bag and a chlorine compound (calcium hypochlorite) put up in a small, sealed glass tube. The bag and the chemical are obtained from the Quartermaster Corps, not from the Medical Department. The canvas bag weighs about 7% pounds, holds about 36 gallons of water (20 inches in diameter and 28 inches in length), and is provided with a canvas cover. It is solely a stationary recep- tacle in which water can be held while it is being sterilized and from which it can be distributed through faucets without dipping, these faucets being arranged around the bottom of the bag. This apparatus is issued to troops at the rate of one to each 100 men or fraction thereof. ta The procedure is as follows: • (1) Suspend the bag on a tripod. Fill it with water to mark four inches from the top, straining the water through cheesecloth. (2) Draw a small quantity of water through one of the faucets into a canteen Cup. MILITARY SANITATION AND FIRST AID 109 (3) Break a tube of calcium hypochlorite into the canteen cup, stir with a clean stick, then fill the cup two-thirds full of water. (4) Empty this solution into the water bag and stir thoroughly with a clean stick which is long enough to reach to the bottom of the bag. (5) Draw at least one-half canteen cup of water from each of the faucets and pour it back into the water bag. This serves to sterilize the faucets. (6) Wait 10 minutes, then wash out one of the faucets by allowing a small amount of water to run through onto the ground. Fill a clean canteen cup two-thirds full of water from the same faucet. Add one c. c. (fifteen drops) of orthotolidine testing. solution to the water in the cup. Wait five minutes and note the color produced. Below is a guide for reading the color reaction between the free chlorine and ortho- tolidine: No color. Insufficient chlorination. Add more calcium hypochlorite. Canary yellow. Insufficient chlorination. Add more calcium hypochlorite. Deep yellow. Satisfactory chlorination. This represents about one part per million (ppm) of chlorine. * Orange red. Overchlorinated. Add more water and re-test. • Bluish green. Alkaline or hard water. Add a few more drops of orthotolidine to get a correct color reading. (7) At the end of thirty minutes wash out the faucets for the final time, running five cups of water through each and returning the water to the bag. The water should now be perfectly safe even if it was heavily contaminated. 42. Chlorinating Water for Small Detachments. Frequently small detachments are separated from the main body and from the supply of chlorinated water at the com- pany messes. Their drinking water carried in canteens may be chlorinated as follows: Mix the contents of one tube of hypochlorite in a quart of water and preserve in a glass bottle. Do not use a metal container as the concentrated hypochlorite solution has a chemical action on the metal. Add one teaspoonful, or the amount contained in a canteen cap, of this solution to a canteen of water and wait thirty minutes before drinking. This is known as the canteen method. 43. Use of Iodine for Purification of Water. Water may also be sterilized by iodine. Ten c. c. of tincture of iodine (7 per cent) added to a water-sterilizing bag full of water, will effectively purify even raw river water in thirty minutes. For individual use two or three drops of the tincture may be added to a canteen of water and allowed to stand thirty minutes. These methods have been subjected to laboratory tests and have been found to be reliable. & There are two possible objections to the iodine method. First there is no reliable method for titrating the iodine in order to test the sufficiency of the amount added, and second it is somewhat more expensive than hypochlorite. - There are three sources of iodine available to the medical officer: (1) the regular tinc. ture; (2) “iodine swabs” or glass ampules containing 1% c. c. of 3 per cent iodine; and (3) iodine-potassium iodine in dry form in sealed tubes for making 50 c. c. of 2 per cent solution. Food Supply and Mess Sanitation 44. Food Control and Protection. Food as a factor in the prevention of disease has been briefly mentioned. Generally, the supply and technical agencies will see that the food as issued to troops is of the proper quality. Ration allowances for troops in the field are fixed by higher authority. The supervision of an organization mess is an important duty of the organization commander, who should make frequent inspections to insure scrupulous cleanliness of the following: kitchen, mess hall, and surroundings; the persons and habits of the personnel handling food; the preparation of the food before and during its cooking; all utensils coming in contact with the food; and the serving of the food. He should see that the men have adequate time to eat their meals without hurrying and should discourage all tendencies of the men to “bolt” their food. He should see that adequate provision is made for washing and sterilizing the dishes, mess kits, eating utensils, and similar food containers used by the men. Whatever the 110 MILITARY SANITATION AND FIRST AID type of mess gear used, he must insure that it is properly washed and sterilized after each meal and properly protected from contamination between meals. The organization commander should fully realize that, in the maintenance of his combat strength in battle, - Z -º-, - ~<<-- †: [. -º- *Fºrº º % § * "A % - º *Eº. / Z w % § * - } ! - E | º % § º Žº - | ~3% % º -ºº º s gº † : ... sº- - * * -*- [... > : --~~T. 2-T- #: _T - : IIO soapywa er --~~ 21. 23 ºf ** - = ºr L-T :=º====<--- == Fºss. Plate 11. Washing Mess Kits in the Field. food is next in importance to ammunition. Mess sanitation is nothing more nor less than good housekeeping. "Officers responsible for a soldiers' mess should always bear in mind that sanitary conditions and practices—and the wholesomeness of the food placed before the men—which are not good enough for the officers are not good enough for the men for whom they are responsible. Disposal of Wastes vº 45. Importance of Waste Disposal. The disposal of waste products in the field, camp, or garrison is an important detail in sanitation. People accustomed to living in mod- ernly organized and equipped communities ordinarily give but little, if any, thought to water supply, disposal of wastes, and other public services. They seldom realize that someone is responsible for and operates such services with minimum inconvenience to the public. A military community in the field must provide its own public services, the principal responsibility for much of which usually, falls to the organization bom- mander. Such a community brings men close to primitive conditions, and, unless great care is exercised, the occupied area and surroundings will soon be thoroughly con- taminated, nuisances will be created, and outbreaks of disease from insanitary conditions may be expected. The wastes to be disposed of include: those from the messing facilities; those from human beings; those from animals; and the general wastes of the community. a. Messing wastes. Kitchen wastes consist of the food remnants accumulated after meals and in the preparation thereof, as well as the water in which kitchen utensils and mess gear have been washed. The amount of kitchen wastes varies considerably, especially the liquid portion. However, the solids average about 9% pound per person per day and the liquids average 200 to 1000 gallons per company of 200 men per day. These wastes must be disposed of to prevent giving rise to offensive odors and attract- ing flies and rats to the mess area. Solid kitchen wastes may be disposed of relatively easily, but the disposal of liquids becomes increasingly difficult as larger quantities of water are used. For camps of short duration, 1 night to a few days, both liquids and solids may be disposed of by burial, either in deep pits or in trenches about 2 feet MILITARY SANITATION AND FIRST AID 111 deep. At least 1 foot of earth should be refilled over the garbage. The scattering of lime over garbage is of no practical value. (1) Disposal of garbage. Garbage is often disposed of by sale or gift to civilians to be used as food for hogs, and it may be used on military reservations for the same purpose. Its disposal by sale or gift to civilians may lead to insanitary conditions about a camp through spilling in transfer from garbage cans to other containers, leakage of containers, failure of collection, or unsatisfactory cleaning of cans. When thorough cooperation with the contractor can be maintained so as to insure cleanliness in the procedure, there is no objection to this method of disposal. However, the site of final disposition should be far enough removed from the camp that odors and flies will not become a nuisance in the camp area. Garbage should not be transferred from one container to another within the camp area. When garbage is to be used as food for swine, it is necessary to separate it into edible and nonedible portions, the latter being disposed of by incineration. Except when it is disposed of by burial, it is necessary that garbage be separated into liquid and solid portions by passing it through a strainer. * * '-N-Jº s ſº §ſ. - *~ º & £3s. § . * º alº, * * * } 10ft long º * * *~ ſ * * – , ſº cºś . ſº / i. ſº / :N s § * S Lotrine screer/ſº */ 1ſt wide-º \,: N. ūg; º Sºº- º S \,\S. Sº ſ... Sº * - -ºšAJ.K. . Fº as * - S- . " §§ * -\}. * º •º **** Nº sº *s-s-tº s & w \\ = ~434 f). © *T*------ "“C)| MARKING eLD LATRINE Plate 12. Straddle Trench Latrine. | STRADDLE TRENCH (2) Soakage pits. Liquid kitchen wastes in amounts not in excess of 200 gallons per day are best disposed of by a soakage pit similar in construction to a urine soakage pit. A hole 4 feet deep and 4 feet square is filled with broken rock, varying in size from about 3 inches in diameter at the bottom of the pit to 1 inch at the top. Tin cans or broken bottles may be substituted for the broken rock. Ventilating shafts similar to those in the urine soakage pit are advisable but not essential. A grease trap is necessary in conjunction with a soakage pit as grease, if not removed from the liquid waste, will soon clog the soakage pit. Two such pits should be constructed for each kitchen if the camp is to last several weeks. A daily rest period of several hours will increase the efficiency of soakage pits. If two pits are available, they should be used on alternate days. In camps of long duration each soakage pit should be given a rest period of 1 week every month. If, in spite of these precautions, the pit becomes clogged with organic material, the application of 5 gallons of 10 per cent solution of either calcium hypochlorite or caustic soda may clear it. It is desirable to locate soakage pits near to the kitchen if suitable soil can be found there. If not, they must be located where satisfactory drainage can be secured. (3) Soakage trenches. If the ground water level or a rock stratum is encountered near the surface of the ground, a soakage trench may be substituted for the soakage pit. This trench consists of a central pit, 2 feet square and 1 foot deep, from each corner of which a trench radiates outward for a distance of 6 feet. These radiating trenches are 1 foot wide and vary in depth from 1 foot where they leave the central 112 MILITARY SANITATION AND FIRST AID pit to 18, inches at the outer end. The central pit and the radiating trenches are filled with broken rock. A grease trap must be employed in conjunction with this trench. (4) Soakage pit under field range. Another optional method is to construct a soakage pit under the firebox of a field range. Liquids are thus disposed of by evaporation as well as by soakage. (5) Sullage pit. Attempts to dispose of liquid wastes by merely digging a deep hole in the ground into which liquids are poured will meet with little success. Filling with rock or similar material is necessary to secure efficient operation of a soakage pit. (6) Grease traps. The water before being placed in the soakage pit must be passed through a grease trap to remove food particles and as much grease as possible; other- wise, the side walls of the pit will soon become coated with grease and debris and the leaking of water into the soil is prevented. (1) Standard latrine box. (2) Trough urinal. (3) Pipe leading from urinal trough into latrine pit. Plate 13. Pit Latrine for Temporary and Semi-permanent Camps. + b. Human wastes. The human wastes to be disposed of include waste bath and ablution (wash) waters, and human feces and urine. The disposal of bath and ablution waters is not a great problem as they are not, in themselves, dangerous from a health standpoint. They often create nuisances and mosquito breeding places, unless properly handled. In the absence of available sanitary sewers the best method of disposing of human feces and urine is to bury them. Although Moses is credited with devising this method of disposal, it never has been basically improved upon. On the march the soldier should dig a small hole, void his excrement into the hole, and cover it with earth. In bivouac or other camps of short duration—a week or less—the straddle trench may be used, each man covering his own excrement with earth immediately after depositing it. For camps of a week to ten days’ duration, when flies are not a menace, the open pit latrine may be used. In general, for camps of more than one week's duration, the deep pit latrine, with fly-proof box or cover, should be constructed and used. This device is simply a multiple-seat privy. Every effort must be made to deny to flies any access to fecal deposits, remembering that fecal matter and food are both attractive to flies; that they will go from one to the other at the slightest opportunity, and that they are careless about which one they visit first. The fly-proof box also furnishes seating facilities. The latrine seats should be washed with 2 per cent cresol solution daily. The bottom of the pit and the sides and interior of the box should be sprayed daily with crude oil. Urine is ordinarily deposited in latrines. Urine soakage pits are a MILITARY SANITATION AND FIRST AID 113 convenience and save latrine space for fecal matter. Night urinal cans containing one inch of 2 per cent cresol may be placed in the company street at night for the conveni- ‘ence of the men and to prevent them from soiling the tent or quarters area. They are emptied and cleaned every morning. When straddle trenches and pit latrines are Metol Or or paper ! funnel * Plug of araes On strol — T- Assº, sºme sº- Lauer of oiled eacking 4- | 2. e?s== 4-0°–- Plate 14. Urine Soakage Pit. * * '-- º º *... §* \ \'s º ...? { º †º 2. s: º §S - * * ~ * ... : : : :- ſ *} &#S$º § §§§ºś%;º: °. **". * - sº Ž. 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The general wastes of the community are usually burnable trash. Burn- ing is the best and most effective method of disposal. Control of Insect Borne Diseases 46. General Control Measures for Insect Borne Diseases. The various preventive meas- ures to be employed must be directed toward the accomplishment of the following objects: protection of the patients and carriers of the causative agents from the bites of insects capable of transmitting such agents, protection of healthy persons from the bites of insects infected with the causative agents, eradication of insects capable of transmitting the causative agents, and eradication of causative agents from the persons of patients and carriers. 47. Insect Control. Insects of one kind or another are likely to be a problem through- out the year—flies and mosquitoes in warm weather and bedbugs and lice all the year. a. Flies. Flies are filthy in their habits and spread disease by mechanically trans- \ Tight cover cask jº i ſ §:HE / Perforated bottom § ( ſº-c º \ wº Šºšfº Ž \} Windscreen Rock or §§ h } perforated woodenframe Wº: iº s Support for §::/ hi V SººHºº Cnlm.ne * h Grou Wille el * {º} * 7. §§§ % jº. - {\l, ſ k % ‘Z) \\\\ & º 4 9.4 |17t'.4% % - - : Ş. sº •. say/ass s rºzWS- Fºese Stoking pit &F *A Opening for y *A §§ / * ...Giftſ ; (Kerosine tin) ))))) tº t–Bee-hive f S$ tºº O Ce } %| \º |Ve t UrnOC / WN Tonk Supports § Z. %3 Plate 16. The Serbian Barrel for Disinfestation of Clothing. ferring germs on their feet from one place or person to another. They breed in and live on putrescent material of any kind—garbage, feces, manure, and other wastes. Fly control is best accomplished by the elimination of their breeding places. A mixture of crude oil and cresol solution is an effective larvacide, used especially in compost piles and latrines. Adult flies are destroyed by fly traps, swatters, poisons, fly paper and fly sprays. A fly will not go where there is nothing for it to eat. b. Mosquitoes. Mosquitoes spread certain communicable diseases, such as malaria, yellow fever, and dengue, by furnishing a biological link between the person sick with the disease and the well person. They are best eliminated by destroying their breeding places and habitations. As mosquitoes must have water in which to breed, drainage of standing water, or oiling water that cannot be drained, destroys their breeding places. The elimination of tall grass and underbrush destroys their habitations. Screening of sleeping quarters and the use of mosquito bars (bed nets) may have to be resorted to to keep mosquitoes away from the men. MILITARY SANITATION AND FIRST AID 115 c. Bedbugs. Bedbugs are sometimes found in the sleeping quarters of soldiers. They are introduced by individuals whose recent environment was not of the best. Once established it is difficult to eliminate bedbugs completely. They are obnoxious and are strongly suspected of being agents in the spread of certain communicable diseases. Control is best accomplished by fumigation with hydrocyanic gas, which destroys the adult and the eggs. If hydrocyanic acid gas is not available or, practicable, sulphur dioxide gas is next best. Liquid insecticides of various kinds are effective against bed- bugs if applied thoroughly, forcing the liquid nto places in which bedbugs seek pro- tection or lay their eggs. All methods except hydrocyanic acid gas fumigation require repetition every few weeks as some of the eggs will usually escape destruction, hatching out to form a new generation. d. Lice. Lice have been a problem to military communities for hundreds of years. They are definitely known to carry typhus fever from one individual to another. There are three varieties of lice: the head louse, body louse, and public louse. Body and public lice are also known as “cooties” and “crabs,” respectively. The best protection against lice is cleanliness of person, clothing, and bedding. Individuals, who bathe daily and sleep in night clothing need have little fear of louse infestation. Frequent sunning and airing of the bedding will usually destroy them. It is no disgrace to get lice; it is a disgrace to keep them. Large organizations of men which become infested with lice are furnished with steam delousers (portable) through which all clothing is passed in order to kill the lice. This process is known as delousing. If portable delousers are not available a Serbian barrel can be constructed. It consists of a barrel or cask with holes drilled in the bottom and set on top of a boiler. The clothes are placed in the barrel, the lid placed on, and the clothes steamed for 45 minutes after steam begins to escape around the edges of the top or bottom of the barrel. e. Fleas. Fleas are agents of transmitting plague and typhus fever. They are elim- inated by eradication of the animal host which infects them. Flees resort to man when the normal host is not available, and if his former host was infected, the disease will be transmitted to the human host. As man may be closely associated with domestic animals he is apt to be bitten by fleas, normally parasitic on such animals. If the flees are traced to rats, then effective rat control measures must be employed. Measures of control are designed to prevent the migration of rats to a community. If they are already present measures are taken to destroy them or force them to leave. All build- ings should be rat-proofed; all openings to buildings which permit entrance of rats should be closed; all drains leading from the building should be constructed to pre- vent the entrance of rats; building material used should be nondestructible by rats. The storage of food and food wastes should be such as to prevent access to them by rats. Food must be stored in metal containers, garbage cans should be kept covered, and the garbage should be disposed of promptly. Fumigation with hydrocyanic acid gas is the most effective means of exterminating rats and in addition destroys the fleas which are using the rats as hosts. Trapping rats has the disadvantage in that the fleas leave a dead rat, migrating to a living host as soon as one is available. Other rodents may also carry fleas. They are eradicated by destruction of their habitat and by hunting, trapping, or poisoning. Questions 1. What is the minimum amount of water that must be provided every day for each soldier in the field? 2. Who is responsible that the men of an organization have sufficient water fit for their needs? 3. Is every public water supply a safe source of water for troops? 4. How are unknown waters made safe (potable) for soldiers in the field? 5. How would you obtain safe water for your men in the absence of the usual water sterilizing facilities? 6. What are the dangerous elements of human and animal wastes? 7. What is the best protection against infestations, such as bedbugs and lice? CHAPTER V VENEREAL DISEASES 48. Historical Background. For hundreds of years armies have been decimated, and the civil communities in their theatres of operations have been scourged by outbreaks of venereal diseases, often of epidemic proportions. Biblical history indicates that Moses recognized and took steps to eliminate the venereal disease hazard. The history of the venereal diseases in the United States Army is graphically represented in Plate 17. With very few exceptions, they have been the oustanding cause of non-effectiveness (loss of time from duty) among our troops. During the World War, although the venereal disease situation was unusually good as compared with that of other wars, the loss of time from duty on account of venereal diseases was exceeded only by that due to an unprecedented outbreak of influenza. During peace time, the venereal diseases ordinarily cause more loss of time from duty than all the other communicable diseases combined, although men with active venereal disease are not accepted for military service. In war time, men with curable venereal disease are accepted, as any other policy would cause the rejection of many serviceable recruits and would also place a premium on the acquisition of venereal disease as a means of avoiding military service. 49. The Venereal Disease Problem. Control of venereal diseases has been, and still is, one of the most difficult sanitary problems confronting the Army and one of the most serious problems affecting the efficiency of troops. These diseases are prevalent in civil communities, and are brought to military communities by persons in the military service as a result of sexual intercourse. Exposure to infection, and the consequent acquisition of a venereal disease is, therefore, an act on the part of the individual. Few men die from the immediate effects of venereal disease, but many are rendered inefficient and non-effective for long periods. These diseases may easily render a large part of any command entirely unfit for field service. For the daily average during the year 1918 there were 10,788 men and officers absent from duty on account of venereal disease. Our military authorities have long recognized the gravity of the venereal disease situation. In 1910, the Surgeon General of the Army stated: “The venereal peril has come to outweigh in importance any other sanitary question which now confronts the Army, and neither our national optimism nor the Anglo-Saxon disposition to ignore a subject which is offensive to public prudery can longer excuse a frank and honest con- frontation of the problem.” Now, more than 31 years after that statement was made, civilian authorities, too, are aroused to the gravity of the venereal situation and are taking steps to combat it. 50. Responsibility for Venereal Disease Control. Until 1923, the responsibility for the control of venereal diseases was vested almost entirely in the Medical Department of the Army. In that year an Army Regulation was published which for the first time placed the responsibility of instruction and prevention where it belonged—on unit commanders. There is no doubt that a great deal of the credit for the radical reduction in venereal diseases effected, following the publication of those orders in 1923, belongs to the activity of unit commanders in their endeavors to provide healthful sports and decent diversion for their men when off duty. At the present time commanding officers of all grades, from the highest to the lowest, are keenly aware of their responsibilities in this matter. The result of this awareness is graphically shown in Plate 17. While the activities of the company commander in the control of venereal disease in his company are largely of an administrative and disciplinary nature, the company commander is one of the most important factors in the control of those diseases. His attitude toward such control will be reflected by the actions of his men. All company officers should, therefore, be well versed in the nature of the venereal diseases and the means by which they can be controlled. 51. The Venereal Diseases. The five venereal diseases are: gonorrhea, chancroid, syphilis, lymphogranuloma venereum, and granuloma inguinale. All are infectious diseases. These diseases are more prevalent among colored persons than among whites. a. Gonorrhea is almost invariably transmitted among adults by sexual intercourse. About three days after exposure the victim first notices a burning on urination, fol- 116 MILITARY SANITATION AND FIRST AID 117 lowed in 24 to 48 hours by a yellowish discharge from the penis, which may continue for several weeks. In the untreated case, the discharge may continue for several months. At any stage of the case in which gonorrheal germs may be found, the disease can be transmitted during sexual intercourse. Gonorrhea is both a local and a general disease. Its most obvious effects are on the mucous membrane of the urethra. The germs may be carried by the blood stream to the joints where they produce gonorrheal arthritis, a very disabling type of rheumatism, or they may be carried to the heart where they produce gonorrheal heart disease. The germs often get into the testicle, causing a long and painful disability which may result in sterility. The most distressing complication is gonorrhea of the eyes. In this affliction, the germs have usually been carried to the eyes by fingers soiled with secretions from gonorrhea infected genitals. Most cases of gonorrhea of the eyes result in blindness. - b. Chancroid, also known as “soft chancre,” is transmitted by sexual intercourse. About three days after exposure one or more small sores appear on the penis. These sores grow larger quite rapidly and within two or three days the whole head of the penis may be involved. The lymphatic glands in the groin are usually affected; these | Spanish-American War Civil Philippine Insurrection 200 ((W. N º, SS OCCASIONAL PHYSICAL INSPECTION y ſ VOLUNTARY PROPHYLAXIS {!. HYG|ENE INSTRUCTION 180. t — f | \ M º: PROPHYLAXIS 160 ſ }MONTHLY INSPECTION 140 | | FOREETURE OF PAY Mexicon | ! 20 º MH–A | | ST * ||||W º 80 | * M \| \ A \º of UNIT M | W SW UNW y 40 VENEREAL DISEASES s \\ Admissions to Sick Report Rele | United States Army, Since 1819 o 80 | 830 1840 1850 1880 1870 1880 1890 | 900 1910 1920 1930 i 9 Plate 17. Graph of Venereal Disease Admissions, U. S. Army, 1819–1937. swollen, infected glands are “buboes” (commonly called “blue-balls”) and almost in- variably break down, leaving large, open sores. Chancroid sores and chancroid buboes heal very slowly if untreated, the victim being disabled for several weeks or even for months. In about half the cases of chancroid, a syphilitic infection is also present. c. Syphilis is most frequently acquired through sexual intercourse. The initial sore, called a “chancre,” or “hard chancre,” normally appears on the genital organs, usually about the head of the penis. Infection may take place by non-venereal direct contact, such as by kissing a person who has active syphilitic sores in the mouth. The initial sore (chancre) is found at the point of infection, generally about three weeks after exposure. By the time the chancre is of noticeable size the syphilitic infection has been carried by the blood stream to every part of the body. A few weeks later, in the un- treated case, syphilitic sores may appear in the mouth, a syphilitic rash usually appears on 118 MILITARY SANITATION AND FIRST AID the skin, and kernels may appear in the groins. In a few years the heart and blood vessels may be seriously damaged, and the brain and nervous system will have been invaded and changed by the syphilitic infection. Untreated cases of syphilis never recover from the disease. Such cases not only never recover but they may also transmit the disease to their children, this being one of the very few diseases transmitted from parent to offspring before the birth of the latter. “The sins of the father are visited on the sons, even to the third generation.” d. Lymphogranuloma venereum. Lymphogranuloma venereum is a specific infectious disease transmitted by venereal contact. It may, however, be transmitted in other ways, as the secretions and discharges from the lesions are infective. It is the so-called “fourth venereal disease,” and June 1937, has been reported by the Medical Department as a venereal disease following instructions issued by the War Department to that effect. The incubation period is from one to seven weeks, the average being about three weeks. The initial lesion is usually on the glans penis or prepuce in the male, it being a papular infiltration which may be accompanied by prostration, headache, and fever. In several weeks, the inguinal glands (most commonly unilateral) become enlarged, painful, and coalesce into a mass with distension of the overlying skin which becomes a dark purplish red. Soon isolated softened areas appear, which rupture, and a sero- purulent fluid (infective) exudes from the multiple sinuses. The intensity of the disease may vary. However, all cases of adenitis (infected glands) become chronic, causing much scarring which may be extensive. The mortality is low, but the morbidity is high and the period of convalescence may be weeks, months, or years in duration. - This disease is prevalent in the tropics, especially among the prostitutes. It is com- paratively rare within the United States. Because of its recognition and positive dif- ferentiation from the so-called non-venereal bubo it is placed under the same measures of control as other venereal diseases. An attack of the disease does not confer im- munity, and the susceptibility is universal. There is no specific cure, the best recom- mended procedure being the surgical removal of the involved glands before suppuration. When secondary infections occur they are treated locally, with similar general measures as for other infectious diseases. e. Granuloma inguinale. Granuloma inguinale is a contagious, locally destructive disease, found chiefly in the tropics. It is characterized by ulcerations of the groins, pubes, genitals, and anus. The cause of the disease is undetermined. No positive cure has been found for it, and its treatment is long and unsatisfactory. 52. Treatment of the Veneral Diseases. The venereal diseases can be cured if the victim will present himself promptly to a reliable doctor for treatment. Self treatment, or something obtained from and upon the advice of the clerk in the drug store, will likely be entirely ineffective. Quack doctors are not so much interested in effecting a cure in such cases as in prolonging the treatment for their own financial benefit. 53. Communicability. The venereal diseases are communicable; every case comes from some other case. They are transmitted by direct contact. To prevent their spread the chain—source of infection, susceptible material, and contact between them—must be broken. A previous attack does not confer immunity, and there is as yet no specific immunizing agent such as we have in typhoid fever or smallpox. 54. Sources of Venereal Disease. The primary, or direct, source of venereal disease is usually the infected woman who practices illicit sexual intercourse. In the majority, such women are prostitutes. It is extremely rare that these diseases are innocently trans- mitted from soldier to soldier. The secondary, or indirect, source of venereal disease is the infected male population, civil and military. 55. General Prevalence of Venereal Disease. The prevalence of venereal disease in the civil population of the United States cannot be accurately determined. Studies show that more than 75 per cent of all prostitutes are infected; the chances that a prostitute will escape all venereal infection are remote, although she may not be capable of trans- mitting the infection at all times. Information obtained during the World War showed that 5.6 per cent of the men who presented themselves for military service were the victims of active venereal disease. It is estimated that at least 10 per cent of all civilian males are the victims of active venereal disease at any given time. MILITARY SANITATION AND FIRST AID 119 56. Obstacles to the Control of Venereal Disease in the Army. The spread of venereal disease among troops is influenced by a number of factors that do not obtain in other communicable diseases. The primary source of infection, that is, the infected woman, and the major portion of the secondary source of infection, the infected male, are beyond direct control by military agencies. It is therefore evident that the fullest cooperation of the civil authorities must be obtained in order to make any material reduction in the basic sources of these diseases. 57. General Control. Fundamentally, measures for the control of venereal diseases are designed either to prevent exposure to venereal infection or to prevent the development of the infection in the exposed individual. Prevention of exposure consists of control of prostitution, educational measures, recreational measures, and deterrent laws and regula- tions, and the abatement of active cases among military personnel. Prevention of development of infection in the exposed individual consists of mechanical or chemical prophylactic treatment, the effectiveness of which is dependent on the training and discipline of the command. 58. Control of Prostitution. Control of prostitution is accomplished by two generally recognized methods—regulation and suppression. Regulation does not actually regulate but serves to promote rather than to limit the spread of venereal disease. Regulation is no longer countenanced anywhere in the United States as a legitimate means of con- trolling prostitution. Control by suppression does not eliminate the prostitute, as prosti- tutes are always present in any civilian community of any considerable size. It does, however, greatly reduce exposure to venereal disease by the elimination of open houses of prostitution, and it restricts the activities of the prostitute by rendering the practice of prostitution more difficult and the prostitute less accessible. Suppression of prostitu- tion is a police function of the civil authorities. The laws which make prostitution illegal also facilitate the enforcement of measures for the direct control of venereal disease by civilian health authorities. In controlling sources of venereal disease in civilian com- munities adjacent to military communities, the military authorities can influence and promote that control through cooperation with civilian authorities in ways which vary with and depend upon the local economic and political situations. Such influence is usually exerted by the higher military commanders, but company officers frequently have opportunities to lend their support to such movements. During the World War the welfare organizations and the public health bodies throughout the country united in their efforts with those of the Medical Department of the Army to help prevent these diseases among the men in the army while serving in this country and in France. Saloons were closed to soldiers, and no vice resorts were allowed in the vicinity of military camps. 59. Military Control by Prevention of Exposure. a. Education. Educational measures are for the primary purpose of reducing the number of exposures to venereal infection by providing the individual with accurate information regarding the spread of venereal diseases, their effects on the human body, and the methods of prophylaxis. Most of this instruction should be given by medical officers and by company commanders of the troops concerned. Standing orders require that every soldier, upon enlistment or reenlistment, be given instruction every 6 months in “sex morality” or “sex hygiene.” This instruction is usually divided into three parts: the moral aspects, the medical aspects, and the administrative aspects. These different subjects are usually presented to the men by a chaplain, a medical officer, and a company commander, respectively. This instruction should be comparatively brief, sincere, and in simple terms. The efficient and alert company commander will not be satisfied with perfunctory instruc- tion of his men but will seize opportunities to simply, clearly; and briefly drive home the essential points. Troops are best instructed by their immediate officers; a soldier will take an interest in the instructions of his company officers but will resent “preaching” from other sources. The instruction which troops receive should include: (1) Informa- tion concerning the local environment; the prevalence and danger of venereal disease in the adjacent civil community. (2) The danger from venereal disease to themselves and their associates, and to their wives and children. (3) The standing orders requir- ing prophylaxis after exposure. (4) The use and abuse of prophylaxis. (5) Punish- ment they may expect for failing to report the contraction of a venereal disease. (6) The 120 - MILITARY SANITATION AND FIRST AID fact that continence does not weaken them physically or sexually. (7) Their duty to the government and to themselves. º b. Recreation. Recreational facilities for soldiers are extremely important. Well equipped day rooms, reading rooms, service clubs, and gymnasiums; athletic contests, motion picture shows, band concerts, dances, or any other activities which provide wholesome interest for troops and serve to keep the soldier in the military community, reduce the number and length of periods during which he must find or provide his own entertainment, thereby reducing the opportunities for and number of exposures to venereal infection. c. Abatement of sources of venereal disease. In military communities, since part of the indirect source of infection is the soldier with venereal disease, every effort is made to decrease the sources of infection by the prompt detection of cases of those diseases among the personnel, placing them in quarantine and effecting their cure. To this end, stand- ing orders require that troops will be inspected at least once each month for physical defects of all kinds, including venereal disease. These inspections are made by a medical officer, who should always be accompanied by a company officer of the unit concerned. d. Chemical prophylaxis. Realizing that in spite of all the efforts to prevent it some men will expose themselves to venereal infection, the army furnishes “prophylactic treat- ment” for the prevention of the development of the venereal diseases. This prophylaxis is accomplished by the use of chemicals that destroy the various germs that cause the venereal diseases and do not harm the person treated. The treatment must be used after each exposure to these infections. It should be noted that this type of prophylaxis is quite different from the immunizing treatments mentioned in connection with certain other communicable diseases. The venereal prophylactic treatment properly admin- istered within an hour after actual exposure is 90 per cent (or more) effective in pre- venting the development of venereal diseases. If the treatment is delayed for 5 or 6 hours after exposure the protection is only about 50 per cent effective. The prophylactic facilities are furnished and operated by the Medical Department. There are several individual prophylactic devices manufactured commercially. Some of these are stocked by post exchanges. They are not as efficient as the treatment given in prophylactic stations but are of great value for soldiers who are unable to get to a station within an hour after exposure. Even after using one of these devices a soldier should report to a prophylactic station if possible. e. Cleanliness. If a soldier has exposed himself and has neither a prophylactic device nor access to a station, he should empty his bladder, and then scrub his genitals and the surrounding skin areas with soap and water. This may serve to prevent infection. f. Punitive measures. (1) Any individual who knows or believes that he has con- tracted a venereal disease must report that fact to his immediate commanding officer without delay. Trial by court-martial or other disciplinary action is discretionary with the commanding officer. No disciplinary action is authorized for failure to take pro- phylaxis or for having contracted a venereal disease. (2) Any person in the military service who loses time from duty because of a venereal disease forfeits his pay during the time so lost and must make good the time lost. g. Physical inspections. The periodical physical inspections which are conducted at least once each month for all enlisted men below the first three grades include inspection for evidence of venereal disease. Additional inspections may be arranged if it is be- lieved that some men may be concealing venereal disease. These are most effective if conducted early in the morning or just after return from outdoor activity. h. Treatment. All cases of venereal disease should be promptly sent to the hospital or dispensary for treatment. Early treatment offers far better chances of cure than does delayed treatment. Self-treatment or treatment by unskilled individuals are both in- effective and dangerous. i. Action to reduce high venereal rate. In case a command has an excessively high venereal rate at any time, stringent control measures may be necessary. These may include all or part of the following: MILITARY SANITATION AND FIRST AID 121 Placing houses of prostitution and all places selling liquor, out of bounds. Patrolling of restricted districts by military police. Limiting all passes to 4 hours and granting no passes after 9 P. M. Classifying passes. Routine bed check. 60. Army Regulations on Control of Venereal Diseases. Army Regulations 40-235, paragraphs 1 to 7 inclusive, are herewith included to furnish information about the pre- ventive measures against the venereal diseases and the manner of putting them into effect. They will also assist the reader in maintaining and completing the required records and returns pertaining to venereal diseases. 1. Education in Sex Hygiene. a. Responsibility of commanding officer. Commanding officers of all grades are responsible for promoting education in sex hygiene among military personnel. b. Instruction of officers. In all troop schools conducted under the provisions of AR 350-26oo, and at the Air Corps Training Center for student officers and flying cadets, a course of instruction of sex hygiene will be given, commencing with the school year 1939-40. In such courses there will be stressed the duties and responsibilities of unit commanders in the prevention and control of venereal disease among the members of the unit, and the best methods of accomplishing this prevention and control. c. (1) Instruction of enlisted men. At least twice each calendar year and at intervals of approximately 6 months, the commanding officer of each basic unit and detachment will arrange and personally super- vise suitable instruction in sex hygiene and the prevention and control of venereal disease for all enlisted men of his command. These instructional periods will be conducted informally; questions and discussions by the enlisted men will be encouraged. A medical officer designated by the post commander will discuss the nature and gravity of venereal diseases, their effect on mental and physical fitness, the importance of early discovery and treatment, and the means of avoiding them. The unit or detachment commander will present the broader social aspects of the problem and will call attention to the harmful influence of such diseases on military efficiency through the absence of men under- going treatment. A chaplain will discuss the moral aspects. “(2) The instructional requirements in c (1) above may be fulfilled insofar as they pertain to the instruction to be given by designated medical officers and unit or detachment commanders by the show- ing of TF 8-154, “Sex Hygiene,” where facilities permit.” d. Instruction of recruits. The instruction prescribed in c above will be given to all recruits as soon as practicable after enlistment. 2. Physical Inspections. In the physical examinations of military commands prescribed in AR 615- 250, special attention will be directed to the detection of venereal diseases. 3. Prophylaxis. a. Prophylactic stations. (1) Establishment. Commanding officers will require that a sufficient number of prophylactic sta- tions be established at suitable locations in each military command. When facilities permit, and neces- sity therefor exists, such stations will also be established in adjacent civilian communities. Prophylactic stations will be conducted under the supervision of the surgeon, and will be administered by selected and reliable enlisted men who have received thorough training in their duties. (2) Records. A record on W. D., M. D. Form No. 77 (Venereal Prophylaxis Slip) will be kept of each prophylactic treatment, the data entered on the card to include the name, grade, and organ- ization of the enlisted man, the date and hour of intercourse, the date and hour of treatment, the presence or absence of evidence of venereal disease, the name of the attendant administering prophylaxis, and any other information which may be deemed advisable. The records will be authenticated daily by the initials of the officer in charge of the prophylactic station. A certificate signed by the attendant in charge of the prophylactic station, will be furnished each individual receiving prophylactic treatment, showing his name, grade, organization, date, place, and hour of treatment. Records on W. D., M. D. Form No. 77 may be destroyed after a period of 3 months. b. Prophylactic materials for individual use. Post exchanges will have available for sale at as low a price as practicable suitable materials for individual prophylaxis for venereal disease. The composition and quality of these materials will be prescribed by the commanding officer upon the recommendation of the surgeon. c. Responsibility of individual. Any individual who exposes himself to venereal infection will employ individual prophylactic materials as a measure of protection against infection and in addition, whenever practicable to do so, will report at once to the nearest military prophylactic station for such cleansing and prophylaxis as may be prescribed by the War Department. 4. Forfeiture of Pay. Forfeiture of pay by persons * * * * 5. Disciplinary Action. Persons in the military service will not be subjected to trial by court- martial or other disciplinary action upon charges of having failed to take prophylactic treatment after illicit sexual intercourse, of having contracted venereal disease, or of having thus incapacitated them- selves for duty. Any individual who knows that he has contracted, or has reason to believe that he may have contracted a venereal disease will report the fact to his immediate commanding officer with- out unnecessary delay in order that proper medical treatment may be given. Trial by court-martial or other disciplinary action for failure so to report is discretionary with the commanding officer. 6. Reports and Records Required. a. Special reports. (1) On each Saturday morning the surgeon will render an informal report in writing to the com- manding officer of the station stating the number of individuals among the members of the different 122 MILITARY SANITATION AND FIRST AID organizations of the command who have developed venereal disease during the week ending at mid- night Friday. These data will be reported for each company serving at the station. (2) The surgeon will render to the commanding officer of the station a monthly venereal disease report comparison of the current prevalence of venereal disease with that prevailing during the previous monthly periods in the corps area, or expeditionary force, and in the Army as a whole, together with pertinent information relating to control measures of proved value. 7. Segregation and Treatment. Every case of venereal disease will be promptly subjected to treat- ment, but not necessarily excused from duty unless, in the opinion of the surgeon, it is considered desirable. A list of those treated but not excused from duty will be kept both by the organization com- mander concerned and by the surgeon, and such individuals will be required to report to a medical officer for systematic treatment until cured or discharged from the service. Individuals in the infectious stages of venereal diseases will be hospitalized, held in working quarantine, or restricted to the limits of the station, as may be recommended by the surgeon. Questions 1. Who is responsible for the control of venereal diseases in the army? 2. Why are venereal diseases so difficult to control? 3. How are venereal diseases transmitted from person to person? 4. Which is the better method of controlling prostitution, regulation or suppression? Why? (State very briefly.) 5. What are the general methods used by the military authorities to prevent the exposure of enlisted men to venereal infection? CHAPTER IV FIRST AID TREATMENT OF WOUNDS 61. Definition. First aid includes the simple measures or precautions which are taken by a sick or injured person, or by others present, pending the arrival of a doctor. A little knowledge applied with judgment and common sense constitutes the best and most efficient first aid measure. 62. Standard Rules of First Aid. The following points are important to remember if you are to give first aid: - Do not get excited; act quickly but quietly. Be gentle; do not handle a wounded man roughly; keep bystanders away. Do not try to do too much. Call for medical assistance as soon as possible. Make the injured man sit or lie down. Never move an injured man until medical help comes, unless it is impossible to keep him warm where he is or unless he must be removed from the battlefield to reach help. The less an injured man is moved right after being hurt, the better chance he will have to recover. Warmth is most important to prevent chilling and shock, even on a warm day. Fill canteens with hot water and place them under his armpits and between his legs, always outside of his clothing so as not to burn him. Wrap him in blankets, coats, newspapers, or anything else available to keep him warm. If he is conscious and not wounded in the stomach, throat, or mouth, he may be given a hot drink. Do not pour liquids into his mouth if he is unconscious; they may choke him. Do not try to bring an unconscious, wounded person to consciousness. Just let him be quiet, stop his bleeding, and keep him warm. Never touch a wound with anything unclean, such as dirty hands, or water and bandages that are not sterile. You may cause blood poisoning. Do not wash the wound. Expose the wound by unbuttoning, unlacing, or cutting the clothes, shoes, leggings, or boots. Open all articles of clothing which interfere with the circulation of blood or breathing but do it gently. - 63. Wounds. A wound is a break in the skin or the ſlesh, or both, usually caused by external violence. The type of wound depends upon the shape and size of the in- juring element. Incised wounds are made by sharp cutting instruments, such as knives, razors, and broken glass. Lacerated wounds are irregular and torn. They are caused by contact with angular surfaces, such as shell fragments, or by machinery. Puncture or stab wounds are caused by penetrating objects, such as nails, wire, or bullets, MILITARY SANITATION AND FIRST AID 123 Infection and severe bleeding are the principal dangers from any type of wound. Rapid bleeding requires immediate attention. In most cases bleeding is readily con- trolled if fundamentals are known and applied. Infection can occur whenever the skin surface is broken. The size or location of the wound is not related to the possibility of infection; a skin puncture with an ordinary pin may become infected. A wound should 737°ora/ º żcza/ Subcſavan Caroffo/ &ach/a/ (ſ Ž a lºssº - . WHY-4x/30" º:// § Aorſa Arach/a/ t - i X \\ (A/Aeodore/ow)\\\ \º \ Aºso/3/ § 4//7ar- /ernora/ º Plate 18. Course of Arteries and Pressure Points. never be touched with anything except sterile dressings or instruments. The contact of unclean hands, bandages, or instruments may infect a wound that otherwise would have been sterile. 64. Control of Bleeding (Hemorrhage). Hemorrhage, or bleeding, is the escaping of blood from the circulatory system, such as occurs when a blood vessel is cut in a wound. There are three varieties of hemorrhage: An arterial hemorrhage is bleeding from an artery. The loss of blood may be very rapid. The blood spurts from the wound with each pulsation of the heart beat and is bright red in color. A venous hemorrhage is bleeding from the veins. The flow of blood is steady, and the color is dark red. Capillary hemorrhage means bleeding from small blood vessels and is manifested by oozing of blood from the wound. It is ordinarily not severe. 65. Control of Bleeding. Most mild hemorrhages will cease by natural means. This results from a blood clot forming in the wound, preventing the further escape of blood. More severe hemorrhages, particularly arterial and venous ones, usually require one or more of the following artificial measure for control: a. Elevation. Elevating a wounded extremity will aid in the control of hemorrhage by decreasing the volume of blood in the injured part and thereby encouraging the natural tendency to cessation of bleeding. 124 MILITARY SANITATION AND FIRST AID b. Pressure. (1) Direct pressure. Direct pressure is the most common and safest method for the control of bleeding. If sterile gauze or bandage material is available, it can be used for direct pressure on the wound and held in place until a dressing is applied or a tourniquet adjusted. The dressing itself can be adjusted so as to exert some pressure. (2) Pressure with the fingers. (a) When direct pressure on the wound does not control the bleeding, pressure upon the blood vessel between the heart and the wound is necessary. At certain places Tournicuet Plate 19. Pressure Points for Checking Hemorrhage. in the body, large arteries lie near bones and may be compressed to decrease the flow through them. Pressure may be applied with the fingers until a tourniquet can be applied. MILITARY SANITATION AND FIRST AID 125 (b) The following are the principal pressure points: 1. Scalp., Apply pressure with the tips of the fingers in front of the ear just above where the lower jaw can be felt working in its socket. A branch of the tem- poral artery crosses the temple on the line between the upper border of the ear and the upper border of the eyebrow. 2. Neck and head. Press the thumb and fingers deeply into the neck in front of the strongly marked muscle which reaches from behind the ear to the upper part of the breastbone. 3. Shoulder and armpit. Press the thumb deeply into the hollow behind the middle of the collar bone. This compresses the large subclavian artery. 4. Arm or hand. Press outward against the bone just behind the inner border of the large muscle (biceps) of the arm. This compresses the bracial artery. 5. Thigh, leg, or foot. Press strongly with the thumbs at the upper part of the inside of the thigh where the large artery passes over the bone. This compresses the femoral artery. .* (3) Tourniquet. The use of a tourniquet is a dangerous procedure. One should not be employed if bleeding can be stopped by any other means. A tourniquet consists of a pad which is pressed against an artery, and a strap which is used to obtain pressure of the pad. Medical Department personnel carry issue tourniquets as part of their equipment, but satisfactory ones can be improvised. The pad may consist of a roll of bandage, a stone wrapped in a handkerchief, or any other hard, smooth object. The strap may consist of a bandage, a cravat, a belt, or a handkerchief. The strap should be at least 1 inch wide so that it will not cut into the skin. * For the arm and hand the tourniquet pad is applied about a hand's breadth below the armpit. For the thigh and leg it is applied about a hand's breadth below the groin. After tying the strap loosely around the limb, the required degree of pressure is made by passing a stick or bayonet under the hand but opposite the pad, and twisting it so that the pad is pressed down firmly. The stick is anchored with a bandage. The pressure exerted should be as light as will stop the hemorrhage. Since a tourniquet cuts off the entire blood supply to the injured part, precautions must be taken that the tourniquet is not left on too long or the limb will die (gangrene). It should be loosened at least every 20 or 30 minutes. It should not be covered with a bandage or splint as it may be forgotten. Some sort of tag should be attached to the man marked “tourniquet,” giving the date and hour when applied. 66. The First Aid Packet. In the military service first aid is considered to be of so much importance that the field (battle) equipment of every officer and soldier includes an individual first aid packet. It is carried in a separate, small web pouch attached to the pistol or cartridge belt of the officer or soldier. At present there are two types of first aid packets for issue, commonly known as the old and the new. The slight differ- ence between them will be briefly described. Eventually all will be of the new type. The new packet contains a single sterile dressing wrapped in waxed paper. No safety pins are provided. The dressing consists of a pad of cotton and gauze, folded to 4 by 6 inches, which is securely sewed to a four-tailed gauze bandage 4 by 72 inches. The metal container has a sealing device different from the old type which makes it easier to open, and also makes it less likely to be opened accidentally (Plate 20). The container is about the same size as for the old style packet. The old type packet contains two sterile dressings ready to apply to a wound, each wrapped in waxed paper, and two safety pins. These two dressings and safety pins are inclosed in a sealed, metal container which is opened by pulling on the metal ring attached to the sealing strip. When the packet is inserted in its carrying pouch the ring should be “down” (at the bottom of the pouch) so that when the packet is pulled out for inspection it will not be accidentally opened. 67. Using the First Aid Packet. The first aid dressing is carried by all military per- sonnel. It is contained in a sealed metal container, whose seal must be broken to remove the dressing. The dressing consists essentially of a thick pad of absorbent material to which are attached two double-tailed rolls of bandage. When removing the wrapper and applying the dressing, the hands should touch only the bandage and the papered side of the dressing. The paper is colored to aid in its recognition. 126 MILITARY SANITATION AND FIRST AID The unpapered side of the dressing is applied to the wound. The bandage is then snugly secured about the limb or part by tying or pinning the ends. If a missile has gone completely through an arm or leg, a dressing should be applied to one of the wounds without unrolling its bandage. A second dressing is then applied to the other wound, and its bandage used to secure both dressings. It may be necessary to use the contents of several packets to cover very large wounds. 68. Shock. Shock is a condition of extremely depressed or lowered vitality, usually the result of a severe wound or injury but also caused from such conditions as fear, poisoning by chemicals, excessive heat, lack of nutrition, and hemorrhage from other causes than external injuries. The degree of shock is usually greater in the old, the weak, or poorly nourished, the physically exhausted, or individuals with a highly im- pressionable nervous system. Shock is quite easily recognized. Its principal symptoms include: pallor of the skin; • * Z. f. : , , F - - --- *** * * **2 recº-czz/rºco *// ** * * * * * 27 ºr 2 -, . , , 32 f / º 64, ºr 2/7/7 Af - º - £2.5.2% ſº - * * *-*----- *-- - §ºnºwº º W 2-Wºwº g? º º % % 4%% ,” sº - dº. ºº 7- %:%; == Fº .* Pº º º *Zºś7% zºft * - ſº ź. % Aº, º É 1. §: 3% º :*% É% % º %2 Aſºº Ø º º * “Gºzº - º 5. - º Zº Sºs Æ% % źs 7%% Plate 20. First Aid Packet (New Style). a cold sweat, especially on the forehead; an anxious, frightened expression; sighing or irregular breathing; weak and irregular pulse; body temperature below normal (cold and clammy); and sometimes nausea and vomiting. The patient may become uncon- scious. The earliest first aid measures in severe injuries should always include anti-shock treatment, even though symptoms of shock may not have appeared. Following are the principal first aid measures to be taken to prevent, or combat, shock. Make the patient as comfortable as possible, usually on his back, limbs straightened out, head low, clothing loosened. Arrest hemorrhage; reduce pain; dress wounds; splint fractures. If practicable move him to a warm room. In any event keep him warm and dry. Use blankets or clothing and hot water bottles, canteens filled with hot water, or some other source of external heat. Be careful to avoid burning him, as the victim of shock will often be too depressed to notice that he is being burned. Unless his injury is in the chest or abdomen give him hot drinks. Keep him perfectly quiet and let him rest and sleep. In mild cases of shock, warmth and quiet are suffi. cient. In severe cases, however, active measures must be carried out as promptly as facilities will permit; death frequently follows inadequate anti-shock treatment. As ,-,-,-r .* - MILITARY SANITATION AND FIRST AID 127 Questions What is meant by “first aid?” What two things are most important in first aid? Should a flesh would be washed with water as a part of first aid treatment? Name the three types of hemorrhage. How would you quickly estimate severity of hemorrhage? Name four methods of controlling hemorrhage. What is the chief danger from misuse of the tourniquet? What do you understand by the term shock, or wound shock? What are the three basic principles in the first aid treatment of shock? CHAPTER VII TREATMENT OF FRACTURES 69. Definition of a Fracture. A fracture is a broken bone, usually resulting from external violence. Fractures are common injuries in war and in highway, industrial, and other accidents. They occur most frequently in the bones of the limbs. 70. Types of Fractures. There are two general classes of fractures: simple fractures, in which the skin is not punctured, and compound fractures, in which the skin is punctured by the bone itself or by the agent producing the fracture. Indications of frac- ture are: signs of local injury, such as pain, swelling, and bruising; abnormal mobility in the limb; loss of function in the affected limb; grating of the bone ends; and de- formity of the part. 71. First Aid Treatment of Fractures. The immediate danger in the case of fracture is that in moving about, the sharp, jagged edge of the broken bone will lacerate the arteries, veins, nerves, and muscles or will perforate the skin and become compounded. Such injury from the bone end adds greatly to shock and, by cutting large nerves, may produce permanent paralysis. If a fracture becomes compounded the time of heal- ing is greatly prolonged, and frequently the usefulness of the limb or the life of the patient is endangered. Fractures, therefore, should be handled gently, and patients should not be moved until well splinted and immobilized. In splinting a fracture the joints above and below the fracture should be included in the splint to secure the maximum immobility. A splint is a piece of stiff or firm material, such as a board, limb of a tree, bayonet, thick magazine, or other suitable item, to which the injured member is bound or ban- daged so as to prevent movement of the bone fragments. The principle, of the splint are illustrated in Plate 22. “Splint him where he falls,” is the keynote to the best first aid treatment of frac- tures. First, gently straighten out the limb to approximately its natural contour or appearance; generally, the easiest and best method is by a gentle, steady pull of the limb in the direction of its long axis. This is called “traction.” The previously padded splint is then placed, further padded, and then bandaged at enough points to insure there will be no movement of the broken bone. Padding should not be placed over the site of the fracture, but above and below it. Splints must be long enough and stiff enough to accomplish their function. A very short or weak splint is useless and may even do harm. Bandages must be snug, but not so tight as to interfere with the circulation of the blood. Never waste time trying to diagnose or “set” fractures as a part of first aid treatment. Even the doctors do not try to make an accurate diagnosis or set fractures under such circumstances. If there is any doubt as to whether or not a bone is broken it should be splinted. Even if the normal appearance of the limb has not been restored, nor the broken parts replaced in correct relative position, much has been accomplished in preventing further injury and in the relief of pain. Leave the rest to the medical officer. 72. Treatment of Compound Fractures. The fracture itself is given the same type of first aid treatment as in the case of simple fracture. The complicating wound ºld bleeding are treated aseptically, and a bandage is applied before application of the splint. The three different things which have to be given treatment at practically the 128 MILITARY SANITATION AND FIRST AID same time are: bleeding, wound, and fracture. The principal precautions to be ob- served in dealing with compound fractures are: Handle with the greatest gentleness; use the utmost surgical cleanliness possible, and do not try to do too much. OPEN ING TO THE BONE AND THROUGH SKIN !/.../ Ž (£ Compound Plate 21. Types of Fractures. - *> *= *~ * = * sº \ * * tºº S--/*-ºs->===#E – * - -emºs 3 (ſ/ \!! \ * \\\\\\ \, 73. Dislocations and Sprains. When a bone gets out of place at a joint the condition is called a dislocation. When the ligaments about a joint are torn, the condition is MILITARY SANITATION AND FIRST AID 129 called a sprain. Initially treat by elevation of the part and cold applications. After two hours have passed, hot applications are more valuable. If there is any doubt as to whether or not the condition is a fracture, treat as a fracture. Do not attempt to re- duce a dislocation, as permanent injury may be done. Plate 24. The Triangular Bandage Used as a Sling. Questions 1. Name the two general classes of fractures. 2. What is a splint? 3. What is the primary object in the first aid treatment of fractures? 4. What three things should always be kept in mind when dealing with compound fractures? CHAPTER VIII FIRST AID IN COMMON EMERGENCIES, AND TRANSPORTATION OF THE SICK AND WOUNDED 74. General. Some types of accidents occur more frequently in civil life than in the Army, and every person should know the principal signs or symptoms of common injuries and the simple first aid measures useful in their immediate care. The measures to be taken are all very simple and are usually effective. It is well for the layman to wish to aid those who have met with an accident, but he must apply the correct actions. The wrong thing may harm the injured person instead of helping him. In case of doubt as to what to do, there is one important rule: Secure at once the services of a doctor. While waiting for his arrival, measures should be taken to assist the patient in being comfortable. * * 75. Pain in the Abdomen. Pain in the abdomen may be due to a variety of causes, many of which may be serious. In any case where there is nausea and vomiting, accom- panying or following pain over all or any part of the abdomen, and pain and tenderness in the lower right part of the abdomen, appendicitis should be suspected. Appendicitis FA1 (1) 130 MILITARY SANITATION AND FIRST AID may also occur without nausea. Always put suspected cases to bed and call a medical officer. As a general working rule, never give cases with abdominal pain or tenderness, food, water, a laxative, or an enema unless ordered to do so by a medical officer. 76. Fainting. Except as a symptom of severe shock this condition is seldom dangerous. Lay the patient on his back with the head lower than the rest of the body if practicable, loosen clothing, give plenty of fresh air, and give stimulants (when consciousness is regained) carefully and slowly. A cold compress on the head is beneficial; it is usually placed on the forehead or the back of the neck. Sprinkling cold water on the head and face can be done in lieu of a compress. The arms and legs may be rubbed, rubbing from the hands or face toward the body. Aromatic spirits of ammonia inhaled in small doses are considered useful. 77. Unconsciousness. Unconsciousness may be complete or partial. It may result from a number of causes, and treatment must be along general lines. An unconscious person with an odor of alcohol on his breath should not always be considered drunk. An intoxicated person may not have an alcoholic breath. It is always wise to consider the possibility of apoplexy and skull fracture in every case of unconsciousness. In examining an unconscious person, look carefully for the cessation of breathing and for symptoms of poisoning, bleeding, or sunstroke, as special treatment for these must be given at once. * * Lay the patient on his back with the head and shoulders slightly raised. Apply cold cloths or an ice pack to the head. Insist on absolute quiet; do not move the patient unless urgent, and then do so very carefully. Have sufficient cover to keep him warm. Use no stimulants until the patient is awake. Call a doctor. --> ------ --Mºſºggiº's * - mºm, | ſºft it º | • *S \ Şū Nºw, Nº ~! sessºs §§ - N N.S.S.sº sºsºs. *S***, sº sº; E. Fºs > --~~~ -> * `SSSSS— SS * * 4. SSS - tºº $Sey ‘Sre ~sº *s-s-s-ºs- --~~~~~~~-> - *S*N--~~~. Setº - -, -e-w-sy-sºw-va - - :- ºtes - --~~~~ * *S*SSRS*** Sw Sre º-sºº as-Sãº--> -- -º-, --- ~~~~~ -- =-“Tº > essº- *T* •-sºº - -*. __*** * -> - *--— --~~~~ereº. Plate 25. The Schafer Method of Artificial Respiration. 78. Asphyxiation. Asphyxiation is a condition of unconsciousness due to suffocation or interference of any kind with the oxygenation of the blood. The treatment of asphyxiation depends upon its cause. However, in the majority of the cases, artificial respiration is most commonly used. The cause must be removed before artificial res- piration will be able to restore respiration. The safest and most effective method of applying artificial respiration is the prone pressure or Schafer method. Oxygen res- pirators, available at many bathing beaches and military stations, are very efficient in trained hands. For unskilled personnel, respirators are less satisfactory than the Schafer method. Schafer describes it as follows: MILITARY SANITATION AND FIRST AID 131 “It consists in laying the subject in the prone posture, preferably on the ground, with a thick folded garment underneath the chest and upper abdomen. The operator puts himself athwart or at the side of the subject, facing the head, and places his hands on each side over the lower part of the back (lowest ribs). He then slowly throws the weight of his body forward to bear upon his own arms, and thus presses upon the thorax of the subject and forces air out of the lungs. This being effected, he gradually relaxes the pressure by bringing his own body up again to a more erect position, but without moving the hands.” The movements are repeated regularly and should average about twelve to fifteen per minute, therefore requiring about five seconds for each manipulation. To avoid too rapid procedure the use of the following words are advocated. As pressure begins on the chest say, “One thousand one, one thousand two, one thousand three,” at the end of which release the pressure; withhold the pressure but hold the hands on the back while you repeat, “One thousand one, one thousand two,” at the end of which reapply the pressure slowly, throwing the weight of the body forward on your arms. If the patient is small and you are large, be careful that you do not injure the patient by using all your weight for pressure. Continue your efforts to revive the patient for two hours or longer. Do not give up, but persist until a doctor appears. He can determine by examination if your further efforts will restore life. 79. Drowning. a. A person suffering from submersion is commonly spoken of as having been “drowned.” It should never be assumed that the person removed from the water is dead unless he is definitely known to have been submerged for a long time. No time limit of submersion can be given because it varies with the individual case. Also, to excited eyewitnesses a few seconds, let alone a couple of minutes, seem like hours. The “drowned” person has stopped breathing and to resuscitate him his breathing must be started by artificial means. As soon as the victim is out of the water turn him face downward, step astride him, and grasping him around the body near the hips lift him Plate 26. First Step in the Resuscitation of the Drowned. so that his head and chest hang well down; hold him in that position for at least 15 or 20 seconds to allow the water to drain out of his air passages. Then start artificial respiration at once, on the ground or in a boat. Do not waste time in removing cloth- ing, seeking signs of heart action (life), or removing the patient to a more convenient spot. Continue the artificial respiration until he breathes well of his own accord, or until quite sure the case is hopeless. Either circumstance may require from an hour to three hours of artificial respiration After he begins to breathe, watch carefully to see that he does not stop, assisting him if necessary. A dry feather or mirror held in front of the patient's nose will indicate whether artificial respiration is actually being produced, and will also show when the patient begins to breathe naturally. External heat many be 132 MILITARY SANITATION AND FIRST AID applied while the resuscitation efforts are being made, taking care not to burn him. Do not attempt to give him liquids of any kind until he is conscious; then give stimulants and keep him warm. Make no attempt to move him until he is breathing naturally. b. Prevention of drowning accidents. Most drownings occur when people go swim- ming. By observing the following simple ten commandments most of such accidents will be prevented: Don't go swimming alone unless you are an expert. Don't swim immediately after eating; wait at least two hours. Don't swim if overheated. Don't swim if you know you have heart trouble. Don't continue swimming when exhausted. Don't wade into water with your hands above your head; you may step into a hole and you should be ready to stroke. Don't struggle if caught in a swift current or undertow; the force of the current will bring you to the surface. Don't fight or struggle if you “swallow water”; clear your windpipe of water first. Don't cry for help in fun; you may really need it some time. Don't dive without knowing the depth of the water. 80. Choking. A person being suffocated by a substance lodged in his windpipe (usually food) gasps for air, clutches at his throat, may cough violently, his face turns blue, and he exhibits great fear. Unless the foreign body is promptly removed, the results will be fatal if the supply of air is entirely cut off. Have a doctor called at once, telling him the circumstances so that he may bring the proper instruments. Cause the patient to cough, and slap him violently on the back between the shoulder blades. If this is insufficient, hold him by the feet or legs, head down, and again slap him on the back. Sometimes a foreign body is lodged deep in the throat and can be swept out with a finger; better results are usually obtained with the patient's head hanging down when this is done. 81. War Gas Poisoning. The symptoms of war gas poisoning usually appear within 24 hours after exposure. The slightly gassed are difficult to distinguish from physical exhaustion, malingering, or other conditions. Until he can be seen by a doctor, the victim of war gases should be removed from the gassed area to open, high ground. He needs rest, warmth, fresh air, and attention. If necessary remove his gas-impregnated clothing. Do not permit him to exert himself even though he feels equal to it. Gassed cases should be kept away from those not gassed. In handling gassed cases keep on your own mask, and wear gloves, or wash the hands frequently. 82. Alcoholic Intoxication. Alcoholic intoxication is a condition in which there is a varying degree of unconsciousness which results from imbibing an excess of alcoholic liquids. A person unconscious from alcoholic intoxication is “dead drunk.” In severe alcoholic intoxication the face is flushed, eyes are red and bloodshot, pupils dilated, breathing slow and regular, and the breath is heavy with the odor of alcohol. Voluntary movements are usually uncoordinated. The individual may be stuporous or unconscious; if so, he can be aroused but quickly returns to his stupor or unconsciousness. The most important thing to be remembered about alcoholism is the possibility that the unconscious state may be due to some other cause, as mentioned above, even though there is an odor of alcohol. Ordinarily, alcoholism does not require any particular treatment. Vomiting may remove some of the alcohol from the stomach, and may be induced by having the patient drink copiously of warm salt water or mustard water. A cup or two of strong, black coffee, or one-half to one teaspoonful of aromatic spirits of ammonia in water, are useful in helping to sober a drunken person. Afterward put him to bed and let him sleep it off. 83. Thermal Accidents. . a. Sunstroke. A rather rare condition, but quite alarming when encountered. It results from exposure to the direct rays of the sun, or other source of high temperature. Usually the victim is unconscious, his face is flushed, his skin is very hot and dry, his breathing labored, and his pulse rapid and strong. Call a doctor at once. Move the victim to a cool, shady spot; loosen his clothing, and apply ice or cold towels to his head and body. Do not give him any stimulant, even if he is con- MILITARY SANITATION AND FIRST AID 133 scious. The victims of this thermal accident often have a preceding headache, dizziness, and nausea, and a feeling of being oppressed by the heat. Should they go in time to a cool, shady spot and lie down, actual sunstroke may be prevented. b. Heat exhaustion. A rather common condition, usually the result of continued ex- posure to heat and humidity, indoors or outdoors. The victim of heat exhaustion is in a state of shock, as described above. The treatment is the same as for shock. Heat ex- haustion is a preventable condition. Men who are losing large quantities of body fluids by profuse sweating should take a small amount (a quarter teaspoonful) of table salt with each glass of water. If the salt is taken first it does not increase the natural thirst. c. Burns and scalds. Carefully remove the person burned to an area where the clothes can be removed from the affected part without increasing the chance of future infection. If the burn or scald is extensive a doctor should be secured immediately as early, proper treatment will prevent possible permanent disability. Do not apply any grease, salve, or oil on the burned area. Use nothing on the burn that will be difficult to remove afterwards. Place clean linen under the patient and protect the burned portion from drafts of air by a frame or cradle holding the covers of the body. Keep the patient warm and comfortable until the doctor arrives. If the burn is not extensive, a tannic acid ointment (5%) or a picrate ointment may be applied to the burned area. If bandaged, the bandages should be placed on very loosely. Do not open blisters. d. Precautions in case of fire. Keep cool. If a person's clothing is on fire make him lie down, or throw him to the floor or ground. Smother the flames by wrapping him in a blanket, rug, coat, or similar article. If your own clothing catches fire when you are alone, lie down on the floor and roll up as tightly as possible in a rug, blanket, or similar article, leaving only the head out. If there is nothing in which to wrap up, lie down and roll over slowly, at the same time beating out the fire with the hands. If caught in, or you have to enter, a house which is full of smoke, cover the mouth and nose with a wet cloth or handkerchief. Also, remember there is no smoke within 6 inches of the floor, so when you can no longer breathe in an upright position get down and crawl with the mouth close to the floor. e. Freezing and frost bite. A person suffering from freezing and frost bite should be removed to a moderately warm shelter, and permitted to gradually reestablish the normal circulation without undue physical disturbance. When and if the patient can swallow, ' * * SS- - // { - CYNº! I Plate 27. Removal of Foreign Bodies from the Eye. mild stimulants such as warm liquids may be given. The affected frozen part should be immersed in water at a temperature of 99.5 degrees Fahrenheit and allowed to re- main without massage or manipulation until well thawed. Infection must be guarded against as the tissue vitality is very low and the danger of infection is markedly increased. f. Electric shocks and burns. These result from contact with wires or equipment carry- ing a high tension current. The most important thing to do is to remove the person from such contact. This is always likely to be dangerous and should not be attempted until the rescuer has some way of insulating himself, otherwise he may receive as severe a shock or burn as the person he is trying to rescue. First, take steps to have the power cut off. Stand on a heavy rubber mat, or dry boards, and protect the hands with some insulating material such as heavy rubber gloves, several thicknesses of dry cloth, or other non-conductor, before attempting to separate the victim and the source 134 - MILITARY SANITATION AND FIRST AID of the current. It may be easier to push the wires aside, or the victim away from the source of the current, using a long piece of dry wood while standing on a dry or insulated platform. Electric shock exhibits symptoms similar to wound shock, and is treated the same way. If breathing has stopped use artificial respiration. Electric burns are treated just like other burns. 84. Foreign Body in the Eye. If a foreign body lodges in the eye, close the eye gently and allow the tears to accumulate; then as the lower lid is pulled down grasp the lashes of the upper lid and gently lift the upper lid from the eyeball, at the same time slowly rolling the eyeball up and down. Unless the foreign body is imbedded, it will usually be washed away by the accumulated tears. If this method fails, the upper lid may have to be turned back over a match stick and the foreign body removed with a cotton swab on a match stick or with the corner of a soft, clean handkerchief. Flushing the eye with cold water will often remove a foreign body. Never rub an eye which has a foreign body in it. If an eye is splashed with an acid, flush it with a milk alkaline solution, such as one of baking soda. If splashed with an alkali (lye water), flush it with a mild acid solution, such as dilute vinegar or lemon juice. 85. Bites. a. Snake bite. Snake bite is a comparatively rare accident but requires prompt attention when it occurs, as the venom is very rapidly absorbed into the system. Apply a tourniquet close to the wound, on the side toward the heart. With a knife or razor blade make a cross (X) cut through the wound so that it bleeds freely. Suck - Fig. 1. The “Supporting Fig. 2. The “Arms Carry." Fig. 3. The “Straddle-Back Carry.” Carry.” Plate 28. Manual Transport of Wounded by One-Man Carry. the wound strongly and spit out the blood and poison; there is no danger in this to the person doing it unless he has cracks, sores, or cuts on the lips or in the mouth. Alcoholic liquors are useless in snake bite. b. Insect bites. The bites of scorpions, poisonous spiders, and other poisonous insects, are treated the same way as snake bite. Other insect bites may be painful but are not dangerous as a rule. Local applications of baking soda or ammonia may be helpful in controlling pain and swelling. - c. Dog bite. A person bitten by a mad dog or other rabid animal should be sent at MILITARY SANITATION AND FIRST AID 135 once to the doctor for treatment. The rabid animal should not be killed at once, but should be impounded and turned over to a veterinarian for observation and disposition. 86. Poisons. a. The two principal points to be remembered in the treatment of poisoning are: poisons when diluted are not absorbed in as great quantities as when they are in a concentrated form, and the stomach can be cleaned out by causing vomiting or by washing. Washing the stomach with a stomach tube should be attempted only by experienced personnel. b. Treatment. To cause the victim to vomit is the first step. The following fluids are useful in producing vomiting. From four to seven glassfuls should be given, pre- ferably lukewarm. Tickling the throat with the finger will then usually induce vomiting: Soap suds from any type of soap. Salt water or soda water. Lukewarm water. One tablespoonful of mustard in warm water. Additional first-aid treatment for specific poisons is as follows: For carbolic acid (phenol) poisoning, give soap suds or milk. - For the corrosive poisons such as bichloride of mercury, give milk or the whites of eggs. For iodine poisoning give starch in water. For strychnine poisoning, keep the patient quiet and call a medical officer. For overdoses of sedatives, keep the patient on his feet and make him walk. Give strong coffee and get him to medical attention. For wood alcohol, shoe dye, or like poisons, induce vomiting and get medical attention. For acute alcoholism (drunkenness) treatment is usually unsatisfactory and unneces- sary. Inducing vomiting and giving strong coffee will speed recovery. Cold baths are dangerous and without value. 87. Transportation of the Sick and Wounded. a. Litter transport. The service litter is the most satisfactorv means of transporting patients over difficult terrain. Remember always to bring the litter to the patient and not the patient to the litter. The litter may be carried by two or four men, or it may be attached to a wheeled litter carrier. Many objects and materials may be used to construct improvised litters: camp cots, window shutters, doors, benches and ladders properly padded. Litters may be made with sacks, bags, or bedticks by ripping the bottoms or snipping off the corners, passing two poles through them, and tying crosspieces to the poles to keep them apart. A shelter half, a blanket, a piece of matting, or carpet may be fastened to poles by tacks or twine; hay, straw or leafy twigs over a framework of poles and cross sticks make an efficient litter; rope, wire, or rawhide may be woven between poles covered with a blanket. The usual military improvisation is with blankets or shelter tents, and poles about 7 feet long. The blanket is spread on the ground. One pole is laid across the center of the blanket, which is then folded over it. The second pole is placed across the center of the new fold, and the blanket is folded over the second pole as over the first and the free end of the blanket fixed. A litter also may be prepared by turning two or three blouses inside out and buttoning them up, sleeves in, then passing poles through the sleeves, the backs of the blouses forming the bed. b. Manual transport. It will occasionally be necessary to move the wounded short distances without the aid of a litter. Patients not too seriously wounded may be as- sisted in walking, or they may be carried by one man. If the litter bearer has no assistant he proceeds as follows: turn the patient on his face and step astride his body, facing his head; place hands under his armpits and raise him to his knees; clasp him around the waist and raise him to his feet. If he is conscious and can walk with as- sistance, seize his left wrist with your left hand and draw his left arm around your neck. Support him with the right arm around his body, his left side resting against your body. This method is known as the “supporting carry.” The easiest method of one man carry is by the “firemen's carry.” Raise the patient to his feet as previously described. While supporting him erect pass around to facing him. Grasp his right wrist with the left hand and pull upward; stoop and pass the right arm between his legs, at the same time drawing him across the left shoulder. Plate 29. The Fireman's Carry. MILITARY SANITATION AND FIRST AID 137 Pass the patient's right wrist to your right hand, reach back and grasp his left wrist with the left hand, and draw the patient's left arm around to steady him. This method can be used to carry an unconscious person as well as a conscious one. In the “straddle-back carry” raise the patient to his feet as previously described, step in front of him, back to the patient, stoop and grasp his thighs, and rise to position shown in Fig. 3, Plate 28, bringing the patient well up on the back. This method cannot be used except with the assistance of the patient. The usual method of a two man carry is shown in Plate 30 and is self-explanatory. Serious injury to the arms or legs may preclude the use of this method. In lowering the patient, the motions are reversed. Should the patient be wounded in such a manner as to require these motions to be conducted from the opposite side instead of the side described above, the change of method is simply one of hands, the motions occurring as directed, substituting right for left and vice versa. c. By horseback. The assistance required to place a disabled man on a mount will depend upon the site and nature of his injury; in many cases he will be able to help himself materially. The horse, blindfolded if necessary, is held by an attendant. Once Fig. 1. The “Saddle-back Carry.” Fig. 2. The “Arms Carry.” Plate 30. Manual Transport of Wounded by Two Bearers. mounted, the patient should be made as safe and comfortable as possible. A comrade may be mounted behind him to guide the horse. A lean-back may be provided, made of a blanket roll, a pillow, or a bag filled with leaves or grass. If the patient is very weak, the lean-back may be made of a sapling bent into an arch over the cantle of the saddle, with its ends securely fastened thereto. 88. A Typical Experience of a Man Wounded in Battle. A conception of the processes of battlefield first aid to the wounded may be gained by following the progress of a wounded man to the rear. On the battlefield. Private Jones, acting as a scout in front of an assault platoon, is struck on the leg by a shell splinter which produces a serious flesh wound and a broken leg. He rolls over so as to get the best view, he can of the terrain, then lies perfectly still. No small arms fire being directed at him, although his position is exposed, he crawls behind a small hummock for concealment. Here Jones, keeping under cover, at- tempts to apply a dressing from his first aid packet, but is not very successful. As the platoon comes forward a comrade assists him in applying the dressings, gives him a drink of water and, if necessary, applies a tourniquet. Jones is unable to walk unassisted and 138 MILITARY SANITATION AND FIRST AID his comrade is not permitted to leave the attacking line to help him, so he lies still. Pres- ently, an enlisted man of the Medical Department, who is closely following the advance, finds him. He examines the wound, checks the tourniquet, loosens it if the bleeding permits, and gives Jones a drink of water and a stimulant. Shells are still falling and the first aid man tells Jones to lie still, that he will soon be picked up. In a little while two men of the Medical Department, with a litter, find Jones. They examine him, and finding he has a broken leg, apply an improvised splint. They then place him on the litter and start to the rear. Progress is slow, as a sheltered route must be followed to reach the battalion aid station which is about 500 yards to the rear. At aid station and hospitals. At the aid station Jones remains upon the litter. He is given an injection of morphine to allay pain and anti-tetanic serum. He is examined by a doctor; his hemorrhage, if any, is definitely controlled; the improvised splint is replaced by a standard splint; dressings are replaced if necessary; he is given a hot drink; a tag, indicating the nature of the injuries and the treatment given, is attached to Jones' clothing; and he is covered with blankets. He is then placed under shelter and allowed to rest as quietly as possible. Later, Jones, still on his original litter, is moved to the rear by litter bearers by hand carry, by wheeled litter carrier, or even by motor ambulance, arriving at the collecting station in 15 or 20 minutes. Here he is again examined to see how well he is standing the trip, and necessary treatment given him. His litter is then placed in a motor ambulance, and he continues four or five miles further to the rear to the clearing station. Here he is carefully examined and is given the necessary emer- gency treatment he could not receive previously, such as continued anti-shock treatment, emergency operation, adjustments of splints and dressings. If his condition is serious he is kept at the clearing station long enough to be put into condition for his journey to one of the large hospitals. If his condition is such that he can safely travel he is sent almost at once much farther to the rear to one of the large hospitals where he can be given the type of care and treatment he would receive in the best hospitals in peace time. Questions 1. Describe (or demonstrate) artificial respiration by the Schafer method. 2. What is the first step in the resuscitation of the “drowned?” 3. What is the first thing to be done for a person suſſering from the eſſects of war gas poisoning? - 4. How would you attempt to relieve a person who is apparently choking? 5. What is the first step in getting a patient on a litter? MILITARY ORGANIZATION-GENERAL CONTENTS - Paragraphs Chapter I. General Considerations . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 1-4 Chapter II. The War Department . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-14 Chapter III. The Organization of the Army Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-21 Chapter IV. The Combat Arms and the Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-25 Chapter V. Territorial Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-34 Chapter VI. Tactical Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-47 CHAPTER I GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 1. Organization Defined. a. “Organization,” says Webster's dictionary, “is to arrange or constitute in interdependent parts, each having a special function, act, office or rela- tion with respect to the whole; to systematize; to get into working order; as, to organize an Army; to organize recruits.” It is significant that this definition refers specifically to a military organization as best exemplifying organization in general; the organization of military forces is so typical that the entire definition is summed up by referring to it. ' Whether it be political or social or military, any unit or body must be provided with a definite structure and constitution and must be arranged and systematized if it is to succeed, to function properly, and to have unity of effort. b. Military organization provides that combination and unity of effort so essential to success in war. The character, strength and methods of organization are dictated by the military needs of a nation. But as far as practicable they are made to conform to the economical, financial, social, and political life of the country. These, considered together, dictate the formulation of essential national policies, military laws, and de- partmental regulations. 2. National Policy and Military Organization. War between nations results from a conflict of national aspirations. National aspirations conflict as a result of racial, political, economic, and commercial competition or rivalries. These are matters of national policy. The national policy of a government dictates its military policy. A sound military policy comprises the adoption and application of measures necessary for national defense and for the protection and promotion of national policies. The essential of a military policy is a correct scheme of national defense supported by governmental provisions to carry it out. The provisions for its execution comprise the necessary armament, equipment and organized and trained man power with which to conduct a war, and the efficient adaptation of national resources and industries to supply the provisions and munitions of war. Preparation and organization for war are based primarily on military requirements. Military requirements are based on the force required by a nation to maintain its sovereignty, to promote its national aspirations and to defend its national policies. The size and character of the force required are largely dictated by the extent to which national aspirations and policies conflict with the aspirations and policies of other nations. Organization for war and success in war imply thorough and sound preparation. Preparation for war results from a correct national and governmental appreciation of military requirements and from the adoption and application of a military policy to meet these requirements. Thorough preparation includes an efficient organization of the War Department and of all arms and services into the best territorial and tactical com- mands and plans for the transition of the nation from a peace to a war basis. Sound preparation results from a full knowledge of the resources of the country, the character- istics of the people, and the lessons taught by experience in prior wars. 139 140 MILITARY ORGANIZATION_GENERAL 3. All Citizens Obligated to Serve Country. Organization for the national defense affects the entire population. The obligation of every citizen to serve in the defense of the country is an accepted principle. The Army of the United States consists of the Regular Army, the National Guard and the Organized Reserves. These components constitute the organized land forces and they are combined in one fighting army for war. The unorganized militia comprises all persons, not included in the organized land or naval forces, who have been or may be declared by the Congress to be liable to per- form military duty in the service of the United States. It constitutes the source from which untrained man power is obtained for military training. Therefore, the military forces of the United States consist of all citizens of the United States, male and female, who are able to render military service in any capacity direct or indirect as combatants or as non-combatants. The value of the forces so formed depends upon the soundness of organization and upon the collective spirit, power, and will of our people. 4. Congress Raises Armies. The Constitution gives to the Congress the power to raise and support armies and designates the President as Commander-in-Chief. The Congress determines the strength and composition of the peace and war establishments and decides what citizens are available for military service. It provides also for the control of national resources necessary to fulfill war requirements. The Constitution also grants to the Congress the power to declare war. Congress makes available the resources and the man power with which to conduct a war. The President fixes the objectives to be attained and insures the availability and cooperation of the armed forces and economic resources for the prosecution of the war. The Army and Navy merely carry out the instructions of the Congress and the President. They do not declare war; they only end wars which have been declared by Congress. Questions . How does the national policy of the country affect its military policy? . What are the two most important requirements in organization for war? . What constitutes the unorganized militia? . Who raises and supports armies in the United States? . Who is the Commander in Chief of the Army? . a. Who declares war? b. What relation does the Army have to war? : CHAPTER II THE WAR DEPARTMENT 5. General. The War Department prepares the basic plans for recruiting, mobilizing, organizing, supplying, equipping, and training the Army of the United States. 6. The Secretary of War. (Plate 1.) Under the President, the Secretary of War, a civilian, is head of the War Department, the Government department charged with managing the Army. He administers the affairs of the Army, both military and non- military in time of peace, and makes plans for its utilization in time of war. He super- vises all estimates for appropriations for Army expenses, all expenditures of money ap- propriated by Congress for the support, transportation, and maintenance of the Army, and all expenditures for civil works placed under his direction by Congress. He carries out the provisions of the National Defense Act, and is responsible for plans for the protection of our seacoast, our harbors, and our cities; for the development of improved weapons and equipment; for the instruction, discipline, and morale of all components and military training activities of the Army and for the defense, maintenance, and opera- tion of the Panama Canal. The Secretary of War also directs the activities of the Corps of Engineers in forming and carrying out plans for controlling floods and improving waterways and harbors for navigation, and recommends plans for such improvements to Congress, and makes contracts for their execution. He is president of the National | | secretary of war chief of staff – | —l ADMINISTRATIVE ASSISTANT Gnd CHIEF CLERK ASSISTANT SECRETARY of WAR | SECRETARIAT |HDEPUTY CHIEF of staff | PUBLIC – ASSISTANT SECRETARY of RELATIONS WAR for Al R TASK FORCE GENERAL STAFF H. H. H. H. MILITARY INTELL 1GENCE SERVICE SPECIAL STAFF | | S-4 INSPECTOR LEGISLATIVE AND GENERAL LIAISON DIVISION - - - UNDER SECRETARY of WAR H | | | | | COMMANDING GENERAL COMMANDING GENERAL | | OEFENSE command | THEATER | ARMY GROUND : ARMY AIR FORCES Plate 1. The Organization of the Army. COMMANDING GENERAL SERVICES OF SUPPLY 142 -- MILITARY ORGANIZATION_GENERAL Forests Reservation Commission, and also supervises the maintenance and conduct of the United States Military Academy at West Point. He is responsible for many of the administrative functions in connection with the Civilian Conservation Corps. He is also specifically charged with the procurement of all military supplies and other business of the War Department pertaining thereto and the assurance of adequate provisions for the mobilization of materiel and industrial organizations essential to wartime needs. The Secretary of War is also responsible for surveys of international boundary waters, the interoceanic survey (Nicaragua Canal route), and the construction of national monu- ments and memorials. He is also charged with the establishment of harbor lines, ap- proval of plans for constructing bridges and submarine cables, and the issue of permits for other construction upon navigable waters; investigation, in cooperation with the Federal Power Commission, of water-power projects; the removal of wrecks from navigable waters; the regulation of drawbridge operation; the establishment and regula- tion of anchorage grounds; the regulation of the use of navigable waters, the preservation of the American Niagara Falls; and the administration of United States participation in the Niagara Control Board. He is also responsible for all matters relating to leases, revocable licenses, and all other privileges on lands under control of the War Department. 7. Assistants to the Secretary of War. The Secretary of War has as his immediate advisors the Under Secretary of War, an Assistant Secretary of War, an Assistant Secre- tary of War for Air, and the Chief of Staff. a. The Under Secretary of War. Under the authority contained in the act of De- cember 16, 1940, which authorized an Under Secretary of War, the Secretary of War issued orders dated April 21, 1941, prescribing that the duties and functions which the National Defense Act of 1920 conferred on the Assistant Secretary of War, will here- after be performed by the Under Secretary of War. He is charged with the supervision of all administrative and operative functions and installations of the Military Establish- ment which are concerned with the acquisition, procurement and production of military supplies, and other business of the War Department pertaining thereto. He is delegated responsible for “the assurance of adequate provision for the mobilization of materiel and industrial organizations essential to war-time needs. * * *” He also supervises and acts upon the purchase, lease, and sale of real estate under the War Department control. He supervises and acts upon claims, foreign or domestic, by or against the War Department; clemency cases in litigation or remission of sentence by court-martial; activities relating to the National Board for the Promotion of Riſle Practice and Civilian Marksmanship; and the use of patent rights by the War Depart- ment and the Army. He supervises the Army Industrial College, and is the Army member of the Army and Navy Munitions Board. b. The Assistant Secretary of War. The Assistant Secretary of War is all that the name implies. He performs such duties as the Secretary of War assigns to him from time to time, and assists the Secretary of War in the performance of his duties. c. Assistant Secretary of War for Air. To the Assistant Secretary of War for Air are delegated special duties in connection with the Army Air Forces. d. Bureau of Public Relations. The Secretary of War has directly under his office the Bureau of Public Relations which provides the people of America with full and accurate army information through the press, radio, news reels and other moving pictures, and magazines. e. The War Council. The National Defense Act states: “The Secretary of War, the Assistant Secretary of War, the general of the Army, and the Chief of Staſſ shall con- stitute the War Council of the War Department, which council shall from time to time meet and consider policies affecting both the military and munitions problems of the War Department.” Note: By the act of August 29, 1916 (39 Stat. 649), a Council of National Defense was established, “for the coordination of industries and resources for the national security and welfare,” to consist of the Secretary of War, the Secretary of the Navy, the Secretary of the Interior, the Secretary of Agriculture, the Secretary of Commerce, and the Secretary of Labor. º * MILITARY ORGANIZATION-GENERAL * 143 The position “General of the Army” is a special rank given by Congress to General John J. Pershing. The Under Secretary of War and the Assistant ScCretary of War for Air are ex-officio members of the War Council. 8. The Chief of Staff. The Chief of Staff is the immediate military adviser of the Secretary of War. He is the highest ranking officer in the Army, holding the rank of full general while in that office. He heads the War Department General Staff. As the agent of, and in the name of the Secretary of War, he issues orders to insure that the plans of the War Department are harmoniously executed by all branches and agencies and in all components of the Army. “The Chief of Staff, in addition to his duties as such, in time of peace is assigned by the President to command the field forces. He continues to exercise command after the outbreak of war until the President designates another commander.” The Chief of Staff is charged by the Secretary of War with the planning, development, and execution of the military program. 9. The Assistant Chief of Staff. The Assistant Chief of Staff is charged by the Chief of Staff with the direct control of the War Department General Staff. t 10. The War Department General Staff. a. Statutory provisions. The duties of the War Department General Staff shall be to prepare plans for national defense and the use of the military forces for that purpose, both separately and in conjunction with the naval forces, and for the mobilization of the manhood of the Nation and its material resources in an emergency, to investigate and report upon all questions affecting the efficiency of the Army of the United States, and its state of preparation for military operations; and to render professional aid and assistance to the Secretary of War and the Chief of Staff. The Chief of Staff shall preside over the War Department General Staff and, under the direction of the President, or of the Secretary of War under the direction of the President, shall cause to be made, by the War Department General Staſſ, the necessary plans for recruiting, organizing, supplying, equipping, mobilizing, training, and demobilizing the Army of the United States and for the use of the military forces for national defense. b. Personnel. The members of the War Department General Staff, who are detailed to the General Staſſ Corps, range in rank from captain to major general. They are officers of experience and training selected from officers of the Regular Army, National Guard, and Organized Reserves. c. The Secretary of the General Staff. The Chief of Staff has an officer, usually a colonel, as Secretary of the General Staſſ with one or more assistant secretaries, also officers. These officers present to the Chief of Staſſ and the Deputies the papers con- cerning policy and administration which come to the Chief of Staff for action or for discussion with the Secretary of War. d. Divisions of the War Department General Staff. The War Department General Staff has five divisions, each headed by an Assistant Chief of Staff who is a general officer. (1) The Personnel Division, known as G-1, prepares plans and policies and super- vises activities that concern the officers and enlisted men of the Army as individuals. These activities deal with procuring, classifying, assigning, promoting, paying, trans- ferring, retiring, and discharging, in peace and in war, all personnel of all components and training activities of the Army. This division is also concerned with measures for conserving man power, with replacements of personnel, Army regulations, uniform regulations, decorations, religious and recreational work, cooperation with the Red Cross and similar organizations except for medical care and hospitals, regulations concerning enemy aliens, prisoners of war, and other matters. (2) The Military Intelligence Division, known as G-2, has duties that relate to col- lecting, studying, analyzing, and furnishing all kinds of military information. It supervises Army activities dealing with military surveys, maps, and photographs, codes and ciphers, and translations. Military attaches, observers, foreign-language students, and intelligence personnel of all Army units, are other matters dealt with by this division. The Military Intelligence Service, which operates and administers the service of collect- ing, cºrnpiling, and dis' tinating military intelligence, is under the direction of G-2. 144 . MILITARY ORGANIZATION_GENERAL (3) The Operations and Training Division, known as G-3, is charged, in general, with planning and supervising activities with regard to the organized training and operation of the military forces, except for those matters expressly assigned to the War Plans Division. Other activities dealt with by this division are the preparation of plans and policies concerning organization, including tables of organzation of Army units, educational and vocational training, drill and field service regulations, the special and general service schools, and military training in civilian institutions and in civilian train- ing camps. (4) The Supply Division, known as G-4, in general, has duties which relate to supplying the Army, and to planning for all equipment, buildings, storage, transporta- tion, and distribution of supplies, and for other facilities. This division is also con- cerned with estimates of funds for military purposes, hospitalization and evacuation of sick and wounded men and animals, inventions, and construction and maintenance of military installations. (5) The War Plans Division is, in general, charged with duties relating to plans for the use of military forces in the theatre of war. It also supervises the location and armament of coast and land fortifications; and it estimates the military forces that would be required and the times at which they would be needed in all possible circumstances of uational defense. 11. The Special Staff. There is also a Special Staff under the Chief of Staff. On this Special Staff are the Inspector General's Department and the Legislative and Liaison Division. 12. The Inspector General's Department. The Inspector General's Department, the head of which is the Inspector General, is charged in general with inquiring into and reporting upon all matters which affect the efficiency and economy of the Army. It makes investigations, inspections and reports as necessary to carry out these duties as pre- scribed by law, or as directed by the Secretary of War, the Chief of Staff, or as requested by the Commanding Generals of the Army Ground Forces, Army Air Forces, or the Service of Supply. 13. The Legislative and Liaison Division. The Legislative and Liaison Division is charged with supervising the preparation of legislation requested by the War Depart- ment and reports to Committee of Congress, and with maintaining liaison with Congress. However, reports on legislation affecting the Army Ground Forces, the Army Air Forces, or the Services of Supply may be assigned to the command concerned in the legislation for preparation. 14. Bureau of Public Relations. The War Department Bureau of Public Relations is the agency which disseminates military information to the public from the War De- partment and establishes public relations policies and practices under general policies set by the Secretary of War and the Chief of Staff. The Bureau of Public Relations main- tains liaison with other Government agencies on matters of mutual interest in the field of public relations, and is the agency for distributing to the public all informative material of general public interest. It refers to the Public Relations Officer, Service of Supply, publicity and censorship concerning procurement, contracts, production, materiel, labor relations and morale, speeches to workers and commendations of their efforts, plant visits by the press, and activities of the Under Secretary of War. The dealings with the public of the Army Ground Forces, Army Air Forces, and Serv- ices of Supply come under the supervision of the Bureau of Public Relations. There is also direct contact between the Bureau and commanders in the field, who establish their own public relations offices and are responsible for carrying out the established War De- partment public relations policies. Questions 1. a. What department of the Federal Government administers and controls the Army? b. What is the title of the head of the department? c. Is he a civilian or an officer? d. What place has he in the official family of the President? MILITARY ORGANIZATION.—GENERAL 145 e. What are some of his military responsibilities? f. Name some non-military activities he supervises. g. What assistance has he? 2. What are some of the duties of the Under Secretary of War? 3. What is the principal duty of the Assistant Secretary of War? 4. a. What is the name of the group in the War Department which has the duties of preparing plans for the national defense? b. What is the title of the senior officer of this group? c. What is his duty in war? 5. What are the duties of the Deputy Chiefs of Staff? 6. a. How many divisions has the War Department General Staff? b. Name each division. CHAPTER III THE ORGANIZATION OF THE ARMY FORCES 15. The Various Forces of the Army. The forces comprising the combat and service elements of the Army of the United States are in six main groups: the Task Forces, the Defense Commands, the Theatres of Operations, the Army Ground Forces, the Army Air Forces, and the Services of Supply. 16. The Task Forces. The task forces are forces formed and trained for special missions usually to be carried out at places outside the United States. 17. The Defense Commands. The defense commands are the military forces within certain strategic areas of the United States and its possessions. The commanding gen- eral of each defense command has a suitable staff which assists him in coordinating, pre- paring, and initiating the execution of plans for the use of the Army Forces and in- stallations of the Command against the action of the enemy. The following are defense commands: Northeast Defense Command. Central Defense Command. Southern Defense Command. Western Defense Command. Caribbean Defense Command (including the Panama Canal Department). The commanding generals of the Defense Commands also coordinate plans for the em- ployment of all Army forces with special plans of Naval units. 18. The Troops in Theatres of Operations. Naturally, the Army forces and installations in each theatre of operations where we are fighting the enemy are under a single commander. Such commanders fight in coordination with the forces of our Navy, the armed forces of our Allies. 19. The Army Ground Forces. a. The Commanding General of the Army Ground Forces. The Commanding General, Army Ground Forces (Plate 2), under policies prescribed by the Chief of Staff, is charged in general with the functions, responsibilities, and authorities of command authorized by law, Army Regulations, and custom, over individuals and units assigned to the Army Ground Forces. b. Mission. The mission of the Army Ground Forces is to provide ground force units properly organized, trained, and equipped for combat operations. c. Duties. Among many assigned duties of the Army Ground Forces are the following: (1) The operation of Infantry, Field Artillery, Coast Artillery, and Cavalry re- placement training centers. (2) The operation of schools for all Army Ground Forces, including officer can- didate schools for these forces. - (3) The provision of basic training for individuals in the Army Ground Forces inducted in excess of replacement training center capacity. (4) The organization of tactical units as directed by the War Department. ºsºoJo， punoiſ) ſuurv 9ų, go uoņezquießuo ºg øyet， Q 3：0 ， !* Q（√∞ $（COLLOEOTT， 9^， •{N（N））, ±0 NCONJA）， Rae "G Gº №tſ，9 TŪNOTA√∞&0\} ·°C， 200，Mºri -n\！ ONS， 20 ºſ ºſſ （lºº ºſ ſae. W • «Orr （A， KO I №r №ſſ№ º ”Sºul •C， LÀ 9，0 Aſael №rdW] ',[№nooxos aoſ was maes] [quae]] 15T ON， OO “TOO AOSQ3|N|01$Sv Swae [o：\!3AO， 1630xwvi]0 1 Nº， №vºidae|rºwsou vunv ||sovo，davonul№ º• SON WWW.OO.SONwWWOO E [+] № № № Eſt-] Erºſ-, E-J ||- |||-I №nuſsº:] [ Nouvivossºvul)| sınawsuinosu ¡l|QININIWA （Jl.|EE ||±±\/1S |SON|1\?\ſ?（&O | || ±（√1$ O NWYOMIÐSNOU）^Tº， º 911S11，7183 H l &O dºllſſº)ºntºſ， S30&O=}qņotºAWèiº “Tº Mae Nº.9 9NION， WWOO MILITARY ORGANIZATION.—GENERAL 147 (5) The training of all tactical units assigned to the Army Ground Forces. (6) The organization, equipment, and training of such task forces as are directed by the Chief of Staff. (7) The development of tactical and training doctrine, tables of organization, tables of basic allowances, military characteristics of weapons and equipment, and operational changes needed in equipment for the Infantry, Field Artillery, Coast Artillery, Cavalry, and specialized combat units. Under the Chief of the Requirements Division of the Army Ground Forces there is a separate section for each of the combat arms of the Army Ground Forces. Headed by a general officer from the arm concerned, each such section is charged with the responsibility of furthering the orderly continuity and progressive development of its arm. The Chief of the Requirements Division coordinates the various sections in the interests of the Army Ground Forces as a whole. (8) The supply of Infantry, Field Artillery, Coast Artillery and Cavalry personnel to the Army Air Forces, Services of Supply, defense commands, theatres of operation and oversea forces in accordance with policies announced by the Chief of Staff. (9) The submission to the Commanding General, Services of Supply, of such recommendations on construction, shelter, training aids, movements, supply, equip- ment, real estate, estimates of funds needed for field training and travel, and such other matters as may be necessary. I (10) The control of the expenditure of funds allocated to the Army Ground Forces. (11) The development jointly with the Commanding General, Army Air Forces, of ground-air support, tactical training, and doctrine in conformity with policies pre- scribed by the Chief of Staff. (12) The use of judicious shortcuts in procedure to expedite operations. d. Commands. The following commands are under the Commanding General, Army Ground Forces: Armies as assigned, the Armored Force, the Antiaircraft Command, the Replacement and School Command, and the Tank Destroyer Command. 20. Army Air Forces. a. The Commanding General, Army Air Forces. Under policies prescribed by the Chief of Staff, the Commanding General, Army Air Forces (Plate 3), is charged in general with the functions, responsibilities, and authorities of command authorized by law, Army Regulations, and custom over individuals and units assigned to the Army Air Forces. b. Mission. The mission of the Army Air Forces is to procure and maintain equip- ment peculiar to the Army Air Forces, and to provide air force units properly organ- ized, trained, and equipped for combat operations. Procurement and related functions will be executed under the direction of the Under Secretary of War. c. Duties. The following are among the duties specifically assigned to the Army Air Forces: (1) The operation of Army Air Forces replacement training centers and schools, including officer candidate schools, for the training of personnel in pilot functions and specialist nonpilot functions of combat and ground crews and in all duties involving the care, supply, and maintenance of aeronautical matériel. (2) The provision of basic training for individuals in the Army Air Forces in- ducted in excess of replacement training center capacity. (3) The organization of air force tactical units as directed by the War Department. (4) The training of all tactical units assigned to the Army Air Forces. (5) The organization, equipment, and training of such task forces as are directed by the Chief of Staff. (6) The development of tactical and training doctrine, tables of organization, tables of basic allowances, military characteristics of aircraft, weapons, and equipment, and operational changes needed in equipment, aircraft, and weapons peculiar to the Army Air Forces. (7) The supply of air force personnel and equipment peculiar to the Army Air Forces, to the Army Ground Forces, Services of Supply, defense commands, theatres of operation, and oversea forces in accordance with policies announced by the Chief of Staff. COMMANDING GENERAL ARMY AIR FORCES CHIEF OF THE AIR STAFF | DEPUTY CHIEF OF THE AIR STAFF | POLICY | | | | * AIR | | | | | | | OPERATIONS DIRECTOR ~& 2- - DIRECTOR R º; § S OlfrecTOR AIR JJºe 8UOGET ongon }* * * * * tº º sº tº tº º sº tº º sº º º ºsº ºANAGEMENT MILITARY REQUIREMENTS TECHNICAL SERVICES OFFICER PERSONNEL SURGEON ADVOCATE OFFICER CONTROL I | I I | | | | | I RECTOR | | blºtcroR RECTOR Difº.c DIRECTOR OirſcroR ongon ongo, on: : ongon DIRECTOR º ſo ontºon ongon | ow. FişCAL Alſº QRGANIZA ": of IZATION: OF RAFFIC O wº GROUND SASE ºldly IO UAL |COMMUN . TööRapirº | TECHNICAL OFFICER ADJUTANT rional | STAT1871CAL LEGISLAfrve SUPPORT SERVICES woºt || rºaning ICA’ſ ON º]|*0 tRN SPECTION PLANºlſº CONTROL PLAN MINQ º H H : TECHNICAL ADVISORS | | | | | | COMMANDS Ti. #..G .. COMMUNICATIONS WEATHER MATERIEL AIR SERVICE FERRY COMMAND COMMAND COMMAND COMMAND COMMAND COMMAND COMMAND COMMAND AIR FORCE (Typicol) I Alſº ºr Gºovºo | BASE | OEFENSE MENT supportſ Sºfºv CES Plate 3. Organization of the Army Air Forces. SECRETARY OF WAR | ORGANIZATION OF THE SERVICES OF SUPPLY WAR PRODUCTION BOARD ARMY AND NAVY MUNITIONS BOARD MILITARY SUPPLY AND SERVICE FUNCY1ONS PROCUREMENT AND RELATED º ADMINISTRATIV COMMANDING GENERAL º E SERVICES OF SUPPLY INSPECTION - 9/8LIG RELATIOM's AND CONTRO CHIEF OF STAFF Ahſ) ºr ſoºn MATION H- SPECIAL DUNDERSECRETARY OF WAR CHIEF OF STAFF ASSISTANTS Director of production T. | | MATERIAL •, I, FIFIFEtitiºn: fil CHIEF OF (f) ----- ºw...! ſºroCUREM RELAT RROCUREMENT AND DISTRIBUTION S th: Buoger and to) (b) OPERATIONS TRAINING PERSONNEL FINANCIAL REQUIREMENTS DEFENSE AIO ADMINISTRATION I —w ſº. _f ſº REQUIREMENTS OPERATING OIVISIONS (d) * -------------- QUARTERMASTER CORP5 OF (e) rRansportation" OR ON ANCE (h) CORPS E NGIN E E RS OEPA R T M. ENT CHEMICAL QENERAL DEPOTS M. E. Di CAL SIGNAL CORPS WARFARE DEPARTMENT SERVICE | CM11. F Of AOMIMISTRATIVE SERVICES | ITIM | | poºr excisance; 1 Cºtſ of | | Crººtſ of ...] statist Aſ).Jºſſa ºf PROvoº'ſ º: Of $º Wvices cºars aws | | Financt *::::: Rvº.cº. G&MERAL. *Aſtºrº- 4 AM 3SºčAll- $º. Oºſtal. $ºvicº Plate 4. Organization of the Services of Supply. GOMMANDING GENERAL ARMY AIR FORCES COMMAND AND PRODUCTION (COMTRACTS) (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Acts as Comptroller for the War Department. Requirements, programs, resources, procurement planning, including consolidation of Air Force require- ments with other requirementS. Includes Air requirements. Each operating division is respon- sible for the training of personnel pertaining to its functions. Reports direct to Secretary of War for Civil functions. l (f) Design, development, purchase, (g) (h) production, Storage, issue, main- tenance. Includes Ports of Embarkation and regulating and reconsignment sta- tions; liaison with Air Force for assignment of Space. Includes present supply functions Of CAC. (i) Field agents of the Operating (j) (k) Divisions on designated functions. Personnel, classification, assign- ment, allotments; National Guard Bureau; Reserve and ROTC affairs. Deals directly with Secretary of War regarding courts-martial and Certain legal matters. 150 MILITARY ORGANIZATION.—GENERAL (8) The approval of general plans governing the construction of stations of the Army Air Forces. (9) The control of the expenditure of funds allocated to the Army Air Forces. (10) The development jointly with the Commanding General, Army Ground Forces, of ground-air support, tactical training, and doctrine in conformity with policies prescribed by the Chief of Staff. (11) The command and control of all Army Air Forces stations and bases not assigned to defense commands or theatre commanders and all personnel, units, and installations thereon, including station complement personnel and activities. (12) The supervision of all air force activities in connection with the research, development, procurement, storage, supply, maintenance, and final disposition of mili- tary aircraft, accessories, supplies, facilities, and appurtenances used in connection therewith, including technical inspection and the issuance of pertinent technical in- structions. & (13) All aerial operations of the Army Air Forces except for those units thereof assigned or attached to other commands. (14) The use of judicious short cuts in procedure to expedite operations. d. Commands. The following commands are under the Commanding General, Army Air Forces; Technical Training Command, Flying Training Command, Proving Ground Command, Communications Command, Weather Command, Matériel Command, Air Service Command, and Ferry Command. 21. Services of Supply. a. The Commanding General, Services of Supply. The Com- manding General, Services of Supply, (Plate 4) on procurement and related matters, acts under the direction of the Under Secretary of War and on military matters reports to the Chief of Staff. The Commanding General, Services of Supply, is charged in general with the functions, responsibilities, and authorities of command authorized by law, Army Regulations, and custom over individuals and units assigned to the Services of Supply. - b. Mission. The mission of the Services of Supply is to provide services and supplies to meet military requirements except those peculiar to the Army Air Forces. c. Duties. The following are among the duties specifically assigned to the Services of Supply: (1) The direction and supervision of engineering research, development, procure- ment, storage, and distribution of supplies and equipment, except those peculiar to the Army Air Forces. (2) The establishment of purchasing and contractual policies and procedure. (3) Transportation and traffic control. (4) Construction for the Army. (5) The consolidation of programs and requirements of the Army with the pro- grams and requirements received from Defense Aid and the Navy and procured by the Army. (6) The securing of War Department funds, the arrangement for their defense and justification before the Bureau of the Budget and Congress, and the control of fiscal policy. . (7) The administration of all functions which are Army-wide in scope and which pertain to personnel as individuals, both military and civilian, to include premilitary training, mobilization of industrial manpower, and labor relations. (8). The operation of replacement, training centers and schools for the supply arms and services, including officer candidate schools. (9) The provision of basic training for individuals in the Services of Supply in- ducted in excess of replacement training center capacity. º (10) The operation of all reception centers. (11) The organization of Services of Supply units as directed by the War Depart- ment. (12) The training of all units assigned to the Services of Supply. (13) The supply of Services of Supply personnel and units to the Army Air Forces, MILITARY ORGANIZATION.—GENERAL 151 Army Ground Forces, theatres of operations, and oversea forces in accordance with the policies announced by the Chief of Staff. - (14) The development of tactical and training doctrine, tables of organization, tables of basic allowances, military characteristics of weapons and equipment, and operational changes needed in equipment for the Services of Supply with certain exceptions. (15) The command and control of all stations except those assigned Army Air Forces, defense commands, and theatres of operations. (16) The use of judicious shortcuts in procedure to expedite operations. d. Operating divisions. There are many operating divisions under the Commanding General, Services of Supply. These are shown in Plate 4. Questions . Name the six main groups of the combat and service elements of the Army? . What is a defense command? . Does the Army Ground Forces contain troops in war zones? . What is the mission of the Army Air Forces? . What is the mission of the Service of Supply? : CHAPTER IV THE COMBAT ARMS AND THE SERVICES 22. The Combat Arms. The combat arms are the Air Forces, and the ground combat arms which are the Infantry, Cavalry, Field Artillery, Coast Artillery Corps, Corps of • Engineers, and Signal Corps. Fighting units of large size include troops of all the ground arms working in cooperation with units of the Air Forces, and assisted by troops of the various services (described in Chapter V). 23. All Elements Important. No one arm wins battles. The combined action of all arms and services is essential to success. The characteristics of each arm and service adapt it to the performance of its special function. The higher commander coordinates and directs the action of all, exploiting their powers to attain the ends sought. Organization depends upon the technique of the particular arm and the method adopted for its employment in combat. To understand the principles of the organiza- tion of any unit it is necessary to know the functions of the unit, the powers and limita- tions of the weapons with which it is armed, and the best means of utilizing this armament in the performance of its functions under probable conditions of combat. 24. Role and Mission of the Combat Arms. a. Infantry. The Infantry is essentially an arm of close combat. Its primary mission in the attack is to close with the enemy and destroy or capture him; in defense, to hold its position and repel the hostile attack. Infantry fights by combining fire, movement, and shock action. It is capable of limited independent action through the employment of its own weapons. The limited fire power of Infantry must be adequately reinforced by the support of artillery, tanks, combat aviation, and other arms. The principal weapons of Infantry are the rifle and bayonet, the carbine, the auto- matic rifle, and the machine gun. Other weapons include mortars, pistols, antittank guns, hand grenades, rifle grenades, and 105-mm howitzers. Infantry units completely motorized organically or by attachment are specially suited for the close support of mechanized units or for prompt dispatch as mobile reserves to distant areas accessible by road. Infantry troops, with equipment and supplies, may also be transported by aircraft to seize decisive objectives or to operate in the enemy's rear area. b. Cavalry. Cavalry consists of highly mobile ground units, horse, motor, and mech- anized. Horse units may be transported in trucks or semi-trailers in order to increase their mobility or to conserve animals. Cavalry is characterized by a high degree of battlefield mobility. Its special value is derived from the rapidity and ease with whi its fire power can be moved from one position or locality to another. - 152 MILITARY ORGANIZATION_GENERAL Cavalry obtains its best results by the rapidity and flexibility of its methods in attack and defense rather than by the sustained offensive or defensive operations that are re- quired of Infantry. Horse cavalry can operate over almost any terrain and under all conditions of weather. It is equipped with weapons similar to those of Infantry and has considerable fire power; it is provided with means for rapid signal communication, scout cars for reconnaissance, and motor transport for supply. Horse cavalry habitually maneuvers mounted, but ordinarily fights on foot. As a rule, mounted maneuver is combined with dismounted action. The cavalry also has hippo-mechanized units which are used as corps reconnaissance elementts. The mechanized regiments are part of the armored force but are not, strictly speaking, cavalry units. - c. Field Artillery. Field artillery contributes to the action of the entire force through the fire support it gives other arms. It has two principal missions in combat: (1) It supports infantry (cavalry) (armored) units by fire, neutralizing or destroy- ing those targets which are most dangerous to the supported arms. (2) It gives depth to combat by counterbattery fire, by fire on hostile reserves, by restricting movement by the enemy, and by disrupting hostile command agencies. d. Coast Artillery Corps. The Coast Artillery is characterized by the great amount of fire it can deliver against naval and air targets. Its armament comprises fixed and mobile seacoast artillery, fixed and mobile antiaircraft artillery, and submarine mines. In the defense of coast lines the missions of the Coast Artillery Corps are: (1) In conjunction with the Air Corps and the Navy, to protect the fleet, (or de- tachments) while at, entering, or debouching from its bases; to defeat naval and air attacks against harbor defenses, naval bases, cities, or other important areas. (2) To supportt (with mobile seacoast artillery and antiaircraft artillery) the In- fantry and the other arms in beach defenses. In field operations, mobile seacoast artillery may serve as army or GHQ reserve ar- tillery. Mobile antiaircraft artillery in conjunction with the Air Corps assists the other arms against hostile air observation and attack. It reinforces the antitaircraft measures of other troops, protects the vital elements of a command, and in rear areas protects air- dromes and other sensitive points. An essential agency of antiaircraft artillery is its intelligence service. This service gathers and transmits information of the enemy's air activities for use in connection with the employment of the antiaircraft artillery units. The aircraft warning service also provides the antiaircraft artillery with information regarding hostile aircraft. Rapid in- terchange of information between these services is essential. e. Air Forces. The Air Forces combat hostile aircraft, operates in conjunction with ground and naval forces in land and sea warfare, and conducts independent attacks against enemy objectives on land and sea. - - The term combat aviation refers to bombardment and pursuit aviation. The term bombardment aviation is applied to units whose primary function is the attack of sur- face objectives. The term pursuit aviation is applied to units whose primary function is air fighting. The term reconnaissance aviation is applied to units whose primary function is reconnaissance of distant objectives. The term photographic aviation is applied to units whose function is photographic reconnaissance and air mapping photography. The term observation aviation is applied to units whose primary functions are reconnaissance and observation of near objectives, observation of artillery fire, and maintaining contact be- tween elements of our own ground forces. Balloon units are included within the term observation aviation. Transport aviation is employed to transport Air Forces personnel, certain Air Forces supplies, special units of Infantry and other troops dispatched on distant missions in friendly or hostile territory, and emergency supplies to fast-moving or isolated ground units. MILITARY ORGANIZATION_GENERAL 153 f. Corps of Engineers. The Corps of Engineers has the primary missions of construc- tion and demolition to increase the combat effectiveness of troops, facilitate their move- ment, and hinder the movement of the enemy. Engineers increase the combat power of other arms by performing combat missions, by technical assistance in the construction of protective works and camouflage, and by the supply of necessary equipment requiring special equipment and training. Combat engineers participate artively in the penetration of hostile obstacles and the capture of fortified localities, and in the defense of road blocks or mine fields. General engineer troops, including combat and aviation engineers, perform a wide variety of duty; special engineer troops are organized into topographic, camouflage, rail- way operating, water supply, ponton, dump truck, depot, and shop units. General en- gineer units are organic with the division corps, and army. Special engineer troops are assigned to the army and subordinate units, and both general and special engineer troops to the communication zone as required. g. Signal Corps. Signal Corps troops have the primary combat mission of providing signal communication for the command to which they are assigned. Signal Corps troops assigned to divisions, corps, and armies comprise construction units for the installation of wire circuits; and operating unts for the installation of wire centrals and radio stations, and the operation of message centers, messenger, wire, radio, and visual communication. In addition, Signal Corps troops assigned to field armies in- clude units which provide signal intelligence, photographic, pigeon, signal, repair, and supply service. h. Chemical Warfare Service. Troops of the Chemical Warfare Service engage di- rectly in combat to assist other units of the field forces by the use of gas, smoke, and in- cendiaries. 25. Functions of the Services. a. Adjutant General's Department. This agency operates the Army Postal Service; classifies members of the Army according to skills, abilities, and aptitudes, prepares machine personnel records, issues official publications, procures and initially assigns officers and enlisted men, handles transfers between the Ground Forces, Air Forces, and Services of Supply, and keeps all permanent records. b. Inspector General's Department. In general the functions of the Inspector Gen- eral's Department are to inquire into and report upon matters which affect the efficiency and economy of the field forces and to make such inspections, investigations, and reports as proper authority may direct. Ordinarily these inspections include unit administration, police sanitation, care of sick and wounded, supply, equipment, transportation, messing, money accounts, discipline, morale, and unserviceable property. c. Judge Advocate General's Department. The Judge Advocate General's Department is charged with the supervision of the administration of military justice, including advice on general court-martial charges before trial is directed, review of records of trials by courts-martial and other military tribunals, rendering such other legal services and advice as may be required by proper authority, the custody or disposition of records of all general and special courts-martial, courts of inquiry, and military commissions. d. Quartermaster Corps. The Quartermaster Corps is charged in general with: Procurement, storage, and issue of all supplies of standard manufacture and of all supplies common to two or more arms and services, including motor and animal-drawn transportation, except special or technical items to be procured or issued exclusively by other services. In conjunction with tthe Ordnance Department, it is responsible for third and fourth echelon maintenance of motor vehicles. Arrangements for movement of troops and supplies transported by common carrier and by military railways and inland waterways. Operation of such water transportation of the Army as may be assigned to the theatre of operations. Operation of a general service pool of labor within divisions and larger units. Operation of docks and facilities pertaining thereto. Operation as may be required of bakeries, sales commissaries; refrigerating, incinerat- ing, printing (except engineer reproduction), and salvage plants; gardens or agricultural 154 MILITARY ORGANIZATION-GENERAL farms; laundries; baths; fire protection stations; baggage collection depots; cemeteries; and paint, blacksmith, carpenter, plumbing, and motor repair shops. Operation of a graves registration service, including acquisition of land for burial places for deceased personnel; maintenance control, and preservation of cemeteries; burial of the dead, marking and official recording of graves, and receipt, collection, and disposition of all personal effects of the dead. Procurement of real estate and facilities including land, buildings, piers, docks, or wharves; office and storage space; obtaining rights-of-way and easements; settlement of all claims arising from use or occupancy of real estate; and leasing accommodations for use as quarters for individuals, organizations, or detachments. e. Finance Department. It is charged with procurement, custody, accounting, and disbursement of Government funds, including payment of troops; payment for supplies purchased or requisitioned, for damages and claims, and for hired labor; securing reim- bursement for public property lost, damaged, or destroyed through fault or neglect; reimbursement for shortages in public funds; preparation of estimates for funds; and the custody of financial records including postal funds. f. Medical Department. Principal service functions of the Medical Department are evacuation, hospitalization, and sanitation, and procurement, storage, and issue of medical supplies. The Medical Department is charged with care of sick and wounded men and animals, including provision for and operation of installations and transporta- tion (except hospital trains) necessary for their evacuation and hospitalization; pre- vention of disease, including direction and supervision of measures of public health among inhabitants of occupied territory; procurement, storage, issue and maintenance of medical supplies and equipment not specifically required to be furnished by other services; sanitation, including inspection of meats, meat foods, and dairy products; and preparation and proper disposition of medical records. The Medical Department is organized into the Medical Corps, the Dental Corps, the Veterinary Corps, the Medical Administrative Corps, the Sanitary Corps, and the Army Nurse Corps. g. Ordnance Department. The Ordnance Department is charged with: Supply and maintenance of ammunition, arms and armament (less chemical warfare), armored and track vehicles, fire-control instruments, and other designated equipment and supplies. - Distribution of ammunition up to point of issue to unit trains except in the case of air force units, for which service is provided up to the airplane. Reclamation of abandoned, and disposition of captured, ordnance supplies. Ordnance troops are organized basically into separate maintenance, ammunition, and depot units, except for those servicing the air force. Maintenance units normally are assigned to divisions, corps, armies, and the air force. Depot and ammunition units are normally assigned to armies and the communica- tions zone. h. Chemical Warfare. The principal service functions of the Chemical Warfare Service is to provide chemical materials and gas defense appliances. In general, chemical weapons and munitions used exclusively by chemical troops, and protective devices and materials for all troops, are procured, stored, issued, and maintained by the Chemical Warfare Service. i. Chaplains. The Chaplains promote morality and religion. The duties of chaplains are analogous to those performed by clergymen in civilian life. They may be assigned duties pertaining to graves registration. j. Combat Arms which have service functions. The following combat arms also have service functions: (1) The Air Forces have administrative functions which include procurement, storage, issue, maintenance, and repair of all aeronautical equipment and supplies used by the Air Forces which are not specifically required to be furnished by other arms or services. . . . " (2) The Corps of Engineers is charged with construction, repair, and maintenance MILITARY ORGANIZATION.—GENERAL 155 of structures of every character (except telephone and telegraph systems and other signal communications for use of troops), such as roads, bridges; shelter for troops, animals, and materials; landing fields, wharves, and railroads; operation of military railways; water supply; installation of utilities and operation of such of them as are of general serv- ice except such as are specifically assigned to other arms and services; surveying, mapping, production and distribution of maps, and photographic and cinematographic work per- taining to terrestrial reconnaissance; procurement, storage, and issue of engineer materials, including camouflage. (3) The Coast Artillery Corps is charged with procurement, storage, and issue of submarine mining material. (4) The Signal Corps. Principal service functions of the Signal Corps are procure- ment, storage, issue, and repair of signal, meteorological and cyptographic equipment and supplies of electrical apparatus associated with direction finding and with range finding, and of equipment designated as required in connection with the Aircraft Warning Service; procurement and supply of photographs and motion pictures and of photographic supplies and equipment, except those required by other arms and services for special purposes, preparation, publication, revision, storage, accounting for, and distribution of all codes and ciphers; and installation, maintenance, and operation of all military signal communication systems and equipment including military cable, tele- phone, and telegraph lines, radio apparatus and stations. Questions . Name four “Arms.” . Name six “Services.” . What are the characteristics of the Infantry? . What are the characteristics of the Cavalry? . What is the role of Field Artillery? . What are the three missions of the Coast Artillery Corps? . What are the combat duties of the Corps of Engineers? . a. What is the mission of the Air Forces? b. Name five classes of aviation. . What is the principal mission of the Signal Corps? . What are the functions of the following services: Inspector General Department? . Judge Advocate General Department? Quartermaster Corps? . Finance Department? Medical Department? Ordnance Department? . Chemical Warfare? . Chaplain Corps? . : i CHAPTER V TERRITORIAL ORGANIZATION 26. General Organization. In accordance with existing laws and orders of the Presi- dent, the War Department has organized the continental United States and its foreign possessions, Plate 5, into Corps Areas and Departments for the purpose of administra- tion; into Defense Commands, Air Forces, and Coastal Frontiers, for tactical purposes; into Armies for both administrative and tactical purposes. The Armies are organized for training and tactical purposes into Army Corps and Divisions. The Caribbean Defense Command includes the Panama Canal and Puerto Rican Departments for the purpose of centralization of command in defense of the Atlantic side of the Panama Canal. The Army areas in the continental United States are primarily for the purpose of supervising training of troops assigned to the particular areas; while the defense com- mands are primarily for the purpose of tactical employment of troops in the defense of those strategic areas. 156 MILITARY ORGANIZATION_GENERAL ff and d co- *Iff6I 34 erſ go sºļJepunoſ JºņuoJ） I IeņSOO put， ‘sº 0.10.） I JĮV ‘sputaeuuuuoo osuagºo I ºseaIV AuJW ºg øqeļaſ who is assisted by a general sta a special staff. The Army Commander also commands a defense command an ordinates the corresponding Air Force. 3. 27. Four Armies. Each Army includes all or part of the troops of two or three corps 28. Corps Areas. 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N（0%) ?//.*ž2 Aº „º●//●2°/ -■_2=a，//•Q2 ±’,|ºr_Q}！ 2 Źr?“), ;Ar 9n? ž.），�’’’, ;��İ| 2 ...º ^ （^/ N， º. . . ）.. - - - - - -！»•• 2£<~~~~. /<！---*}2ť 2. ? 2*--------\|#--#-- -----|||'(^2 •E======） ¡ ¿\ \\\ QNwwwOO 3ŠŅ3ģ30«ęí Rū\È% į QNºwNWQQ 3SNĘ330\Två LN33',%----!i× × × ×ſą */^./�/•••• •• • _： §y}}}}}}Q}{f\__,į“-~.-.-.-.-.-.-º "h,QNºw???șŅĒģ3q , №ſ įſ. <%._.. • • ** *•--;4",|Nºſals：\~ . .asaegg34 2№ť'''www.\\\\\\\\\\\N\\\\\į|×"ı,| Mi+54 NQ\\\\*-±*** ~ ~ ！==| 1~~ \● +/-~' 2 &MY “oš$;',_fr=*）\ \ |y| )?? șwww.„s=\�…? \, Sį Cºwanºssº--|"ı,\ ./|? （~~~~.)|'',|? X-váį|\, # -1 záN-7 | �•~.~.)§F| MILITARY ORGANIZATION.—GENERAL 157 in the corps areas. Each corps area is commanded by a major general who has a general and a special staff to assist him. 29. Composition of Corps Areas and Armies. The following shows the composition of the various armies and corps areas early in 1942: a. Corps Areas First Corps Area—Headquarters, Boston, Mass. Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Lsland, Connecticut. Second Corps Area—Headquarters, Governors Island, New York. New Jersey, Delaware, New York. Third Corps Area—Headquarters, Baltimore, Md. Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, District of Columbia. Fourth Corps Area—Headquarters, Atlanta, Ga. North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Tennessee, Mississippi, Louisiana. Fifth Corps Area—Headquarters, Fort Hayes, Columbus, Ohio. Ohio, West Virginia, Indiana, Kentucky. Sixth Corps Area—Headquarters, Chicago, Illinois. Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin. Seventh Corps Area—Headquarters, Omaha, Nebr. Missouri, Kansas, Arkansas, Iowa, Nebraska, Minnesota, North Dakota, South Dakota, Wyoming. Eighth Corps Area—Headquarters, Fort Sam Houston, San Antonio, Texas. Texas, Oklahoma, Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona (in part). Ninth Corps Area—Headquarters, Presidio of San Francisco, Calif. Washington, Oregon, Idaho, Montana, Utah, Nevada, Arizona (in part), Cali- fornia, Alaska, (attached). b. Armies First Army—Headquarters, Governors Island, N. Y. Troops of 1st, 2d, 3d, and 4th (in part) Corps areas. Second Army—Headquarters, Memphis, Tenn. Troops of 4th (in part), 5th, 6th, 7th (in part), and 8th (in part) Corps Areas. Third Army—Headquarters, San Antonio, Texas. Troops of 4th, 8th, and 9th Corps areas (part of each). Fourth Army—Headquarters, Presidio of San Francisco, Calif. Troops of 7th and 9th Corps areas (part of each). 30. Departments. In addition to the corps areas the overseas possessions of the United States were organized into four departments, namely: Philippine Department Hawaiian Department Panama Canal Department Department of Puerto Rico 31. Assignment of National Guard Divisions. (Fig. 1, Plate 6.) a. Infantry. The National Guard infrantry divisions, and the States and corps areas from which they were inducted into Federal Service, are as follows: 158 MILITARY ORGANIZATION.—GENERAL Corps Area Division States I. . . . . . . . . 26th Division. ... Massachusetts I. . . . . . . . . 43d Division. ... Connecticut, Maine, Rhode Island, Vermont II. . . . . . . . . 27th Division. . . . New York II. . . . . . . . . 44th Division.... New Jersey, New York III. . . . . . . . . 28th Division. ...Pennsylvania - III . . . . . . . . . 29th Division....Maryland, Virginia, District of Columbia, Pennsylvania IV . . . . . . . . . 30th Division. ...Georgia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee IV . . . . . . . . . 31st Division. ... Alabama, Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi V. . . . . . . . . 37th Division. ...Ohio V. . . . . . . . . 38th Division. ...Indiana, Kentucky, West Virginia VI. . . . . . . . . 32d Division. . . . Michigan, Wisconsin VI. . . . . . . . . 33d Division. . . . Illinois VII. . . . . . . . . 34th Division. . . . Iowa, Minnesota, North Dakota, South Dakota VII . . . . . . . . . 35th Division. ... Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska VIII . . . . . . . . . 36th Division. . . .Texas VIII . . . . . . . . . 45th Division. ...Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, Oklahoma IX. . . . . . . . . 40th Division....California, Nevada, Utah IX. . . . . . . . . 41st Division....Idaho, Montana, Oregon, Washington, Wyoming b. There were many other National Guard units, not a part of numbered divisions, located in most of the States shown in the above table, in New Hampshire, Delaware, and Arkansas, in Puerto Rico, Hawaii, and Alaska. 32. Assignment of Organized Reserve Divisions. The assignment of organized re- serve divisions when war began is shown in Figure 2, Plate 6. There were three Re- serve divisions in each corps area. 33. Defense Commands. As the conduct of the war requires, the continental United States is divided into strategic areas, each of which is called a Defense Command. There is a commanding general for each defense command, who with the assistance of his staff' coordinates or prepares and carries out all plans for the use of Army Forces and installations in operations against the enemy in their commands. 34. Territorial Organization for Combat. (Plate 7.) a. The theatre of tvar. The theatre of war comprises those areas of land and sea which are or may become directly involved in the conduct of war. t b. A theatre of operations comprises land and sea areas it is desired to invade or de- fend, including what is necessary for administrative establishments and agencies pertain- ing to the forces in the theatre. Its area is designated by the War Department. There may be one or several theatres of operations. c. For decentralization of control, a theatre of operations is divided normally into a combat zone, the area required for active operations and immediate administration of the combat forces, and a communications zone, containing the area required for admin- istration of the theatre as a whole. Initially in a campaign a theatre of operations may include only a combat zone, in- stallations and facilities of the zone of the interior being utilized directly for the service of the field forces. $ d. The combat zone comprises the forward area of the theatre of operations where most of the fighting is done. Its depth is dependent upon size of the forces assigned, nature of the operations contemplated, character of the lines of communication, im- portant terrain features, and enemy capabilities. The combat zone is divided into army, corps, and division areas, each comprising the zone of operations of the unit. The army service area is the territory between the corps rear boundary and the combat zone rear boundary. The mass of army administrative establishments and army service troops is usually located in this area. e. The communications 20me includes all the territory of the theatre of operations be- tween the rear boundary of the theatre (fixed by the War Department) and the tear Aloiska ottoched to IX Corpe CineCl Note 39th ond 42d Divisions not ollotted. zº zºº. I ** 57 43 [T] Af * ſº Al º §ston **TH) ºx, £4% xxx º C CO . A)/ º §º -vº, iſ, wº Fº "Tº Ai Y . LEGEND anańtools —xxx– Corps area boundary -xx— Division boundary |t| Corps area headquarters & ,-,-º'-' C V Fig. 1. National Guard Divisions Upon Induction. * Alaska attached to IX Corps area. LEGEND San Anton's -xxx— Corps orea boundary -ºx– Division boundon, Corps orea headquarters Fig. 2. Organized Reserves—Divisions Areas. Plate 6. National Guard and Organized Reserve Divisions as the War Began. 160 MILITARY ORGANIZATION.—GENERAL boundary of the combat zone (designated by the commander of the theatre of opera- tions). Laterally, it is usually coextensive with the theatre of operations. Within this zone are located the principal establishments of supply, transportation, and evacuation, and other administrative agencies required for the immediate support of the forces in the theatre. l k l lº ºf Line. NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNSSSKSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS- l | X ! X X X X X X X § l. ...] ..l- Q N tº. X : X X X X § X X X § X | X ^g X X X ...— ... ARMY SERVICE AREA BASE SECTION th- X X X X AJ A. § ADVANCE SECTION N § OOO S § INTERMEDIATE SECTION § O OO § S OOOO BOUNDARY \LLGEND: •=X X DIV\5\ONS -X X X-CORPS -X X X X- ARMY —OOO–SECTiotſ,communications zone —OOOO– COMMUNICATION 5 ZONE. Plate 7. Typical Organization of Theatre of Operations. f. The zone of the interior comprises the area of the national territory, exclusive of areas included in theatres of operations. The mission of the zone of the interior is to exploit and develop the national resources in men and material required for military purposes and to supply the means required by the commander of the field forces at such times, in such quantities, at such places, and in such manner and form as will assure him the freedom of action necessary for the accomplishment of his mission. Questions 1. a. Into how many armies is the continental area of the United States divided? b. Into how many corps areas? MILITARY ORGANIZATION_GENERAL 161 2. Why do we make a distinction between territorial organization and tactical organi- zation? 3. What is a defense command? 4. Into what territorial divisions is the theatre of operation divided? CHAPTER VI TACTICAL ORGANIZATION 35. General. The preceding paragraphs are intended to give an outline of the broad general features of the territorial organization of the Army of the United States and of the principal agencies of national defense and their missions. The rest of this section will deal with tactical organization, which means the composition of units (combat and service) from the smallest to the largest into field forces, both for combat and for administration. Tactical organization is based on tactical employment and on command. Organization for tactical employment is based on the methods of fighting of the various units. Organization for command is based on control discipline and admin- istration. In the organization of all units lower than the division, the requirements of command in battle exercise a controlling influence. Those requirements are harmonized as far as practicable with those of tactical employment. In the organization of divi- sions and all higher units, the requirements of tactical employment are of primary im- portance. 36. Commanders. A combat or a service element or a combination of the two is commanded by some individual who is either a commissioned or a noncommissioned officer. - a. Commissioned officers. Members of the military forces of the United States who are appointed and commissioned as officers in the Army are known as commissioned officers. The lowest officer in grade is the second lieutenant. Next in order of seniority are: first lieutenant, captain, major, lieutenant colonel, colonel, brigadier general, major general, lieutenant general, and general. The lieutenants and the captain are often spoken of as “company,” “troop,” or “battery” officers; the major, lieutenant colonel, and colonel as “field officers;” and the brigadier general, major general, lieu- tenant general, and general, as “general officers.” b. Noncommissioned officers. The grades held by noncommissioned officers are: corporal (lowest grade), sergeant, staff sergeant, technical or first sergeant, and master sergeant. They form a large and indispensable part of the military organization. 37. The Basic Principle of Organization. The basic principle of organization is founded on the fact that the number of individuals capable of being effectively person- ally controlled by a single leader is strictly limited and that organization into units enables a commander to visualize readily what he has available to fight with. On the basis of this principle there has been evolved a system of control, known as the chain of com- mand, which makes possible the direction of a large number of individuals by a single leader by means of subordinate leaders. Other things which affect organization are the particular duty for which a unit is organized or, in military language, its mission, and the type of armament or equipment it has with which to carry out its mission. Then, there must be considered the assistants needed by a leader or commander in effectively directing and controlling his organization. Special troops are also needed to provide the necessary food and transportation for the organization as a whole. Naturally, in order to have as many officers and men as possible for purely combat uses, the men who direct and supply a unit are held to the minimum consistent with efficient service. All of these factors are discussed in detail in later paragraphs. 38. The Effect of Armament on the Size of an Organization. Squads are organized according to their missions and the weapons with which they are armed. For example: In the Infantry rifle squad, twelve men, including the sergeant and the corporal, are grouped together with various individual weapons, including the rifle, the bayonet, and the grenades. An entire battery of field artillery is necessary to man and serve four field FA1 (1) 162 MILITARY ORGANIZATION.—GENERAL pieces. Some of the larger railway artillery pieces take a full, organized battery of Coast Artillery to handle a single gun. Thus organization is influenced, not only by the num- ber of individuals whom a single leader can personally handle with efficiency, but also by the mission and the weapon of each particular unit. 39. The Chain of Command. The question immediately presents itself, if one leader can control only a few subordinates, how is it that there have been great and successful leaders of hundreds of thousands of men. The answer is of course, that this number has not been personally controlled by the single leader. He has made his leadership felt through a long and complicated system of subordinate leaders, and with the help of many assistants. The leader of the great and successful American Expeditionary Force in France, General Pershing, gave direct orders to only a handful of immediate subordinates. They in turn each directly controlled a few other subordinates, until the orders, fanning out through the vast network of the military machine, finally reached the private in the ranks. This direct but invisible system of military control is known as the chain of command. Without it no military organzation could operate. It is like an electric impulse, originating from a single button, which is carried through a complicated series of wires to perform useful work at a hundred different points. 40. Duties of Commanders. The duties of all commanders can be divided into four principal groups as follows: Personnel, Military intelligence, Operations and Training, Supply. - As the number of elements or units grouped under one commander is increased, a point is soon reached where the multiplicity of details requiring consideration by the commander is so great that they cannot be handled by one person. Therefore, in all units larger than a squad we find men who aid the commander in carrying out his duties. 41. Assistants for the Commander. a. Headquarters units and staffs. (Plate 8) All units except some of the squads contain men who aid the commander in carrying out his duties. The commander together with these men constitute what is known in all units, except the squad, as the headquarters. In units larger than the company a part of this group is known as the staff of the commander. All members of the staff are commissioned officers, though they are assisted by many enlisted men who are not members of the staff but belong to the various headquarters units. In units smaller than a division, staff members are designated by the letter S followed by a number referring to their specific duties. Thus, S-1 (which means “Staff, first section”) attends to personnel matters; S-2 is concerned with reconnaissance and the collection of information concerning the enemy; S-3 specializes in training and in combat plans; S-4 takes care of the supplies for the unit. S-1 is also known as the adjutant; S-2, the intelligence officer; S-3, the operations officer; and S-4, the supply officer. There is also an assistant to the commander known as the executive officer, who has direct charge of the staff. Often several staff functions are given to one officer to perform. Some staff officers have no other duties except staff duties, while others have staff duties in addition to their primary jobs as commanders of combat or service elements. 42. The General Staff With Troops. The duties of the General Staff with troops shall be to render professional aid and assistance to the general officers over them; to act as their agents in harmonizing the plans, duties, and operations of the various organizations and services under their jurisdiction, in preparing detailed instructions for the execution of the plans of the commanding generals, and in supervising the execution of such in- Structions. The general staff group of the division and higher units is usually organized into four sections with duties corresponding to the four principal functions indicated above, to- gether with the necessary coordinating personnel, depending upon the size of the unit served. The chiefs of these four staff sections are called assistant chiefs of staff, G-1, G-2, G-3 and G-4. In the “triangular” infantry division there is no assistant chief of staff, G-1. The usual G-1 activities are carried out by the G-4 Section or as may be directed by the division commander. The organization of the general staff group includes: * MILITARY ORGANIZATION.—GENERAL 163 a) A chief of staff. b) A deputy chief of staff (for army and higher units). c) A secretary of the general staff (for army and higher units). d) A personnel section (first section). e) A military intelligence section (second section). f) An operations and training section (third section). g) A supply section (fourth section). 43. Special Staff. In divisions and higher units there are other officers and enlisted specialists (sometimes these are very numerous) to assist the commander and his Gen- eral Staff Group and to give specialized advice and information. This group includes the heads of the technical, supply, and administrative services (such as surgeon, ordnance officer, chemical warfare officer, engineer officer, etc.) and is known as the special staff. UNIT COMMANDER ( ( ( ( ( ( ( Personal oides Chief of Staff Oſ Executive G-l G-2 G-3 G-4 Oſ Oſ Oſ Oſ S-l S-2 i S-3 S-4 SPECIAL STAFF Adjutont. Quarter moster, Ordnance Officer, Surgeon. etc., appropriate to unit Plate 8. Staff Organization. 44. Personal Aides, as authorized by law for certain general officers, form a part of the commander's staff but are not included in the unit staff. Their duties are prescribed by the general officer to whom they are assigned. 45. Relationship of the Staff to the Commander. How is a commander's staff related to him in reference to his exercise of control through the chain of command? As men- tioned previously, staff officers are in reality, assistants to the commander. As such, they are not links in the chain of command, and cannot therefore issue orders on their own behalf. Staff officers, as such, have no authority to command. They may, and frequently do, 164 MILITARY ORGANIZATION_GENERAL issue orders in the name of the commander, but always with his approval and sanction. An order so issued has the same force as one issued by the commander in person. The leader cannot delegate his command responsibilities to anyone, although he may delegate his authority. His is the responsibility for every thing that his unit does or fails to do. Although he must rely to a large extent on the advice and good judgment of his staff officers, he cannot use as an excuse for poor performance the fact that a trusted staff officer made a mistake. The leader justifiably receives the credit for success. He also must shoulder the blame for failure. It is not hard to understand, therefore, why staff officers are selected with great care. When the commander has decided upon a plan or policy, it is the duty of the staff officers of the general staff group to prepare and issue the orders necessary to carry them out and follow these orders up. They have authority, however, to make technical inspec- tions in subordinate units and call for technical reports from similar special staff officers of subordinate units as necessary in supervising the execution of the work with which they are charged. In order to operate successfully, the staff officer must not only have a thorough knowledge of the will and policies of his commander, but he must also have a full, first-hand knowledge of and sympathetic acquaintenance with subordinate commanders and their units. In general, a staff officer should be an active, thoroughly posted assistant to the commander and an adviser helper to subordinate commanders. 46. General Functions of the Staff. The staff assists the commander in carrying out his command duties. It constantly anticipates and provides for the needs of the troops. It secures information for the commander, works out the details of his plan, translates his decision and plan into orders, causes the orders to be transmitted to the troops, ob- serves the execution of the orders, and anticipates and initiates action, within the scope of its authority, to complete the carrying out of the commander's intentions. Teamwork is essential for efficient staff functioning. It is insured by proper coopera- tion and collaboration within and between all sections of the staff, between the staff and the troops of the unit, and with the staffs of lower, higher and adjacent units. 47. Military Organization. (Plate 9.) Military units range in size from a small unit known as the squad to a great force known as the field army. Usually, each unit forms an integral part of a larger unit, thus facilitating direction, control, and supply. a. The squad. The squad is the smallest military unit. It varies in size from five to twelve men, depending upon the particular type of larger unit the squad belongs to, and is usually commanded by a corporal, the lowest ranking leader in the military organization. In large squads a sergeant commands the squad and, as a rule, has an assistant squad leader, a corporal, to assist him. Here, in the squad, is encountered the first link in the chain of command. The leader directly and personally controls from four to ten subordinates known as privates. In an infantry rifle squad he controls ten privates and a corporal. In no other military organization does the leader deal directly with as many individuals as in an infantry rifle squad. b. The section. The next larger organization to the squad in size is in many instances the section, which consists of two or more squads and is commanded by a sergeant. In some units, such as the infantry rifle platoon, the section is omitted and the platoon is composed of three or more squads, each commanded by a sergeant. In the Field Artillery the section comprises the gun squad and the men who drive the trucks. A section usually has as its leader a sergeant (noncommissioned officer). A platoon is always commanded by a lieutenant (commissioned officer). The section generally has a small group known as section headquarters which is provided to help its leader direct and control the section. The chain of command is illustrated here by the fact that the sergeant, section leader, commands two or more corporals, squad leaders, or the lieutenant, as platoon commander, three or more sergeants who are squad leaders. c. The platoon. The platoon, as noted above, is in some units made up of squads, but it often consists of two or more sections, with sergeants as section leaders. The platoon has a platoon command group, which consists of the platoon commander and a few assistants. In the platoon, the chain of command descends either directly to the squad leaders, as in the infantry rifle platoon, or to two or more section leaders. INSIGNIA AND RANK X} x} x} x} GENERAL X} x} x+ t.BUTENANT GENERAL * { FAAJOR GENERAL x- BRIGADIER GENERAL & § º COLONEL LIEUTENANT COLONEL CAPTAIN ! ST LIEUTENANT 23 (Gold) 2 ND LIEUTENANT * SERGEANT CORPORAL NORMAL COMMAND ſlº. LD ARMY CORPS DIVISION BRIGADE REGIMENT BATTALION OR SQUADRON BATTALION OR SQUADRON COMPANY BATTERY OR TROOP RLATOON PLATOON SECTION SQUAD Plate 9. Insignia and Order of Rank. 166 MILITARY ORGANIZATION−GENERAL d. The company (the basic administrative unit). In each arm or service, the com- pany (troop, battery) or similar unit is the basic administrative unit. It contains all the agencies required for subsistence, interior economy, and administration. For purposes of tactical control and training, each company is subdivided into smaller units. Troop organization includes command, combat (tactical), and service elements. Most tactical units contain service elements and have some administrative functions. But a unit is not designated as administrative unless it performs all or nearly all admnistra- tive functions for its components. A company, battery, or troop, at war strength, may have as many as 200 men in it, de- pending upon its type. Obviously, no one man could personally control such a number. But by the chain of command the captain's orders reach every man. The question may well be asked, must the captain always give his orders to his immediate sub- ordinates, the lieutenants, or may he give them direct to sergeants, corporals, or privates? The answer is, that he may do either, but should in general work through his lieutenants. Normally, better results are obtained if orders are given through the chain of command. This makes for efficient organization and also makes certain that instructions are known and understood by all members of the unit. The ability to decentralize execution in this matter is an essential quality of leadership. e. The battalion and squadron. The next higher grouping of organizations is known, in the infantry and artillery, as a battalion, and consists of two, three or four companies or batteries. In the cavalry and air forces the corresponding unit is called a squadron. Battalions and squadrons are commanded by lieutenant colonels. Note that the battalion or squadron commander deals directly, as in other units, with not over four immediate subordinates. - * “The battalion (squadron) or similar unit is the basic tactical unit. It is composed of a headquarters, two or more companies or similar units, and certain special units, organic and attached. Unless organized as a separate battalion it has few administrative func- tions.” f. Regiment. The regiment is both an administrative and a tactical unit. Ordinarily, it consists of a headquarters, a headquarters company and service company, either sepa- rate or combined, and two or more battalions or similar units. It may also include a company or similar unit in which certain special weapons and means are assembled for tactical purposes, economy, instruction, and administration. A regiment is commanded by a colonel. The colonel of an infantry regiment, of a triangular division, for example, has three battalion commanders and three separate com- pany (or a total of six) commanders as the first links in his chain of command. Thus, he gives his orders to six immediate subordinates. t g. Brigade. A brigade is ordinarily a tactical organization composed of two or more regiments of the same arm, together with a headquarters and headquarters company or similar unit. When organized as a separate brigade it may include units of other arms and services and may have administrative functions. The brigade is omitted in tri- angular divisions. h. Large units. The term large units as used in this manual and commonly in the Army refers to divisions and larger units. i. Division. The division is the basic large unit of the combined arms. It comprises a headquarters, infantry (cavalry) (armored) units, field artillery units, and certain troops of other arms and services. It is an administrative as well as a tactical unit. A division is normally commanded by a major general. There are three general types of Infantry divisions—the square division, triangular division, and motorized divi- sion. In addition there may be constituted for special operations, other types of divisions such as mountain divisions which will have special equipment and organization. (1) The square division (Plate 10), has a brigade organization. (2) The triangular division (Plate 11), has no brigade organization, thus eliminat- ing one echelon in the chain of command. It is organized on the basis of having special reconnaissance and security elements attached from the corps of which it is a part. X X INFANTRY DIVISION (SQUARE) !2 21.3 14 k—r—S. DIVISION HEADQUARTERS T/O 7 | 30 & HEADQUARTERS 3. 8 HEADQUARTERS CO T/O 72 5 7; ORDNANCE CO T/O 9.7 & | 40 SIGNAL CO T /O | 1.7 8 HQ AND HQ COMPANY LIGHT MAINTENANCE & CAR BATTALION TRUCK CO TRUCK CO TRUCK BATTALION TRUCK BATTALION | CLEARING CO CLEARING BATTALION CLEARING CO AM81JLANCE CO AMBULANCE CO HY WPNS CO RIFLE CO RIFLE CO SERVICE CO Dºroco H - BATTALION BATTALION HQ AND HQ CoMPANY ë 85 hNFANTRY REGIMENT | 10 | 3229 (NFANTRY REGIMENT f : 0 | 3229 BATTALION HQ AND HQ BTRY SERVICE 8TRY HOWITZER BTRY HOWITZER B, HQ AND HQ Brry BATTALION BATTALION HQ AND HO BTRY BATTALION BATTALION Plate 10. The Square Infantry Division, 1941. Ho AND Ho attery 2 |06 Hºm Ligh-HT REGIMENT | |220 LIGHT REGIMENT | 1220 MEDIUM. REGIMENT 70 | | 612 HQ, Ho AND SERVICE CoMPANY INFANTRY BRIGADE T/O 7.10 226 2 $543 INFANTRY BRIGADE T/O 7.10 226 2 §543 FIELD ARTILLERY BRIGADE T/O 6-10 202 3. 4,53 | | | 40 SPECIAL Tºroops 7/O 7.] 27 649 OM REGIMENT to 10:27, 35 | 660 # 8 22 SERVICE CO MEDICAL REGIMENT W/O 8-24 70 t 986 ATTACHED MEDICAL A CHAPLAN 9| 589 COLLECTING CO HQ, HQ AND SERVICE COMPANY COLLECTING CO COLLECTING CO COLLECTING BATTALION AMBULANCE BATTALION | COMBAT CO combat coºlCO COMBAT CO AMBULANCE CO BATTALION | 4 BATTALION |4 370 ENGINEER REGIMENT T/O 5-1 || 39 | 900 x AX TRIANGULAR INFANTRY DIVISION 624 ë | 4,615 e HEADQUARTERS 26 2 74 | RECONNAISSANCE - HQ) AND HO COMPA | HQ AND HQ DETACHMENT TROOP Q Q COMPANY | BATTALION — & | 4 | INFANTRY H. º COMPANY | | HEAVY WEAPONS COMPANY H REG|MENT - w ; 10 || 3229 ENGINEER l HQ AND HQ BATTALION — COMPANY | | RIFLE COMPANY | BATTALION hºme- company | 8 5 || 6 I INFANTRY | | REGIMENT HEADQUARTERS SERVICE AND MILITARY |ON POLICE COMPANY | RIFLE COMPANY 8ATTALIO COMPANY 7 | 23 H |NFANTRY — HQ AND HQ DETACHMENT | REGIMENT | | | 0 || 3229 MEDICAL CANNON 8ATTALION — I COLLECTING ANTITANK company k- COMPANY 38 482 | COMPANY COLLECTING - | BATTALION |- coºr”. LIGHT ARTILLERY | COLLECTING | SERVICE AND COMPANY | AMMUNITION BATTERY H ATTACHEO | CLEARING - MEDICAL AND COMPANY | | losº owner gamer cº"ºr, º-º. CHAPLAIN _T li ARTILt. 54 380 OiVISION HQ AND HQ Y - |- * ARTILLERY | 105mm HOWłTZER BATTER _H BATTERY | 2 || || 2563 QUARTERMASTER BATTALION ºnaue, | HQ AND HQ COMPANY | | 105mm HOWHTZER BATTERY H LIGHT Arrill ERY T —|| TRUCK COMPANY | ATTALIO MEDIUM ARTILLERY SERVICE AND 155 HOWITZER i55 HOvvi TzER | 55rnrn HOVV ITZER 75mm ANTITANK HQ AND HQ SATTERY | AMMUNITION º | "...Tº "Aº BATTERY BATTERY Plate 11. The Triangular Division Infantry, 1942. Hºa CAVALRY DiVISION (HoRSE) O!ViSION HEADQUARTERS RECONNAISSANCE TROOP | CLEARING T ROOP HEADQUARTERS H JROOP H RECONNAISSANCE T ROOP, | RECONNAISSANCE SQUADRON —L MOTORCYCLE TROOP | — ARMORED TROOP SIGNAL TROOP H HQ, HQ AND SERVICE TROOP | ENGINEER SQUADRON I (COMBAT) | TROOP | ANT. TANK TROOP - — HQ AND HQ TRoo? | QUARTERMASTER L!GHT MA! NT ENA?& CE SQUADRON | TROOP TRUCK TROOP (2/-ion trucks) ORDNANCE COMPANY TRUCK TROOP (MED-MAINT) (2/?-ion semi-trailers) — PACK TROOP | ATACHED sº MEDICAL H HQ AND HQ DETACHMENT | MEDłCAL COLLECTING TROOP SQUADRON VETERINARY TROOP | Plate 12. | | HQ AND HQ TRoop TH | MACHINE GUN TROOP * -- | SPECIAL WEAPONS TROOP RIFLE SQUADRON RIFLE SQUADRON # HQ AnD HQ BATTERY SERVICE & AMMUNITION BATTERY # BATTERY 75rnrn Field Howitzet BATTERY 75mm Field Howitzer BATTERY 75mm Field Howitzer == CAVALRY BRIGADE CAVALRY REGIMENT HQ AND HQ TROOP I CAVALRY BRIGADE WEAPONS TROOP CAVALRY REG | MENT, 75mm HOWITZER BATTALION {HoRSE) 75mm HOWITZER DIVISION BATTALION HQ AND HQ | (HORSE) BATTERY ARTILLERY i05mm HOWITZER BATTALION (TRUCK-DRAWN) | | V - to sororº. Lºß"| The Cavalry Division, 1941. BATTERY | Ornrn HOV/HTZERS BATTERY |05mm HOWITZERS | BATTERY 105mm HOV/HTZERS INFANTRY RIFLE COMPANY R&G MENT BATTALION 77 | 2057 SERVICE 87 RY | 105mm how COMPANY R! PLE COMPANY ANTITANK COMPANY 8'ſ RY | | 05 ºr rn how R!FLE COMPANY HO & HO DET 87 RY (AT 75mm MEDICAL 8AYYALION 25 333 CLEARING COMPANY HQ & HQ CO QUARTER MA $1 ER Y RUCK. COMPANY 8A TT A LiON Q 428 ARMORED DIVISION 612 !2,078 DIVISION HEADQUARTERS HQ AND HEADO UART COMPANY 37 28, ERS HQ & HQ DET HQ & HQ Co HQ & HQ DET | 6 | |4 BATTALION HQ & HQ CO RECONNAISSANCE ARMD CO (L) ARMORED REGT - BATTALION (LIGHT) 4. 7 3 29 ARMD CO (L) 84 622 ARMD CO (L) BATTALION SERVICE COMPANY SiGNAL ARMD CO (L) - ARMORED REGT - (LIGHT) COMPANY & 143 84 ! 622 - HQ & HO CO ARMORED REGT ARMORED H BATTALION HQ & HQ CO Q & HQ DET (MEDIUM) BRIGADE ORDNANCE 55 | | 39 | 200 4 370ſ [Aſſ/ALION MAINT CO (ARMD) ARMD CO (M) 20 - 390 SERVICE COMPANY MAINT CO (ARMD) - ARMD CO (M) BATTALION ARMD CO (M) HQ & HQ CO HO & HQ BTRY SERVICE BATTERY FIELD ARTILLERY NG IN §§ AMMUNIT!ON BTRY REG7 (LIGHT! 25 704 HQ & HQ BTRY HQ & HQ DET 87 RY | 105rnrn how SERVICE BATTERY BATTALION HV WEAPONS CO - - 8TR Y ( ; 05mm HQ & HQ CG) * By RY L MAINT CONAPANY Plate 13. The Armored Division, 1941. Units of the Army t Rank Of Other names for Arms and Services Units Streng º commander units of similar composing the (approximate) (normal) size unit Squad . . . . . . ... 16 or less . . . . . . . Sergeant or tº º e º e º s º ºs e º ºs º º e ºs º e º 'º «» COrpOral. Section . . . . . . . . 2-136 . . . . . . . . . . . Sergeant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . e Found in nearly all Platoon . . . . . . . . 4-177 . . . . . . . . . . . Second or first | Called “subflights” | | arms and services. lieutenant. in the Air Corps. Composed only of troops f r O m a COImpally . . . . . . 12-700 . . . . . . . . . Captain . . . . . . . . Called “batteries” in | | Single arm or serv- the Field and Coast ice, except that Artillery; “troops” | ?-chaplains and medi- in the Cavalry; cal personnel form “flights” in the part of any regi- tº Air Corps. ment of any arm Or Service. Battalion . . . . . . 128-1250 . . . . . . . . Lieutenant col- || Called “squadrons” onel or major. in the Cavalry and Air Corps. Regiment . . . . . . 800–3700 . . . . . . . . Colonel . . . . . . . . . Called “groups” in * the Air Corps. ad Found , only in the Brigade . . . . . . . . 3400-6900 . . . . . . . Brigadier gen- || Called “wings” in Infantry, Cavalry, eral. the Air Corps. Field Artillery, and coast "Artillery. The triangular in- fantry d i v i s lon contains no bri- gades. Division. (There | T r i a ng ul, a r Major general g ºt tº dº º is de & sº e s e e s e s e e º º e º a Composed of bri- are three main || infantry divi- gades, regiments types of divi- si on , 15,500; a n d b a t t allons. sions — infan- || square infantry (cavalry divisions try, cavalry and I division, 17,000- and Square infan- a r m or e d ...) | 20,000; cavalry try divisions), or (There are two divisions, 10,000. Of regiments and main types of battalions ( t r 1 - infantry divi- angular infantry sions—the tri- division), f f O Im angular division In a n y different and the SCIUlare Ørms and Services. division, a n d one type of cav- alry division. In infantry divi- sions, infantry forms the basic fighting strength and in cavalry divisions t he m a l n combat arm is cavalry.) There may also be special divi- sions as motor- ized, mountain, etc., organized for particular missions. Lieutenant • e º e a s s a e e s e s tº a • * * * tº wº Corps (often | 65,000-90,000 . . . ] general. Composed of infan- called “a r my try divisions of corps” to dis- both types or of tinguish it from cavalry divisions, armS and Sér V- Or armored divi- ices which have Sions and of addi- the word “corps” tional brigades, as part of their regiments, a n d names, such as battalions, from the Corps of imany different arms Engineers and and Services. Con- the Coast Artil- tains Officers of all lery Corps). & arms and Services. Army (often 200,000-400,000 . . General . . . . . * * | * c e s e s s a e e s e e s e e º e s - e º 'º Composed of corps, C a 1 I e d “field and of additional army” to dis- tingulsh it from the whole Army of the United States, of which such a un it forms only a units from several arms and Services. 172 MILITARY ORGANIZATION.—GENERAL (3) Motorized division. The motorized division is identical in organization with the triangular division in all elements except the headquarters and military police company and the infantry regiments, which have additional personnel to take care of the increase in the number of motor vehicles in these units. It has organic motor transportation which permits simultaneous movement of all personnel, weapons, and equipment, whereas the foot division is organically equipped to move only its weapons and supplies by motor transport. (4) Cavalry division. (Plate 12). The regiments of a cavalry division are mounted on horses but have armored cars for reconnaissance purposes. The service elements are motorized. (5) Armored division. (Plate 13). An armored division fights from its armored vehicles. The tanks form the striking force. The division is provided with reconnais- sance elements, supporting artillery, and infantry troops to consolidate and hold the ground taken by the armored vehicles. j. Army corps. An army corps consists of a corps headquarters, certain organic corps troops, and such infantry (cavalry, armored) divisions as may be assigned to it. The army corps is primarily a tactical unit. An army corps is usually commanded by a lieu- tenant general. k. Field army. A field army is composed of a headquarters, certain organic army troops, a variable number of corps, and a variable number of divisions, of which some or all may be assigned from time to time to corps. The field army is an administrative as well as tactical unit. l. Group of armies. Several field armies may be organized into a group of armies under a designated commander. Such a group is primarily a tactical command. Field armies or groups of armies are commanded, usually, by lieutenant generals or generals. m. Task force. To insure unity of effort or increase readiness for combat, part or all of the subordinate units of a command may be formed into one or more temporary tactical groupings (task forces), each under a designated commander. In each, the unity of tactical organizations is preserved as far as practicable. In an infantry division, the term “combat team” is usually applied to a task force consisting of a regiment of infantry, a battalion of light artillery and essential units of other arms in suitable pro- portion. m. The table entitled “Units of the Army” summarizes the commands from a squad to an army. * o. The Armored Force comprises, elements transported in wheeled or track-laying type motor vehicles, the bulk of which is provided either with partial or complete armor. Questions 1. a. By what means is an organization commander assisted in controlling a large organization? b. Name the smallest organization provided with a staff and give the duties of the staff officers. 2. Can the officer who is responsible for an organization delegate any part of that responsibility to another person? 3. What is the smallest “administrative unit?” 4. a. What is the title of the next senior commissioned officer above first lieutenant? b. What is the usual command of such an officer, and of what does it consist? 5. How many divisions are in an army corps? LEADERSHIP I CONTENTS Paragraphs Chapter I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-20 Chapter II. Augmentation and Development of the Qualities of Leadership 21-45 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION “ 1. Man is Fundamental Instrument. “Man is the fundamental instrument in war; other instruments may change but he remains relatively constant. Unless his behavior and elemental attributes are understood, gross mistakes will be made in planning operations and in troop leading.” (98) “In spite of the advances in technology, the worth of the individual man is still decisive. The open order of combat accentuates his importance. Every individual must be trained to exploit a situation with energy and boldness and must be imbued with the idea that success will depend upon his initiative and action.” (100) 2. Control in Battle Difficult. “The dispersion of troops in battle caused by the in- fluence of modern weapons makes control more difficult. Cohesion within a unit is promoted by good leadership, discipline, pride in the accomplishments and reputation of the unit, and mutual confidence and comradeship among its members.” (101) 3. Leadership. “Leadership is based on knowledge of men . . .” (97) Leadership may be defined as the art of guiding or directing others in the attainment of a common end, in such a manner as to secure their obedience, confidence, respect, and loyal cooperation. Although the principles and practice of leadership may be ex- amined from a scientific standpoint, leadership is essentially an art, a living thing deal- ing with human nature, emotions, and the higher appeal to the heart as well as to the mind. 4. Leadership in Combat—Vital. “Leading troops in combat, regardless of the echelon of command, calls for cool and thoughtful leaders with a strong feeling of the great responsibility imposed upon them. They must be resolute and self-reliant in their decisions, energetic and insistent in execution, and unperturbed by the fluctuations of combat.” (102) 5. Importance of the Study of Leadership. Every individual in the military service either follows a leader or leads other individuals; practically every individual does both. Study of the principles and practice of leadership will improve the ability of the in- dividual as a leader. This discussion is designed to provide a basis for such study and a guide for its future pursuit. Often the young man deplores the lack of opportunity to lead, to utilize and develop the latent capabilities he feels he has, because the times are peaceful, or because the days of the pioneers and of far frontiers have passed. There is no justification for such a viewpoint. The horizon bounding the field for present- day self-development of the individual as a leader is as limitless as ever; the oppor- tunities for the growth of leadership are more numerous, more varied, and the call more urgent, than ever before. In the small beginnings of study on the drill-field and in the class-room, as in work, or sport, or social activities, lie the guides for self- instruction and self-training in the principles and practice of leading others in the at- tainment of the end toward which their common efforts strive. 6. Leadership Training. Any military organization is a school for the training of leaders. Likewise our universities, colleges, and similar institutions properly pride themselves as being schools for the training of leaders—leaders in thought, in science, in politics, and in social progress. For leadership is not alone necessary in a military or- 1 (where numbers follow paragraphs they refer to paragraph numbers in the Field Service Regulations, 1941.) 173 174 LEADERSHIP I ganization; it is essential to any systematic human effort. The Regular Army, the National Guard, the ROTC, and the CMTC have the peculiar advantage of providing a field in which leadership not only can be learned but is actually practiced. The applicatory method of instruction, wherein the methodical steps of presentation (by demonstration or explanation), application, and examination are followed, provides sound and practical training in leadership. 7. Four Steps in Study of Leadership. The study of leadership divides itself into four general steps. These cover, consecutively, the study of the individual; then the leader who deals directly with a small number of individuals; next the leader who deals with two or more small groups through one intermediate leader for each group; and finally, the leader who is removed from the individuals by two or more intermediate echelons of subordinate leaders. The first of these, the individual, is the private soldier in the military service, com- parable to the individual workman in civil life. The second, the basic leader, is the cor- poral, or sergeant in some cases, similar to the straw boss or subforeman in civil life. The third, the sergeant leading the section composed of one or more squads, may be compared with the foreman in charge of several groups of workmen. The officer, whether the lieutenant leading the platoon or the captain commanding the company, troop, or battery, occupies a position similar to that of a superintendent or executive of a plant, business, or like organization in civil life. In the higher echelons of the mili. tary hierarchy, the field and general officers differ only in that their direct contact with the individuals becomes more and more tenuous, as they exercise their leadership through an increasing number of descending stages of subordinates. True, occasionally there is casual contact between the field and general officers and the men in the ranks, but the increasing complexity of military organization makes this less and less possible than it was in days long past. The captain of a company, troop, or battery does have a degree of personal contact with the individuals, especially in administrative matters, but in drill or combat he will best lead who consistently follows the chain of command. He courts failure who attempts to lead or direct personally all of his men in an or- ganization of such a size that the limitations of human capabilities have necessitated the introduction of subordinate echelons of leadership. * 8. Capacity For Leadership. A certain capacity for leadership is inherent in every individual to a greater or a less degree. Although it has been said that leaders are born and not made, any implication that the capacity for leadership cannot be stimulated and augmented is erroneous. Napoleon's admonition to read and re-read the campaigns of the great masters finds its justification in the fact that the study of the principles of leadership, as practiced by those who have signally succeeded in the past, will increase the ability of the individual to lead in turn. Nor does this mean that such study should be restricted to, or even begin with, the art of generalship. A constant observation of the manner in which leadership is practiced by those with whom there is daily contact, will often profit one even more than abstract rovings in the realm of generalship in the past. 9. Organization is Framework for Leadership. Organization provides, the framework within which the efforts of a group of individuals are more efficiently directed toward the attainment of a common objective than they might otherwise be. The efficient ac- complishment of a common undertaking by a group of individuals is made possible or is facilitated by their organization into a team. An essential element in that organization is the leader, or, in the larger combinations, a system of superior and subordinate leaders, by whom the efforts of the individuals are guided or directed toward the end sought. Proper organization gives only that number to be led that one can lead. In any organized group of military individuals one is the leader thereof, either by virtue of established seniority in military grade or rank, or if this be unknown, unappre- ciated, or ineffective, then through conscious or unconscious acknowledgment by the others of his greater knowledge, greater ability, or his apparent or demonstrated capacity to lead and command. Many times, in the heat of battle or in emergency, the obscure and hitherto unperceived unknown has risen to the occasion and assumed the role of leader to procure a local victory or to avoid defeat. Photo by Signal Corps, U. S. Army GENERAL GEORGE WASHINGTON 176 LEADERSHIP I Such a phenomenon is not peculiar to the military service. In any organized society some must lead and some must follow, and except for the very top all leaders must follow, and except for the very bottom all followers must lead. The essence of coordinated effort is team play, and every team, whether it be in sport, in politics, in social organization, or in war, must have a leader, a “decision man.” The better the training of the team, the less often will he have to make decisions, but still he must exist. 10. A Good Leader Should First Be a Good Follower. Obedience to lawful orders and commands is a first duty of the soldier, and in such practice he best learns how to procure obedience from others. Nor is blind unreasoning obedience, at one extreme, any more to be desired than is intolerant individualism at the other. The middle way of intelligent, understanding cooperation is to be sought. The less time there is available before the action resulting from the leader's orders or commands must take place, the more unquestioning and automatic must be the compliance with that order by the followers. From bridge to engine-room of the steamship; from airplane pilot to his crew; from train dispatcher to the trainmen or signallers; or from operating surgeon to his assisting nurse; the permissible time allotment between command and response is too short for anything less than prompt and almost automatic compliance. So it is also with military duty, whether in close order on the parade ground, combat exercises in the field, standing gun drill, the firing of team-served weapons on the range or in the heat of battle. 11. Leader Must Know Limitations of His Followers. The leader must have a sound and adequate knowledge of the powers and limitations of his followers. He must know the force which can be expected and which can be applied by their concerted effort, the stimulus which can result from their common action under the impetus of his leader- ship and control. He must, on the other hand, appreciate the limitations of their in- telligence and understanding, the extent of their physical capabilities under the existing external conditions of weather, ground, and light, and the internal conditions of fatigue, depression, or hunger and thirst. His knowledge of what his followers can and cannot do is best and most safely based upon his own experience as a follower, whether under the same or partly similar conditions. “A commander who unnecessarily taxes the endurance of his troops will only penalize himself,” says the Field Service Regulations. 12. Troops Strongly Influenced by Their Leader. “Troops are strongly influenced by the example and conduct of their leaders. A leader must have superior knowledge, will power, self-confidence, initiative, and disregard of self. Any show of fear or un- willingness to share danger is fatal to leadership. On the other hand, a bold and de- termined leader will carry his troops with him no matter how difficult the enterprise.” (103) 13. Emulation Instead of Imitation. Matthew Arnold wrote of the classical authors of antiquity, “It has been said that we should emulate rather than imitate them.” This is no less true in the study of the art of leadership. Each of us has his own character and personality; merely to imitate the characteristics and mannerisms of those who exhibit capability in leadership is to court failure. A monkey can imitate; savages have aped the actions of the civilized without the slightest conception of the meaning or pur- pose of what they do. Emulation requires reason, logic, and intelligence. Some leaders have the knack of gaining their ends by jocular lightness, some by a show of severity, and some by dry and biting wit or sarcasm. But the imitative use of such methods by those to whom they are not fitted is fallacious and should be carefully avoided. Imitation of the tone or inflection used by one drill master usually becomes apparent mimicry; each leader should be true to himself in developing his ability to command, striving for the end attained by those successful ones he seeks to emulate, rather than blind, unthinking imitation of the means alone. 14. Leadership Versus Domination. There is a definite distinction between the attain- ment of an end by leadership and that by domination. Control by domination is gained by the assertion of superiority by the master, by force, and by fear on the part of those dominated. Leadership, especially as an American ideal, is exercised by moral and in- tellectual power rather than by class caste, physical force, or cunning. Domination is LEADERSHIP I 177 usually countered by an unwillingness on the part of the subordinate, by non-cooperative acquiescence, and mere lip-service. True leadership results from and in mutual stimula- tion of effort on the part of leader and led, willing, eager, and complete response to the design and will from above and below. The difference between domination and leadership is manifest in the systems of different races and national systems, and an appreciation of this with respect to our own country and people is of great importance to the aspirant toward competence in military leadership. The American, with his innate and highly developed individualism and love of liberty and freedom, rightly resents an unreasoned “must,” but gives to the utmost when he understands the need and purpose of the effort to which he is called to contribute. 15. Discipline. “Discipline is the main cohesive force that binds the members of a unit.” (108) “Its constraint must be felt, not so much in fear of punishment which it envokes as in the moral obligation it imposes on the individual to heed the common interest of the group.” “Mutual confidence between the leader and his men is the surest basis of discipline. To gain this confidence, the leader must find the way to the hearts of his men. This he will do by acquiring an understanding of their thoughts and feelings, and by showing a constant concern for their comfort and welfare.” (103) It is perhaps unfortunate, at least for the military service, that the term discipline has come to have a connotation of punishment. While there is, in fact, a relation- ship, it is not a primary one. Punishment is rather a concomitant of indiscipline, a handmaiden of the lack of discipline. In good discipline lies the foundation of leader- ship. Fear of punishment may drive the subordinate into literal obedience of the superior's command, but being driven falls far short of being led. Discipline, like charity, begins at home. Self discipline is essential in the follower, as in the leader, if the former is to subordinate his selfish instincts and desires to the good of the team, and the latter is to draw from his followers that willing, eager obedience which paves the way for maximum results. 16. Discipline Based on Teamwork. “Morale, engendered by thoughtful consideration for officers and enlisted men by their commanders, will produce a cheerful and under- standing subordination of the individual to the good of the team. This is the essence of the American standard of discipline, and it is a primary responsibility of leaders to develop and maintain such a standard,” wrote General George C. Marshall, Chief of Staff on October 20, 1940, to the commanders of the four armics, in discussing the training program for the national defense. 17. War is Test of Discipline. “War places a severe test on the physical endurance and moral stamina of the individual soldier. To perform his duties efficiently he must not only be well equipped and technically trained but he must also be physically qualified to endure hardships of field service and be constantly fortified by discipline based on high ideals of military conduct. Strong men, inculcated with a proper sense of duty, a conscious pride in their unit, and a feeling of mutual obligation to their comrades in the group, can dominate the demoralizing influences of battle far better than those im- bued only with fear of punishmerit or disgrace.” (99) 18. Training and Discipline Go Together. “A poorly trained unit is likely to fail in a critical moment due to demoralizing impressions caused by unexpected events in combat. This is particularly true in the first engagements of a unit. Therefore, training and discipline are of great importance. Every leader must take energetic action against indiscipline, panic, pillage, and other disruptive influence.” (108) The basic training of a soldier is given in drill, whether it be dismounted drill, stand- ing gun drill, mounted drill or other basic drill. The principal object of drill is the training of the unit in the prompt and unanimous compliance with the expressed will of the leader. The response to command must be automatic. It develops teamwork so essential to organized effort, and the reciprocal relationship between the leader and the followers which produces the maximum results from the coordinated efforts of all of the members of the team. These fundamental ideas should be borne in mind by the leader in front of his unit and the follower in the ranks, during what might otherwise 178 LEADERSHIP I seem to be monotonous and futile repetition of unmeaning acrobatics on the drill field. It is the realization, on the part of all concerned, of the ulterior purposes of the drill and of the excellence in future task performance, which comes from practiced perfection in the movements, that gives meaning and value to the drill itself. 19. Drill is School For Leaders. Drill is also the elementary school of practical mil- itary leadership. It can be broken down into the smallest units so that the squad lead- ers, platoon leaders, etc., all receive opportunity for command and leadership. 20. Relationship Between Officers and Enlisted Men. “A spirit of unselfish cooperation with their fellows is to be fostered among officers and men. The strong and the capable must encourage and lead the weak and less experienced. On such a founda- tion, a feeling of true comradeship will become firmly established and the full combat value of the troops will be made available to the higher commander.” (106) CHAPTER II AUGMENTATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE QUALITIES OF LEADERSHIP 21. The Qualities of a Leader. What are the qualities which a leader should possess? There have been many attempts at listing the many good qualities which a leader should possess, and cataloguing those undesirable characteristics which he should not possess or should minimize or eliminate. Such a listing often serves only to discourage the aspirant to leadership, because, in summation, they seem to describe an unattainable ideal. How- ever, a goal toward which to aim is necessary, if one is to shape his efforts in self-develop- ment so as to gain a satisfactory measure of accomplishment in preparing himself to lead, to guide and direct the efforts of others in any field of common endeavor. The qualities of the leader may be grouped according to different methods. They may be separated into personal characteristics and professional capabilities; they may be classed as physical, mental, and moral qualities; or they may be considered as those qualities re- lated to the leader himself, and those related to the individuals whom he aspires to lead. Merely to enumerate the desirable qualities of a leader would accomplish little. But a consideration of some of these qualities will serve to illustrate the characteristics which we should watch for in others and which we should strive to develop in ourselves in order to prepare ourselves to be better leaders. 22. Loyalty. No quality is more important than loyalty. It is essential in both the leader and the follower, for it works both ways from the individual, and loyalty down is no less important than loyalty up. Loyalty begets loyalty, and an evident sense of devotion to the interests of his followers on the part of a leader is assurance of faithful and willing cooperation upon their part. 23. Simplicity. Too often is a realization of professional ignorance and lack of self- confidence manifested by an attempt to conceal these faults by vague and complicated orders, explanations, or conduct. The best results in the performance of a task are ob- tained by simple and direct methods, where the end to be attained and the means to that end are first clearly understood by the leader and then, through his efforts, clearly understood by his men. 24. Self-Control. No one can lead others until he can properly control himself. We are quick to realize the mastery in the man who can master himself. He who, when he makes mistakes in drill or in any other organized effort, loses his temper and attempts to “bawl out” his subordinates, thereby sacrifices in large measure their willing cooper- ation in the team play of the unit. 25. Tact. A sense of the appropriateness of things, of when and how to act, is an in- valuable lubricant to the conduct of human relationships. When tact is lacking the military machine soon develops friction and is less efficient. Sympathy, kindness, generos- ity, and a consideration of the rights of others are all bound up in the exercise of tact in procuring the cheerful and whole-hearted performance of a desired action by others. -- Photo by Signal Corps, U. S. Army GENERAL WINFIELD SCOTT 180 LEADERSHIP I 26. Energy, Enthusiasm, Diligence. Inaction in the face of a situation requiring positive measures is at once productive of failure. Capability withcut industry cannot result in success; but many a mediocre leader has succeeded through sheer energy and persever- ance. In this truth lies the hope of the vast majority of us in our endeavors to lead others in the accomplishment of a common end. Enthusiasm breeds enthusiasm, and fires others to efforts of which they might otherwise not feel themselves capable. No man is beaten until he admits defeat, and impending defeat has often been turned into victory through the energetic and enthusiastic inspiration furnished by the leader. 27. Common Sense, Judgment, Acumen. It has often been said that common sense is one of the most uncommon attributes of the individual. But the exercise of common sense and good judgment is in large measure the foundation of active leadership. Knowledge is the background of common sense and judgment. Acumen denotes quickness of per- ception, keenness of discernment, sharpness in deduction, and ability in clear discrimina- tion. The leader who can promptly and properly estimate what his fellows will do under a certain set of circumstances, and who then can make a sound decision based upon the conditions as he sees they will develop, possesses qualities which place him upon a high level of leadership. 28. Earnestness. Sincerity of purpose, like enthusiasm, in a leader is soon transmitted to those whom he aspires to lead. Sham, hypocrisy, and bluff are all too readily un- masked, and he who attempts to conceal his ignorance or to “alibi” his mistakes will soon find himself not only a dethroned leader but an outcast from the fellowship of team- mates. Zealousness does not require a superior manner, but a conscientious willingness to go more than half-way in the solution of the task in hand. 29. Justice, Fairness, Impartiality. A sense of justice and a determination to deal fairly and impartially with all others are essential in any one who would control and lead others. The degree of respect, of admiration, and even of affection with which their faith in him is measured is in a very large measure determined by his possession and exhibition of these qualities. In little things even more than in big things does the demoralizing effect of partiality or unfairness make itself felt. Justice does not, however, necessitate domineering, bullying, or blustering tyranny. Usually, these are indications of secretly admitted incompetence or lack of faith in one's own judgment or decision. Such measures are destructive instead of remedial. Nor is it necessary or desirable, in order to be fair, to be over-lenient, lax, or cajoling, for these qualities in the individual set to lead will quickly corrupt an organization through its lack of respect for his ability and qualities. Even a fool can tear down, but it takes a man of mind and character to build up. 30. Willingness to Accept Responsibility. “A willingness to accept responsibility is the foremost trait of leadership. Every individual from the highest commander to the lowest private must always remember that inaction and neglect of opportunities will warrant more severe censure than an error of judgment in the action taken. The criterion by which a commander judges the soundness of his own decision is whether it will further the intentions of the higher commander. Willingness to accept re- sponsibility must not manifest itself in a disregard of orders on the basis of a mere probability of having a better knowledge of the situation than the higher commander. The subordinate unit is a part of a tactical team employed by the higher commander to accomplish a certain mission and any independence on the part of a subordinate commander must conform to the general plan for the unit as a whole.” (121) 31. Initiative and Vision. In order to have a willingness to accept responsibility, the individual must have initiative and vision. Many a cause has been lost through lack of foresight and vision on the part of those charged with the responsibility of planning the course to be followed. Many an action has bogged down in failure because the one in charge did nothing. An early edition of the Field Service Regulation stated: “In a given situation it is far better to do any intelligent thing consistent with aggressive execution of the general plan than to search hesitatingly for the ideal.” Such action takes initiative, and a willingness to accept responsibility and to act. In drill, for example, it is necessary to think ahead, to plan the next movement, and to be prepared at the proper time to give the necessary order. Organizations and groups of individuals LEADERSHIP I 181 often exhibit an inertia similar to inanimate matter and tend to remain at rest or con- tinue in the same direction unless a controlling influence is exercised from without by the leader himself. Imagination and creativeness of mind are attributes which facilitate the exercise of initiative and vision. 32. Reliability and Dependability. These qualities are much to be sought for and de- veloped in the follower as well as in the leader. It is a comforting thought to know that a task allotted will be well and surely performed, and the leader who knows that he can depend upon his subordinates is well served. Likewise, for those who follow to know that their leader will not desert them and that he is bending every effort toward their welfare and devoting every fiber of his being to their benefit is to call forth from them the last ounce of eager, loyal, and whole-hearted cooperation. 33. Decision, Resoluteness, and Perseverance. The ability to decide to act and then to act has characterized all successful leaders of history in whatever field of endeavor, and their success has been measured directly by the clarity of their decisions, the determination with which these were executed, and the tenacity with which they cling to their purposes. All this takes will-power, firmness and the courage to follow the course decided upon. It has long been a military axiom that “a good plan once adopted and put into execution should not be abandoned unless it becomes clear that it cannot succeed. After-thoughts are dangerous, except as they aid in the execution of details of the original plan.” More- over, a mediocre plan executed with determination, energy and single-minded purpose will produce far better results than a better plan initiated belatedly or executed with vacillation and indecision. 34. Honor, Uprightness, and Truthfulness. Honor is an inherent quality in every human being, savage or civilized, young or old. It has its roots in self-respect and pride, a virtue as old as mankind. The morale of the individual and of the organization flows directly from the right to stand bravely and honorably among others. While truthfulness is not instinctive in the individual until the guidance of intelligence intervenes, mankind reverses the truth, as always, and our daily life is based in a very large sense upon reliance in the veracity, as in the dependability, of our fellows. Truth and honor do not make the leader; without them he does not exist. 35. Courage, Moral and Physical. Of the two kinds of courage, the physical is the more wide-spread. Yet, the individual who can be said to be truly fearless is a rarity. For physical courage is not wholly natural, and the instinct of fear and self-preservation can only be overcome when the individual possesses a character strong enough to present this instinct taking charge of his being. Marshall Ney once said that the one who claims that he never knew fear is a compound liar. On the battlefield, Turenne addressed himself thus: “You tremble, body; you would tremble more if you knew where I am going to take you.” It takes moral courage to overcome not only physical fear of pain or injury, but fear of failure, of humiliation or condemnation, of fatigue, discomfort, or the un- known. Such fear, once apparent, is contagious, and the exercise of self-control and will- power are necessary not only to harness the fear in one's self but to prevent the spread among others. Otherwise panic and disaster may quickly follow, wherever or whatever the crisis may be. It is here that the leader must truly lead; here that the groundwork he may have laid must become evident and his qualities make themselves felt. 36. Health, Strength, and Endurance. The development and maintenance of a sound body in which a sound mind may be securely housed is of no small concern to the leader as well as to the follower. Not all of us are naturally possessed of strong physique, ex- ceptional vigor, or even unmarred health. But, like so many of the qualities which are in a measure inherent, we should seek to improve and develop those desirable physical at- tributes which will enable us better to perform the tasks which fall to our lot. Physical size is not always the hallmark of the successful leader. Physical fitness is the measure of developing and maintaining the means provided; vigor and manliness mark the use of these means; and fortitude and endurance are the indexes of the moral ability to whip these toward the goal when fatigue and discomfort cause the energies to flag and falter. 37. Presence and Manner. Closely akin to other physical qualities are those marking the appearance and bearing of the individual. It is of advantage to the aspirant toward 182 LEADERSHIP I leadership to develop and possess what may be termed a commanding presence. This de- cidedly does not mean ostentatiousness, pompous strutting, or dramatic self-conscious- ness. Rather does it involve a quiet, dignified, and self-assured bearing which in itself conveys proof of pride in one's appearance, knowledge of one's ability, and acceptance of one's usefulness in the position occupied and for the task in hand. A neat and soldierly appearance creates an instantly favorable opinion. The power of example is tremendous, and can be used for good just as it can be allowed to wreak destruction in the appearance or morale of an organization. The list of “don’ts” seems almost endless; but the mere mention of avoiding asperity and haughtiness, indifference and laziness, irascibility and petulance, uncertainty and vagueness, are enough to show the many pitfalls into which the leader may fall, with consequent jeopardy to his success and that of his organization. 38. Alertness, Quick Thinking, Presence of Mind. In battle or on the drill field as in all our daily life, he who would keep pace with the developments of a situation must be alive to events, be they big or little. The leader should maintain a position in thinking and perception just a little ahead of those he leads. Not only his own actions but those he desires of others depend upon his awareness of what is taking place and his adapt. ability to constant change. To avoid “going to sleep at the switch” requires never-ceasing attention and vigilant heed to the moving circumstances surrounding the action. 39. Patience, Humor. Two qualities which are assets to the dealer are patience and a sense of humor. The first of these is more necessary but hardly more valuable than the second. It is human to make mistakes, but the leader who quickly loses his patience and his temper over mistakes, which may all too often be the result of his own faults, usually loses also his chance of succeeding and the allegiance and cooperation of his organization. Impatience is an indication of lack of balance and of an inability to rise above the condi- tions, which have themselves become the master. A sense of humor often saves a situa- tion which is slipping beyond control. The American possesses a strong sense of the ludicrous and reacts markedly to that which is incongruous or ridiculous. Laughter is a relief from strain, and cheerfulness and good-will frequently are stimulated by the release afforded by a timely witticism. Jokes at the expense of another are, however, often sources of ill-feeling, and satire, sarcasm, or clumsy and hurtful jibes are weapons rather than aids. 40. Balance and Prudence. A sense of the fitness of things implies an evenness of character and a freedom from erratic or misjudged overemphasis of one course of action or one manner of acting. Men want to know what to expect of their leaders, not so much in the details as in the broad assurance of the program to be followed. Under the cloud of uncertainty or the annoyance of what may appear to be whims or vagaries of the leader, they become restive, dissatisfied, aggrieved. They admire and will follow bold. ness, and even rashness, if it appears to them to be justified, but they soon falter and become undependable when the goal disappears, the course reveals itself as unreasonable, or the aim of their endeavors proves empty and fruitless. 41. Ambition. The human desire for advancement is a quality which is of advantage in both the leader and those whom he leads. It stimulates effort toward the attainment of a goal despite the obstacles which might otherwise discourage. But selfish ambition, fostered at the expense of others, or of the organization of which both leader and follower are members, is a dangerous and destructive quality to be avoided. 42. Manual Dexterity and Skill. The man who can do things is admired. The appli- catory system of training and instruction is based initially upon demonstration, which requires that an example be set before those who are to learn. The execution of the movements in the manual of arms by an individual and of those in close order drill by the organization are steps in instruction of a value directly proportionate to the perfection with which they are accomplished. On the target range, an expert rifle shot sets a stand- ard toward which all will direct their efforts. The aspirant to leadership will do well to qualify himself in those accomplishments which he desires to inculcate in his men. 43. Professional Knowledge. Ignorance of his duties and profession is a bar to leader- ship. To teach or train others, one must first possess a thorough knowledge of his sub- ject. A drill master must know every detail of the movements to be executed, and this requires thorough and constant study. The military profession is a highly complex one; LEADERSHIP I 183 a theoretical and practical knowledge of its many ramifications can be gained only by hard work. It is a service in which the ladder of leadership must be climbed rung by rung as the field of individual effort is expanded. Often in other walks of life one may skip over one or more intermediate steps in advancing through the echelons of organiza- tion. But almost invariably, in the military service, attainment of the leading position in one echelon presupposes at least a pause or a passage through the lower grades or echelons. On the other hand, the higher the position of the leader, the less is it necessary or even possible for him to be familiar through personal experience with all the details of technique in the lower echelons. The general officer cannot know every detail of every arm or servicing comprising a part of the force he commands, but he must know the principles on which it operates. The corporal, however, must know better than any member of his squad every detail of the work of that squad. * 44. Knowledge and the Ability of Imparting That Knowledge. The possession of knowledge does not necessarily carry with it the ability to impart that knowledge to others. Knowledge of itself does not make a leader. But acknowledgment by others of superiority of education and knowledge of a pertinent task is an asset to a leader. 45. Summary. The preceding material is designed for the study of the individual who aspires to become a leader. This is only one approach. There are hundreds of ap- proaches but it is believed that a careful analysis and application of the foregoing will enable an individual to become a leader. In short, every individual possesses inherent qualities that may be molded into leadership. Some find it more difficult to attain than others, but all leaders have one characteristic in common; the unalterable desire to become a leader. Questions 1. Can you give an example of an individual who does not ordinarily follow a leader, in a military sense? - 2. What type of individual in the military service does not ordinarily lead others? 3. Can you give analogies of the private, corporal, sergeant, and commissioned officer, in civilian, social or business life, or sports? 4. In measuring the prospective success of a leader the numerical size of the group to be led or controlled usually varies inversely with the complexity of the task. Can you give examples illustrative of this? 5. The efficiency rating of army officers involves the evaluation of certain individual characteristics; physical activity, physical endurance, military bearing and neatness, atten- tion to duty, cooperation, initiative, intelligence, force, judgment and common sense, and leadership. How would you define, describe, or otherwise explain these attributes of the leader? Bibliography WAR DEPARTMENT Field Service Regulations, 1941 Edward L. MUNSON The Management of Men (Henry Holt and Company, New York), 1921. LINcoLN C. ANDREws Manpower (E. P. Dutton & Co., New York) 1920. THE UNITED STATES Naval Leadership, With Some Hints to Junior Officers NAVAL INSTITUTE and Others (The United States Naval Institute, Annapolis, Md.) 1924 LT. Col. C. F. MARTIN Winning and Wearing His Shoulder Straps (The Mac- Millan Company, New York) 1918. JENNINGs C. Wise Hegemonics or Thoughts on Leadership and Training (W. F. Roberts Company, Washington, D. C.) Lt. Col. C. A. BACH Leadership (The Cavalry School, Fort Riley, Kansas). Leadership (Department of Tactics, U. S. M. A., West Point, N. Y.) MAJoR John H. BURNs Psychology and Leadership (The Command and Gen- eral Staff School Press, Ft. Leavenworth, Kan.) 1934. A General's Letters to His Son (Cassell & Co., Ltd., London, England) 1917. 184 LEADERSHIP I MAJ. A. H. MILLER MAJ. GEN. David C. SHANKs EMORY S. BogarDUs LIEUT. GEN. H. J. BREEs CAPT. E. F. CARLson, U.S.M.C. LT. A. R. MacCrackEN LT. Col. O. W. GR1swold LT. Col. CASPER SCHENK CAPT. D. C. PILLSEURY GEN. C. P. SUMMERALL MAJ. K. M. Loch MAJ. GEN. David P. BARRows Col. R. John WEST CoLONEL LUCAS, FRENCH ARMY MAJOR RENE ANDRIOT CoMDR. R. C. PARKER, U.S. N. GEN. GEORGE C. MARSHALL Leadership. Management of the American Soldier. Leaders and Leadership (D. Appleton-Century Co., New York) 1934. Essentials of Leadership—In the Review of Military Literature, Command and General Staff School Quarterly, Volume XVI, No. 62, September, 1936. Leadership and Discipline—In the Canadian Defense Quarterly, Vol. XV, No. 2, January, 1938. Discipline—In the Canadian Defense Quarterly, Vol. XV, No. 3, April, 1938. Military Leadership—In the United States Naval Insti- tute Proceedings, November, 1937. Book-Learnin’ Leadership—In the United States Naval Institute Proceedings, June, 1936. Practical Peacetime Leadership—In the Infantry Journal, February, 1931. Leadership: An Introductory Outline—In the Infantry Journal, August, 1928. Leadership and Loyalty—In the Infantry Journal, No- vember, 1928. Leadership—In the Reserve Officer, October, 1928. An Analysis of Leadership—In the New York National Guardsman, August, 1936. The Gay Young Corporal—In the California Guardsman, June, 1935. Leadership Applied—In the Infantry Journal, July, 1929. Qualities of Leadership—In the Revue Militaire Fran- caise, October–November, 1927. Overseas Campaigns and the Training of Officers—lm. the Revue Militaire Francaise, August, 1936. Leadership—In the United States Naval Institute Pro- ceedings, March, 1921. Morale and Discipline in the Army of the United States —In letter sent to commanders of four armies, Oc- tober 20, 1940. HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF ARTILLERY CONTENTS Paragraphs Chapter I. Forerunners of the Cannon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-6 Chapter II. Early Development of the Cannon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-10 Chapter III. Gustavus Adolphus to Napoleon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-22 Chapter IV. Civil War to World War I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-29 Chapter V. World War I to World War II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , 30–36 Chapter VI. History of Field Artillery of the United States Army . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-61 CHAPTER I FORERUNNERS OF THE CANNON 1. Defined. A cannon is a machine which uses some kind of a propelling force for throwing a projectile. The invention of gunpowder (a new form of energy) about the middle of the 13th century, made possible the use of crude cannon to throw projectiles by the use of expanding gas. The date of the invention of gunpowder, ascribed to both the Chinese and the Greeks, is as doubtful as the place and the name of the inventor. 2. Chronological Periods. No effort is made in this chapter to delineate the develop- ment of the forerunners of the cannon or the development of the cannon itself into periods. It might be considered that there was a pre-gun period, a smooth-bore period, a transitional period (which saw the introduction of breechblocks, rifled bores and smoke- less powder), and a modern period. But all changes are gradual, extend over a period of years, overlap and merge one into the other; and therefor any attempted division into periods of development is purely theoretical and more or less arbitrary. TOmaha Wk BOWS Battle Axes →º- Spear Plate 1. Early Weapons. 3. Forerunners of the Cannon. (Plate 1) From the earliest times man has endeavored to invent a weapon that could be effective at a distance. The first projectiles were un- doubtedly the stone and the club, or combinations of the two such as the tomahawk, which primative man could throw with his hand and arm. Later came the sling usually credited as an invention of the Phoenicians, (the Bible tells us that it was a simple sling that David used against Goliath) which increased the range and the velocity of the stone, or projectile. Then came the bow and arrow, which developed into the cross- 185 186 HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF ARTILLERY bow. But all of these weapons were dependent upon the dexterity and strength of the individual. \ With the coming of the iron age these developed into the spear and the battleaxe. 4. Other Pregunpowder Weapons. “Engines invented by cunning men to shoot arrows and great stones” were placed on the walls of Jerusalem by King Usia (809-757 BC), according to the Old Testament. The cross-bow was developed to throw not only arrows but a stone using a small hollow trough to direct it. (Plate 2) The thong of the bow was drawn tight by a screw and when released could hurl a stone a considerable distance. The Genoese and the Gascons were supposed to be the most expert crossbow men in Europe. From these weapons developed the catapult and ballista, (Plate 3) all of which utilized as propelling power the elasticity of twisted ropes, animal sinews, hides or hair., etc. These weapons were used throughout the ancient and medieval periods of warfare. Plate 2. Cross Bow. The ballista was a comparatively flat trajectory weapon while the catapult had a trajectory resembling that of a mortar of today. A Greek named Ctesibius is said to have utilized compressed air for the energy of his catapults, the arms of which worked in wrought cylinders. Archimedes is said by Plutarch to have “cast huge stones from his machines with a great noise”; and Caligula is said by Don Cassius to have had machines which “imitated thunder and emitted stones.” * In the Punic Wars the Romans used ballista. The Alexandrian technicians estab- lished scientific rules for the construction of the weapons, and Athenacius reports catapults having a range of 656 meters which could throw missiles of around 100 pounds. The ancients also hurled balls of pitch moulded around a stone with their ballista. As a matter of fact this type of artillery was not discarded until some time after the coming of gunpowder. The ballista and the catapult with their variations were used by Philip of Macedon and by his son Alexander to conquer the world (356-323 B.c.). Julius Caesar records the use of this form of artillery as early as 60 B.C.; he protected the right flank of his army against the Belgians in 57 B.C. by catapults and ballista and in 55 B.C. covered the landing in Britain with fire from catapults and ballista. By 67 A.D. this form of artillery was an organic part of the Roman Legion. Transportation was by small car carts. In medieval times in addition to the types brought down from the Romans a form of catapult known as the trebuchet was developed for siege purposes (Plate 4). This weapon operated on the counterpoise principle, swinging a long throwing arm by means of weights on a shorter arm. A heavy trebuchet could throw a stone weighing 300 pounds a distance of about 300 yards. 5. Incendiary Combinations. No further material progress occurred until mankind looked into the realm of chemistry. The general evidence is that the alchemists of the fourth to the sixth centuries A.D. hit upon incendiary combinations to hurl in mortars and catapults. These were known as “wildfire,” “Greek fire,” etc., and have sometimes been confused with gunpowder. While it is certain that some such combination was used by the Greeks at the siege of Constantinople during the Mohammedan invasion of 668 A.D. and by the Arabs or Saracens at the siege of Mecca in 683 A.D., the best HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF ARTILLERY 187 authorities agree that this was a sort of liquid fire and not an explosive mixture. Never- theless it was the forerunner of gunpowder. The recipe for its mixture is given in the writings attributed to Marcus Graecus, a legendary Greek writer, for the manufacture of Roman candles, or fire crackers, as follows: one part sulphur, two of willow charcoal, and six of saltpeter. The invention of gunpowder was impossible until the properties of pure saltpeter were discovered. While these are among the first recorded instances of the use of this mixture among Caucasians, it is certain that the Chinese were familiar with its use centuries before gº” C. Plate 3. a. Simple Ballista. b. Ballista. Shooting Arrows. c. Catapult. 188 HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF ARTILLERY the Christian era and that the Hindus knew of it as far back as the time of Moses. They used it for pyrotechnics and for blasting and some authorities state that the formula for this mixture used by the Chinese as early as the 12th century is the same as that used in the firecrackers imported to this country at the present time. 6. Invention of Gunpowder. There is not enough solid evidence to say that gun- powder was the invention of any one man. Rather it was a development of the ages. Two men in particular are mentioned as having been the first to discover the explosive properties of the mixture of charcoal, saltpeter and sulphur. They are Berthold Schwartz, Plate 4. The Trebuchet. a German monk, and Roger Bacon, an English Friar. Bacon makes reference in his writings of 1248 to an explosive mixture known before his time and employed for “di- version, producing a noise like thunder and flashes like lightning.” He stumbled upon an explosive which was a considerable advance over the incendiary mixtures of the past. But in these writings there is no mention of guns or of the use of this mixture as a propelling agency, only as an explosive and a destructive power. Schwartz lived after Bacon and is generally credited with being one of the first inventors of small arms which were forerunners of the cannon in the use of gunpowder; and it is probable that he used gunpowder as a propelling agent. CHAPTER II EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF THE CANNON 7. Invention of Cannon. The first cannons were small crudely made cast metal pots shaped like a vase which fired iron darts. (Plate 5). The propellant was ignited by thrusting red hot bars or spikes into the charge through an aperture. History also indicates that gunpowder was used in cannon throwing stones in the Moorish wars in Spain as early as 1247 at the siege of Seville and that Mibela, Spain, was defended in 1259 by cannon. About 1273. Abou Yousof used cannon at the siege of Sidgilmessa, and in 1308 Ferdinand IV of Castle used them at the siege of Gibraltar. In 1311 Ismail besieged Bazas, a city in Granada, with machine that “threw balls of fire with a noise resembling thunder.” At any rate the first “cannon” was probably the Arabian madfa, a small wooden firing vessel. The first definite description that can be found of a gun or a cannon is in 1313 and the earliest picture of one is found in a manuscript dated 1327. By that time HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF ARTILLERY 189 practically all countries were using them. It is a small crudely shaped cast metal pot shaped like a vase which fired iron darts or stones. The propellant was ignited by thrusting red hot iron bars or spikes into the charge through an aperture. Those that more nearly resemble the cannon of a later period were made of wooden staves =% 7W | Plate 5. Earliest Cannon with Dart Projectile, 14th Century. & sº - § * | #- - #- ?. .. --- eas \º º Šº º sº 㺠#es Y wº ū º | g -- * ss= 2. : * * 2:…T .# S #: º: := s º s 4 4 º º S 2’ # *\º- *::=\ T – -. . T e W == * . --º --> Š a- É Ş * = Nº Plate 6. Early Type of Cannon. fitted together, barrel-like, and held tight with many folds of wet rawhide. Later when the use of iron became known the same construction was followed, square bars of iron being placed lengthwise and held together with iron hoops put on hot. Once introduced the use of cannon spread rapidly over Europe and a part of Asia. By that time, too, spherical stones had superseded arrows as the projectiles of the day. 190 HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF ARTILLERY In 1346 the English used guns for the first time in the open field at the battle of Crecy. The cannon were placed directly on the ground, elevation being given by piling up earth or by supporting them with wooden blocks, or crossed sticks, with a spike at the end to take up recoil. Crude cradles then came into use, and the guns were fastened to them and provided with sled to get mobility. About the middle of the 10th century trunnions were cast with the guns and they could then be mounted directly on a carriage. Finally in 1376 the Venetians produced the first wheeled mounts and by the time of the Turkish bombardment of Constantinople they had become fairly common. In the early part of the 16th century the “carte with gonnes” came into use but it was more of a concentration of several muskets on a cart, than a piece of artillery. In the latter part of this century the French contrived a crude limber to which the guns were attached by means of a rope. Plate 7. Bombards. 8. The Bombardes. For the next 100 years metallurigical developments, by the gen- eral use of iron and bronze, were rapid and enabled the development of cannon to make remarkable progress; but the principle development was in the direction of size and power. Calibers of 19 and 20 inches became common and guns of even larger caliber were made on occasion. One of the most noted pieces of the period was the great bombarde, known as the Dulle Griete, built in 1382, which was employed at Ghent in HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF ARTILLERY 191 1411. It was made of rods of wrought iron welded together and bound with hoops. It was an enormous 13-ton, 25-inch cannon and fired a granite stone weighing some 700 pounds. - Because of its great weight it could only be used in seiges and in the defense of towns. While cast iron solid shot was introduced about 1400, stone projectiles con- tinued in use for a long time because they were cheaper and being lighter took less powder to propell them, and a greater range could be secured. In 1453 at the siege of Constantinople the Turks used a cast bronze cannon 25 inches in caliber (“twelve palms”) which weighed 19 tons and could hurl a 600 pound stone ball seven times a day. It took 200 men and 60 oxen to transport the weapon. This cannon which was actually a coast defense gun, was used as late as 1807 in the defense of the same city against a British naval vessel. Another famous bombard is the Mons Meg which is in the museum of Edinburgh Castle, Scotland. It is built up of rods in two sections, screwed together, weighs more than five tons and is more than 13 feet long. Using a powder charge weighing 105 . pounds it could throw an iron ball 19% inches in diameter a little over 1400 yards and a stone ball about 2900 yards. This gun was used by the kings of Scotland in the period 1455–1513 to reduce the castles of rebellious nobles. It was used in the defense of Edinburgh as late as 1650. The largest caliber gun on record was the great Mortar of Moscow built about 1525 which had a caliber of 36 inches, was 18 feet long and fired a stone weighing 2200 pounds. This closed the era of the stone projectile. The great bombardes disappeared with the advent of the smaller wrought iron and cast bronze field guns, the adoption of iron shot instead of stone and the development of musketry. O O o Q Uſ.) º o O o O sº------, s 4’ & cº-e Plate 8. Early Field Piece. 9. Light Artillery. It was nearly three centuries after the discovery of gunpowder and the use of the first cannon before a really mobile artillery was developed from the cum- bersome and heavy weapons which up to this time had found favor. Trunnions were now being cast with the guns, wheels came into use, provision was made for attaching the gun to a limber, and the cannon were provided with some kind of elevating mechanism. All of these developments were at last put into use on one gun with the result that the first mobile carriage is produced. Until the 15th century the principal use of cannon was to batter the walls of forti- fications. This development of the cannon contributed eventually to the great political changes which mark the close of the middle ages. Prior to that time a walled town or castle could withstand attack; but the development of the cannon put weapons in the hands of kings which could reduce the defenses of the feudal lords. 192 HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF ARTILLERY The first use of cannon in the field is credited to John Zizka in the Hussite Wars of Bohemia (1419 to 1424). He used carts for rapid transport as well as the energy of men, as did the Romans with their ballista in earlier times. There are other records of the use of small guns during this period. In 1460 King James of Scotland was killed by the bursting of a field gun while he was watching a test. In the London fighting of 1460 small guns were used to clear the streets and larger ones to batter the Tower of London; and it is recorded that the Battle of Lose Coat Field in 1469 was decided by Edward IV’s field guns. Francis Bacon in his “Henry VII” writes of the battle of Blackheath fought in 1497, and of “some coronets of horse, and bandes of foot, and good store of artillery wheeling about.” 10. Other Developments. In the early part of the 15th century experiments were made with breech loading cannon but they proved to be unsatisfactory because of the crude construction of the breechblock which gave very unsatisfactory obturation and which could not withstand the shock of firing. The principle of rifling, to give rotation to the projectile and stability in flight, was discovered about 1520. However, it met with little favor and was not generally adopted until 1850 when its use opened the era of the modern rifled guns and elongated projectiles instead of round shot. In 1573 a German named Zimmermann invented “Hail shot,” a form of case shot with a bursting charge and a primitive time fuze ignited by a propellent. CHAPTER III GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS TO NAPOLEON 11. Reforms of Gustavus Adolphus. It was Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden from 1594 to 1632 who “modernized” the artillery of his time and designed the first real mobile cannon and gave to the mobile artillery its real role on the battlefield. He concluded that the only way to defeat the formations of pikemen and musketeers which were ruling the battlefields of Europe, and had done so for more than a century, was by cannon so designed that they could be as mobile as the foot soldiers. He therefore re- Plate 9. Light Artillery of Gustavus Adolphus. designed all of the Swedish artillery making the 12 pounder his heaviest field gun with a 9 pounder and a four pounder (the last of which could be handled by three men and a horse) as the lighter cannon. These cannon were all mounted on trunnions and on carriages which had wheels. He combined the ball and the cannister with the propelling HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF ARTILLERY 193 charge to permit more rapid fire. For the first time there was built into one piece mobility of a high degree, fire power and rapidity of fire. He also increased the pro- portion of artillery to foot soldiers, and put light guns with the infantry. 12. Resulting Modifications. Gustavus, who was the greatest general since Caesar, was killed at the battle of Latzen. Following his lead all nations then modified their artillery. Cast bronze became the favorite gun metal, although cast and wrought iron guns were still in use. Calibers became standardized from one to six inches. The charge was ignited through a priming vent. The Dutch invented the howitzer during this period. Shells made from cast iron came into use. Smoke shell was invented in 1681. An in- cendiary shell known as the “carcass” was developed. During the wars of Louis XIV guns were cast from bronxe and iron; powder charges were put up in canvas bags; grapeshot was invented; mortars were used more extensively. In this period of approxi- mately 125 years, or until the time of Frederick the Great, no development was made in the method of the employment of mobile artillery. 13. Period 1700 to 1800. The manufacture of cannon as a business started in Italy and Germany. In 1740 Maritz of Geneva, Switzerland, introduced a new method of boring guns from solid pieces. In 1742 an Englishman named Robins made studies of the effect of wind resistance on projectiles. In this period artillery had become classified as field, siege, and fortess artillery. 14. Reforms of Frederick the Great. The next progress in the tactics and employment of artillery was inaugurated by Frederick the Great of Prussia. It was Frederick who first conceived the idea of organizing artillery into batteries and employing it not as many single weapons but as units of guns, which were permanent organizations. He accordingly assembled his guns into batteries of from 6 to 10 pieces and prescribed mounted maneuvers which enabled the batteries to be moved from one part of the battle- field to another with some mobility. One of the most decisive uses of artillery took place at the battle of Rossbach in 1757 where Frederick turned a retreat into a victory against the French and English by the use of his artillery. To keep pace with the movements of his cavalry he intro- duced horse artillery in 1759. But the Austrians had the best artillery in Europe at this time, and Frederick's artillery, although usually well handled, often showed to less advantage than did that of the Austrians. At this time Gribeauval, a French artillery officer who served with the Austrians during the Seven Years War, returned to France and initiated the most far reaching reforms that had yet taken place, and paved the way for the artillery triumphs of the Napoleonic era. Plate 10. Gribeauval 12-pounder Gun. 15. Gribeauval's Reforms. While Frederick the Great had attempted to apply the existing heavy equipments to his use, Gribeauval a French artillery officer, who became inspector General of Artillery in 1776, overhauled the entire artillery system. He created FA1 (1) 194 HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF ARTILLERY a distinct type for field, siege, garrison and coast. For the field artillery he insisted on mobility and with this in view he limited the field artillery to 12 pounders as the heaviest type. He reduced the number and variety of pieces and gave the first system of uni- formity of construction and interchangeability of parts; he improved the ammunition and evolved a new system of transportation and supply which included the caisson; he hitched horses in pairs instead of in tandem, organized artillery personnel, and formed the guns into batteries and brigades. In 1785 he introduced the howitzer, an 18-inch smooth bore weapon. He also equipped the guns with scales for laying them and with elevating screws. With only minor modifications the Gribeauville type artillery was used by Napoleon in all of his campaigns. 16. Invention of Shrapnel. In 1784 Lieutenant Henry Shrapnel of the British Army, later a General in the Royal Artillery, invented a new type of shell which was called spherical case shot. (The name was changed to the name of the inventor in 1852). This shell was provided with a time fuse and a bursting charge which could open the shell at any desired place along the trajectory and scatter the bullets over a considerable area and accomplish at long range what the case shot did at short ranges. This pro- jectile did not come into use until 16 years later. #ſº &Sºug|Hiſſè. #3: W (3a.fºllºw Mºses gºerrºº 5XX5 - *~ ſº 5. º ºr in y - 2:=% gºlºiſi - o ޺ º: Sº º Americon Revolution-field gun ond implements | 1 Worm cºnd lodle &º: # - Priming - wires Crooked hondle sponde Gºtt-E Plate 11. Six-pounder Field Gun Used in Revolutionary War by Colonial Army. 17. The Revolutionary War. The artillery of the American Colonies in the Revolu- tionary War was organized and equipped similar to that of the British. The materiel comprised about fifteen different kinds of guns, mortars, and howitzers ranging from three to 24-pounders, most of which were of the pre-Gribeauval type. There were also a few cast iron siege guns of 18, 24- and 32-pounders. No castings were made in America prior to the war but by 1775 both iron and bronze cannon were being cast in Philadelphia. The carriages were made of wood reinforced with wrought iron. Horses or oxen were hitched in tandem for mobility. On the battlefield the guns were handled with drag ropes using men as power. - 18. Napoleon and Artillery. In his reorganization of the French armies Napoleon was able to profit by the technical reforms that had been instituted by General Gribeauval. He made a proportion of his guns divisional artillery; part he put in the hands of the Corps and the rest he held in reserve under his own control. His guns were assembled into batteries of six each. He enlisted and uniformed the drivers as well as the cannoneers, had the drivers ride the off horse, hitched six horses to each piece and four to each caisson. One howitzer was assigned to each five rifles. The guns were 6, 9, and 12- pounders made of bronze and the howitzers 5% inch brass pieces. Napoleon was an artillery officer and appreciated its possibilities and power. “It is the HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF ARTILLERY 195 artillery of my Guard which decides most of my battles,” he said, “because having it always in hand I can use it when and where necessary.” While there was little improvement in the construction of guns, in the range of cannon, or in the efficiency of the powder or projectiles, Napoleon greatly increased the efficiency of organization, training, tactical handling and mobility of his artillery which gave it a dominance of fire power on the battlefield. The first complete artillery preparation was used by Napoleon in the battle of Friedland, June 14, 1807, when he defeated the Russian General Bennigsen. Thereafter his battles depended for their success on artillery preparation on a scale never before seen. In the battle of Wagram, June 6, 1809, Napoleon gained a great victory by the use of his artillery. When his left had been beaten back by the Austrians under the Archduke Charles and his right wing was making little progress, he noted that the enemy's front had been too widely deployed. He massed all his available reserves in the center, and with about 100 guns attacked the enemy. The actual assault was preceded, according to the biographer Morris, "by such an array of cannon as had never been put together before," with the result that the Austrians were forced to retire. 19. Improvements in Design. In the long peace that followed the battle of Waterloo, 1815, few changes took place in the artillery. The number of guns and calibers were reduced, ammunition chests were put on the limbers, and seats were provided for the cannoneers. But no great development in the efficiency of the arm was made. - A - Courtesy of the National Park Service. - Plate 12. Seacoast Artillery at Fort McHenry, Baltimore, Md., made famous by Francis Scott Keys’ “The Star Spangled Banner.” During all of these centuries the gun carriage was of rigid construction recoiling on firing and necessitating running up by hand after each round. No recoiling or traversing device had ever been introduced, other than the checks or wedges behind the wheels and ropes to drag the gun back into battery. A traversing mechanism was not essential because the crude sighting apparatus, which consisted of the line of metal until the invention of the dispart sight in 1829, did not permit of accurate laying. The screw type of elevating mechanism had become common and by the middle of the 19th century it had supplanted the cumbersome wedge or pin and arc type. 20. War of 1812. In the War of 1812 the American mobile artillery was armed largely with the six pounder which were made of cast iron. The American Army had adopted 196 HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF ARTILLERY º wae „w w º w Aw ！ | … ：） ſae 5，9 ±（√） * （ ）∞ ， ！� «№ �� Ñ ? ſå · Ñày% }ſjØ∞ № \{][ÌÍÎÏÏĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪİIGD še-- \º №à №>=<！=) \ Plate 13. Six-pounder of the Mexican War. Plate 14. 10 inch Columbiad Mounted on Carriage. Plate 15 Case Shot and Grape. HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF ARTILLERY 197 the Gribeauval carriage in 1809, about the time it was becoming obsolete in Europe. The fortress or coast defense artillery had 12 to 32 pounders. 21. Between Waterloo and Civil War. In the years immediately following Waterloo (1815) there were few changes made in artillery; but ammunition chests were put on limbers and seats were provided for the cannoneers. Although the principle of rifling, to give rotation to the projectile and stability in flight, was discovered about 1520 it was not generally adopted until about 1850 when it opened the modern era of rifled cannon and elongated projectiles. Breech loading guns were reintroduced and this time proved to be successful. In 1801 bronze was abandoned by the American Army as a metal for the manufacture of cannon in favor of cast iron; and it was readopted in 1836 for mobile guns and howitzers. With the introduction of rifled cannon, steel succeeded both bronze and cast iron. In the war with Mexico (1848-9) all cannon were muzzle-loading smooth bores. Most field pieces were made of bronze; the larger calibers of cast iron, varying from the six to the 32 pounder howitzer in the mobile artillery; and in the seacoast artillery from the 12 pounder to the giant Columbiad of 10 inch caliber weighing 15,260 pounds. The ammunition consisted of solid cast iron shot, cast iron cannister, grape and a form of shrapnel known as spherical case shot. 22. The Crimean War Wars (1854-6). (English, French, and Turks against the Russians) was fought entirely with smooth bore cannon. In 1857 the United States adopted the 12-pounder (4.62 inches) Napoleon gun-howitzer, which was a bronze smooth bore muzzle loader. Built up and wire wound guns began to appear about 1855. CHAPTER IV CIVIL WAR TO WORLD WAR I 23. Civil War (1861-5). Although artillery was in a state of rapid evolution in 1860 because of the strides made in the use of metals, practically all nations were still using smooth bore cannon when the Civil War opened in 1860. The result was that both Union and Confederate armies used guns of all types from the smooth bores and muzzle loaders to rifled and breech loading cannon. The first rifled cannon was used by the Union Army which bought 300 wrought-iron rifled field guns from England. They were of 3-inch caliber, or 12 pounders; rifled cannon were used by both armies prior to the Battle of Gettysburg. The calibers varied in smooth bores from the six pounder (3.5 inches) to the 32 pounder (6.2 inches). The seacoast armament were all of cast iron composed of large caliber smooth bore guns, mortars and Columbiads including a 15-inch Rodman gun which at that time was the most powerful gun in the world. The first employment of incendiary shells for illuminating purposes and star shells for signalling took place. A Confederate officer invented the first gas shell, or “stink shell” as it was called at that time, but they were never used. Rough methods of indirect laying and shooting from concealed positions were used, and the ideas of protecting artillery with field fortifications and cover had reached a stage of development that was only equaled in the World War. According to our drill regulations of 1861 the “point blank range of six pounder field guns is about 600 yards, and that of 12 pounders 700 yards. The chances of hitting a mark are less with pieces of small than of large caliber owing to windage, etc. Grape of 4 the diameter of ball has sufficient velocity at 880 yards with 12 pounders to disable men. The greatest range of the 24 pounder howitzer is 2200 yards that of the six inch about 2600 yards. The effect of projectiles upon strong masonry is very gradual. It requires several hours or cool, systematic firing, at very short ranges, to open a useful breech in a well built wall of good stone.” 24. Franco-Prussian War (1870-71). By 1867 percussion and time fuzes, designed along practical principles had been invented and projectiles with these fuzes were used in the , Franco-Prussian war in breech loading rifled cannon. 198 HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF ARTILLERY (The Prussians had found out in the Austro-Prussian war of 1866 that their artillery was inferior and needed redesigning). The improvements made in the intervening years made the German artillery superior to the French. The war ended in the Battle of Sedan in which the greatest use was made of artillery up to World War I. 25, 1871 to 1897. In 1877-78 smokeless powder, which had been invented in 1865 by Major Schultze of the Prussian artillery, was used for the first time in battle between the Turks and the Rumanians; and black powder which had ruled the battlefield for 600 years was displaced. The first good smokeless powder was not invented until 1886 by the French engineer, Vielle. This was followed in 1887 by Noble's Ballistite and the English Cordite but smokeless powder did not become common for the use of firearms of all nations until about 1895. Plate 16. Three-inch Rifled Parrott Gun of Civil War. By 1880 the elongated projectile began to appear with a copper rotating band. The greater velocities thus introduced gave increased ranges and necessitated redesign of guns and carriages. In 1891 a German General by name of Wille published a book which predicted radical changes in recoil, rapid fire, traverse, and elevation. 26. Semi-rapid Fire Carriages. During these advances the development of the gun car- riage remained where it had been for nearly 200 years with the single exception that about 1870 carriages were made of iron instead of wood. The development of the modern breechblock came in 1891 and with it came the possibilities of developing a quick firing gun, with a recoil mechanism to increase the rapidity of fire by giving steadiness to the piece. The first of the modern carriages developed in the nineties should be classified as semi-rapid fire or semi-fixed. Of this type were the Russian 90-mm of 1895, the Austrian 90-mm of 1897, the Japanese 75-mm Model of 1898, the German 77-mm Model of 1896, the American 3.2-inch, and the Italian 75-mm of 1901. In all of these types the recoil brakes were so abrupt that the gun jumped considerably. A variety of methods were employed to partially limit the movement of the carriage in action. The guns all fired high explosive projectiles, (usually base fused) and shrapnel from metallic cartridge cases. All nations except the United States were using smokeless powder. The development of the recoil mechanism made it possible to protect the cannoneers by shields, and this permitted continuous service of the piece. The principle of the built-up and wire-wrapped gun had been well established and all guns were being made of alloy steel and carbon steel. The science of ordnance construction had, for the time being, outstripped the science of operating the materiel provided, with the result that the possibilities of indirect fire were not yet fully appreciated. HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF ARTILLERY 199 27. French 75-mm Gun (1897). The famous French 75-mm gun (soixante-quinze) built by the firm of Schneider in France, made its appearance in 1897 after about five years of effort in developing a gun with its characteristics. The invention of this new gun is credited to Canet and Deport. Its appearance marks the modern era of field artillery. The most important and revolutionary features of this gun were: hydropneumatic, long and smooth recoil mechanism, built up construction of the tube with alloy steel, simple and efficient breechblock, elevating and traversing mechanisms, abatage principle, and its light weight and ease of maneuver in comparison with its power and range. The French also invented about the same time a point detonating fuze and a modern high explosive shell. - From the moment the French 75 appeared the field artillery of all other nations of the world was obsolete and all set about to design a gun to match the French. The principles of the French construction, especially the recoil mechanism, were kept a secret; and it was not until World War I that they became known. The Germans redesigned their 77-mm gun, which was given a spring recoil. The British followed the German principle. - Plate 17. 3-inch Field Gun, Model 1903. 28. War With Spain. In 1898 the United States went to war with Spain armed with cannon left over from the Civil War. Some of the armament was 3.2% inch non-recoil- ing guns, called by the soldiers “grasshopper guns", which fired unfixed ammunition and used black powder. The white smoke gave the battery positions away to the Spaniards who had some modern weapons. During that war the United States purchased some 2.95 mountain howitzers from Great Britain which were still in use in our Army with the advent of World War II. 29, 1900-1914. The Boer war which ended in 1902 after three years of fighting proved that the 75-mm Krupp and Creusot guns of German and French design with which the Boers were armed, were superior to the English gun in range. In 1902 the Ordnance Department of the United States Army held extensive tests with field guns produced in this country and abroad to select a field gun for our 200 HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF ARTILLERY Army. The 3-inch field gun, designed by the Ordnance Department, was finally adopted; and this was the standard field gun of our army until World War I when we adopted the French 75-mm gun. The three-inch guns were used in the United States for training. It had a built-up steel tube with a hydro-spring recoil mechanism of the long recoil type, an increasing twist rifling, an interrupter screw breech mech- anism and an excellent panoramic sight of German design. It fired shrapnel with a combination time and percussion fuze and a high explosive shell with a base fuze. Its maximum range was 8500 yards. The ammunition was fixed with a brass cartridge C2S6. In the Russo-Japanese “War of 1904-5” the Russians used a 3.9 Englehart gun made in England and the Japanese a 75-mm Arisaka gun modeled after Krupp of Germany. The need for light howitzers was shown by both sides and as a result European nations designed howitzers of from 105 to 120-mm except the French who insisted on using only the 75-mm cannon. As a result of the Balkan wars, 1912-13, the French held that their 75-mm materiel in the hands of the Balkan nations (Bulgarians, Serbs, Greeks and Montenegrians) was superior to the German materiel, which con- sisted of both guns and howitzers with which the Turks were armed. On the other hand the Germans and Austrians concluded, from the same war, that their materiel was superior and went ahead and built a great many howitzers. The Austrians built howitzers as large as 305-mm and 420-mm. CHAPTER V WORLD WAR I TO WORLD WAR II 30. World War I. The principal divisional weapons of the principal nations during World War I was as follows: Germany—77-mm guns, 150-mm rifles, 105-mm, 150-mm and 210-mm howitzers. France—75-mm guns, 155-mm guns, 155-mm howitzers. England—18 pounders (3.2 inch), six inch rifles, 4.5 inch, 8 inch and 9.2 inch howitzers. The United States—75-mm guns, 155-mm guns, and 155-mm howitzers. There were a number of larger calibers. The forts of Liege, Maubege and Namur, were reduced at the beginning of the war with Austrian 12 inch howitzers; those of Antwerp by 420-mm howitzers (16.5 inch). The more or less stabilized front from 1914 to 1918 caused emphasis to be placed on heavy armament including 16-inch railway guns. It was power and range rather than mobility. Shrapnel gave way to shell. A superquick point detonating fuze was used against personnel. Mortars became important. Chemical shell was used by the Germans in 1915 and was followed by all other nations. Smoke shell was extensively used by 1916. Tractors as prime movers began to supplant the horse. Great concen- trations of artillery were used preliminary to offensives. The French had developed a 520-mm howitzer for the sieges expected in 1918. 31. German Long Range Gun. The most startling development in artillery during the war was the German long range gun invented by Von Eberhardt and constructed by the Krupp works under direction of the German navy. It bombarded Paris from March 23 to August 9, 1918. Nine of these guns were manufactured, seven used at the front (one of which burst on the third round) and were fired from three different positions. They fired a total of 367 shells into Paris and its suburbs at an average range of 75 miles. The guns were constructed of two 15-inch rifled naval guns screwed together which gave 98.5 feet in length with a smooth bore extension of 19.7 feet or a total of 118.2 feet including the powder chamber. The caliber was initially 210-mm (8.26 inches) but when worn out after 50 to 60 rounds the tubes were rebored to 232-mm (9.14 inches). The muzzle was supported by a truss, on account of the great length. The total weight of the gun was about 318,000 pounds and when mounted on its carriage or later on the railroad type mount weighed about 400 tons. The high explosive projectle was about HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF ARTILLERY 201 40 inches long and was constructed in two parts separated by a diaphram. There was a fuze in the base part and one in the diaphram. The muzzle velocity was 5500 feet per second at maximum charges, variation in range being secured by varying the powder charge. The maximum ordinate was about 24 miles which put a part of the trajectory in the “stratosphere” where the air more nearly approached a vacuum and gave less resistance. The time of flight was about 186 seconds at maximum range. The probable error was about two miles in range and 34 of a mile in deflection; and the rate of fire four rounds per hour. | } | | * -- º º, NY, - - - ſº ºft Žiš º P D 4% º AS ºff */\} | Sº Zºº...! º 8|Wić *:::::::3% # #422. $24% P- ºf % ſº º ; : D 4% ; º ſuſ: ſº # * *lºº__A=} º ſº º: s gº. . * #52 =# == N. Wººl rºm-tºm-E-F- |ſº ADITDMIT II 2- jiຠNº. 3.; : \º - % ** yº _2^ _^ The Paris Gun and its emplacemént– 1918 Plate 18. German Long Range Gun. 32. World War I to Word War II. Immediately following World War I General Pershing appointed a “Caliber Board” headed by Brigadier General Wm. I. Westervelt to make a study of the probable future needs of artillery for a field army; to make recom- mendations as to what was thought to be practicable and feasible in the way of armament (pieces, transport, and ammunition) for the next few years considering stocks on hand and the inevitable cut which was anticipated in Army appropriations; to decide what was thought to be desirable in these basic weapons and what was considered to be the ideal weapon for the particular task. For example the board stated that for the divisional light artillery it was practicable to arm the field artillery with the French 75-mm gun, horse drawn, of which we had a considerable stock on hand; what improvements desired on the present weapon was more mobility for mechanical traction, and greater traverse; that the ideal weapon was one of “approx. 3” caliber, ranges 11,000-15,000 yds., 80° elev., 360° traverse, rate of fire 20 rds. per min. Carriages interchangeable with light howitzer.” The Report for the divisional artillery continued: 202 HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF ARTILLERY TRANSPORT Practical Ideal Light Field | Guns and 6 Regts. 75-mm guns should be | Mechanical transport is t he Artillery howitzers. moto-zed immediately (tractor- | prime mover of the future. Ex- (Division). drawn). Remainder "should be periments should be made with horsed. Present 155-mm. Hows. tractors, self-propelled mounts, should be tractor-drawn. Horses and wheeled trailers. Speed of should be gradually displaced by | 12 mph is sufficient. Mechanical tractors only after tractor dem- transport will remove the Weight OnStrates its Superiority. limit imposed by capacity of 6-horse team. AMMUNITION Practical Improvements Desired Ideal Ammunition Light Field || Gun. Shrapnel, HE, and Mechanical time fuze. Shrapnel, H E, a n d Artillery chem. shell. Super- || Bore-safe fuzes. Flash- chem. Shell fixed amm., (Division). quick and Short- less propellant. flashless, b or e-Safe, superquick and Selec- tive-delay fuze f or shell. Not over 20 lbs. Clelay fuzes. The report of the Board guided Field Artillery development for the next twenty years. In order to increase maneuver and strategic mobility experiments were made with portee artillery and with bogies using pneumatic tires in order to move the 75-mm gun whose wheels were designed for horse transport, at greater speeds. Later high speed adapters with pneumatic tires were fitted directly to the carriages of both 75-mm and 155-mm guns and they were towed behind trucks. 33. Motor Traction. The adoption of motor traction for prime movers instead of the horse paved the way for another era in artillery. The field piece had been conceived in terms of the horse. Extensive tests by all nations showed that six horses were as many as could be maneuvered with facility. The sustained pulling power of a horse in draft was calculated at about 650 pounds. Therefore approximately 3900 became the fixed value on which the weight of a field piece had to be based; and this limited design. Even after motive power was a proven fact the design of artillery to take advantage of motors lagged. There was great reluctance on the part of the field artillery especially to adopt a self-propelled mount. 34. Development of Antiaircraft Artillery. During the World War I the airplane de- veloped rapidly and became an important arm for reconnaissance and combat. This necessitated development of antiaircraft artillery. Machine guns have been developed with mounts that permit fire against low flying planes. A 37-mm antiaircraft high-velocity gun has been developed that can bring a large volume of fire to bear on an airplane. The 3-inch antiaircraft gun and the 105-mm antiaircraft gun equipped with the electric automatic pointing devices and using time fuzes on H.E. shell are our most effective ground weapons against air attack. Listening devices and searchlights are used in connection with antiaircraft artillery for spotting planes. 35. Other Developments. Electrical firing directors, especially for antiaircraft artillery were invented which permit the mechanical and electrical laying of guns and increase accuracy and speed Divided type trails replaced the box type and allowed much greater angles of elevation with consequent increase in horizontal and vertical range. Rear trunnion mounting of the tube took the place of a balanced mounting. With the improvement and increased use of tanks, antitank guns became important. Machine guns and then 37-mm guns were especially adapted for use against them. The tendency at present is to adapt the 75-mm gun and 105-mm howitzer for indirect and direct fire against tanks. The general trend is toward more howitzers instead of guns, more mobility, and larger calibers for field artillery. Most projectiles are high explosive shell. Shrapnel is out. The airplane bomber to a great extent is taking the place of long range artillery. The Germans who, as a result of the Versailles Treaty, did not have any World HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF ARTILLERY 203 War I stocks on hand, have been able to build almost nothing but materiel left from World War I. We did however experiment and improve. New and better rifles, howitzers, tanks, and airplanes are now coming from our production lines. 36. Standard Categories. The beginning of World War II in artillery armament in use by the major powers of the world may be placed in standard categories as follows: (1) Light: 3.0- to 3.5-inch guns; 3.0- to 4.5-inch howitzers. (2) Medium: 4-inch guns; 6-inch howitzers. (3) Heavy: 6- to 10-inch guns; 8- to 12-inch howitzers and mortars. (4) Coast or fortress: Guns, howitzers, and mortars of all calibers up to 16-inch. (5) Antiaircraft: High-velocity guns from 1.5- to 4-inch. (6) Antitank: Guns from 1.5- to 3-inch. Questions . Name three weapons which were forerunners of the cannon. . Name two of the larger cannons developed in ancient times. What were some of the reforms of Gustavus Adolphus? . What were the principal types of artillery used in the Revolutionary War? What was Napoleon's contribution to artillery? What were the principal calibers of cannon used in the Civil War? . What were three of the outstanding changes made in the construction of cannon with the invention of the French 75-mm gun? 8. Was the period 1900 to 1918 marked with a trend toward development in the gun or the howitzer? 9. What was the range of the German “long range gun?” 10. What changes in the construction of cannon were made possible by the adoption of motor traction instead of horse power as prime movers? CHAPTER VI HISTORY OF THE FIELD ARTILLERY OF THE UNITED STATES ARMY 37. Date F. A. Organized. The Field Artillery, as a separate arm of the service, dates from 1907 when the Field Artillery was separated from the Coast Artillery. Prior to that year there was but one Artillery arm. 38. Artillery of Colonial Times. Both types of artillery can trace their origin to colonial times when the artillery was organized as a part of the Continental Army and took part in the American Revolution. Several of the batteries, now organizations in Field Artillery regiments, can trace their origin to colonial times. Prior to the Revolutionary War, Boston, Philadelphia, Charleston, New York, and other cities organized companies of artillery (as they were then called); and some of these organizations saw service with the English Royal Artillery against the French North American possessions. At the outbreak of the Revolutionary War several units were available for service and immediately became part of the continental forces. 39. Revolutionary War Artillery. The first artillery regiment to be organized and sent against the forces of England was mobilized at Boston in June, 1775, by the Colony of Massachusetts. It was recognized by the Continental Congress, and command was given to Colonel Richard Gridley, a former British officer. The regiment did not meet with success under this officer with the result that he was relieved. Henry Knox (for whom Fort Knox, Ky., is now named), a young man only 25 years of age, was appointed colonel and given command on December 2, 1775. Under Colonel Knox, the regiment was reorganized early the following year. It included a company from Rhode Island, under command of Major John Crane, and a company from New York, now Battery D of the 5th Field Artillery, commanded by Alexander Hamilton. The cannons were maneuvered by drag ropes manned by cannoneers or “Matrosses” as they were then called. The enlisted men of the army did not drive horses. This was done by civilians. The soldiers served the guns only. 204 HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF ARTILLERY As soon as the war started the 1st, 2d, and 3d artillery regiments were organized, and Colonel Knox was appointed “brigadier general of artillery.” He thus became the first chief of the artillery. He commanded the arm during the entire war. 40. Between Revolution and War of 1812. a. Peace time organization. After the war it was decided “that the military peace establishment shall consist of four regiments of infantry, one of artillery into which regiment the engineers will be incorporated, the consolidated body to be called the Corps of Engineers.” The Corps of Engineers thus formed was to consist of two battalions of artillery of four companies each. This organization was disbanded when Congress passed a resolution on June 2, 1784, dis- charging all per’od of the war men still in the service. Since it was necessary to have some armed for es, the states of Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania were asked to furnish soldiers from their militia to serve twelve months unless sooner discharged. Henry Knox, the first Secretary of War, formed them into one regiment, of ten com- panies, eight of infantry and two of artillery. In the fall of 1784 the only artillery force in the United States was one regiment of militia recruited for one year, named by the War Department the “First American Regiment.” The regiment served on the northwest frontier against the Indians, and in 1787 it was increased in personnel. The artillery was organized as a separate battalion under command of Major Doughty; from that time on it has always been a separate arm. b. Organization of Regular Army. When the First Congress met in March 1789, a force of one regiment of infantry and one battalion of artillery with a strength of 1216 officers and enlisted men was in existence, this force was adopted as the Regular Army of the United States under the Constitutional Government. The Artillery was Artillery in name only, as it always acted as Infantry, the only difference being that in addition to its duties as Infantry it had to care for its own guns and equipment. The Act of May 9, 1794, gave the Artillery its first increase when a “corps of artiller- ists and engineers” was organized and incorporated with the one battalion then in the service to form four battalions of four companies each. c. Second regiment organized. In 1798 the threat of war with France caused a second regiment of artillerists and engineers to be organized. Both the “corps of artillerists and engineers” and the regiment were separate and distinct units and neither was success- ful. Therefore in 1799 they were reorganized by Lieutenant General George Washington. He placed the two organizations on the same footing and called them the first and second regiments of artillerists and engineers. d. Separation of artillery and engineers. In 1802 the Army was reorganized and its size reduced. The Engineers and Artillery were separated, and out of the oldest com- panies a regiment of artillery was formed. e. Light artille, y regiment organized. Troubles with Great Britain caused President Jefferson to recommend that the Army be increased, and as a result the Act of April 12, 1808, added one regiment of light artillery to the regiment of artillery already in existence. Congress authorized no money to equip the regiment as light artillery, so all except one company, was issued muskets. The company was commanded by Captain Peter, who had the honor of leading the first completely equipped horse artillery company. The second in command was Winfield Scott, who afterwards became Com- mander in Chief of the Army. (Fort Winfield Scott, California, is named after him). Another of the officers of the new organization was Abraham Eustis, who, years later, became Colonel of the 1st Light Artillery Regiment. (Fort Eustis, Virginia, is named after this officer). The two six-pounder guns were very heavy and not very mobile. They were equipped with drag ropes to be manned by men instead of horses. In June, Captain Peter received orders from the Secretary of War to prepare his com- pany “with one ammunition wagon, and one light horse wagon, for conveying four men besides the waggoner . . together with the officers with one sergeant and three men on horseback, and four men in the light wagon” for a journey from Baltimore to Wash- HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF ARTILLERY 205 ington. They were “to proceed at the rate of five or six miles per hour . . . and to make some experiments at this place by maneuvering the cannon in different directions.”. In all there were about twenty horses in the command. The gun squads were composed of two gunners and six matrosses. The drivers did nothing except care for the horses. The battery was the feature of the July 4 parade in Washington in 1808. © f. Company dismounted. In 1809 the new Secretary of War under President Madison dismounted the company, sold the horses, stored the guns, and issued the organization muskets because, as it was stated, “horses for the artillery cannot be maintained at such an expense.” 41. War of 1812. When the second war with Great Britain began the Artillery was carrying muskets and was scattered in small detachments along the coast from Maine to New Orleans. During the war two regiments of artillery of twenty companies each and one regiment of light artillery of ten companies were added to the Army. The War Department de- cided to equip the light artillery regiment with horses, and by June, 1812, this had been accomplished. In the attempted campaign against Montreal the troops and guns were moved by boats and the horses sent overland. The result was that when the artillery was wanted there were no horses and it became necessary to dismount dragoons to haul the pieces. Little by little the horses were taken away because of the inability to provide forage, so by the campaign of 1814 every distinctive feature of the light artillery had faded, and most of the companies were equipped as infantry. Yet in spite of many discouraging circumstances the pioneer regiment of light artillery, organized in 1808, had high morale. The Inspector General in his report of December 31, 1814, said, “The light artillery regiment . . . surpasses any regiment in this army in discipline and evolutions.” 42. Between War of 1812 and Mexican War. a. Reorganization of 1815. Peace was de- clared on February 18, 1815, and on the 3d of March of the same year Congress declared that the military peace establishment should not exceed 10,000 officers and men and that it should be organized as the President might prescribe, except that the Light Artillery and Artillery should retain the organization of 1808. b. Lettering of companies. Prior to 1816 the companies of a regiment were not lettered, each was designated by the name of its captain. In 1816, the War Department pre- scribed that they should be lettered with the first letters of the alphabet. c. Reduction of the Army. In 1820, Congress again took up the matter of the reduc- tion of the Army, and the Secretary of War, John C. Calhoun, was directed to lay be- fore that body a plan for this accomplishment. “The present regiment of light artillery, being organized to maneuver sixty guns, is stronger than our occasions require,” he said. “Being on foot and performing garrison duty it cannot practice its peculiar movements nor qualify itself for the duties it will be called upon to perform in the field. It is there- fore proposed to convert it into an additional regiment of foot artillery.” He combined the Light Artillery, the Artillery, and the Ordnance. Under this the Light Artillery ceased to exist as a regiment but its companies were taken care of by providing that each of the four regiments of the Corps of Artillery should have one company designated and equipped as light artillery. d. Parent organizations. The 1st, 2d, 3d, and 4th regiments of artillery, organized under the Act of March 2, 1821, form the basis of the same numbered battalions in the Regular Army at the present time; and in each of the first four battalions of the present Field Artillery are one or more batteries which were named in the organization of 1821 and whose histories go back to colonial or Revolutionary War days. That part of the order which specified that one company in each of the regiments would be or- ganized as light artillery remained inoperative for the next seventeen years. e. Mounting of batteries. In 1838, Company C of the 3d Regiment, commanded by Captain Ringgold, was organized at Carlisle Barracks as horse artillery, as distinguished from light artillery. Each cannoneer rode a horse. In 1839, a company in each of the other regiments was given horses. In 1842, Con- gress reduced the Army for the first time since 1821, and the light artillery had to cut its guns from 6 to 4 in each organization. 206 HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF ARTILLERY 43. The Indian Wars. The active service of the Artillery after the War of 1812 and before the Mexican War was performed almost wholly as infantry. It participated in the various Indian troubles, including the Seminole War in Florida. 44. Mexican War. The Artillery in that campaign (1845-48) made history. Light Artillery Batteries took part in the battles of Palo Alto, Resaca de la Palma, the siege of Monterey, Vera Cruz, the defense of Saltillo, the capture of Mexico City, and Buena Vista. Concerning Buena Vista General Taylor wrote: “Without infantry to support it and at the imminent risk of losing its guns, Bragg's Battery of 6-pounders came rapidly into action, the Mexican line being but a few yards from the muzzle of the pieces. The first discharge of canister caused the enemy to hesitate; the second and third drove him back in disorder and saved the day.” 45. Between Mexican War and Civil War. The period between the Mexican War and the Civil War was one of many changes in strength and organization. In 1847 before the end of the Mexican War, Congress authorized four additional companies of artillery to be organized: In 1848 they were discontinued, but they were established again in 1849. In 1851 all but two of the light batteries were dismounted, to be mounted about two years later. Most of the batteries of the Artillery and other troops of the Army were distributed along the Indian frontier when the Civil War broke. 46. Civil War. President Lincoln at once created by proclamation one additional regi- ment of artillery, the 5th, one of cavalry, and eight of infantry. The Constitution provides that “Congress shall have the power to raise and support armies,” but in this situation there could be no delay, and the President, holding that it was always constitutional to prevent the overthrow of the government, raised the addi- tional troops on his own responsibility. An act giving legislative sanction to the in- crease was passed afterwards. It designated the units of the artillery regiment as “bat- teries.” This is the first time that the term is legally used, although the word “battery” had been used to designate cannon as distinguished from infantry organizations for years. “The term battery is usually applied to a collection of several guns,” say the regulations on Field Fortification published in 1861. The field artillery consisted of eight batteries, two from each of the four regiments of artillery. About half of this organization was immediately sent to the Army of the Potomac, and the other formed cadres for volunteers. At the end of the first year there were ninety-two “light batteries,” with a total of 12,500 men and 520 guns. The guns consisted principally of 3-inch rifles with an effective range of about 2800 yards, and 12-pounder Napoleons, which were smooth bore guns. At the beginning of the Civil War the batteries first had six pieces but were later re- duced to four; this number of guns to a battery has been retained in our service ever since. Four batteries were assigned to each division, with half of the divisional batteries formed into a corps reserve. One of the batteries of each division was from the Regular Army, and its captain acted as the artillery adviser for the division commander. The Confederate Army had one battalion of four batteries assigned to each division. It was early recognized that properly organized Cavalry should have with it horse artillery, so in the fall of 1861 Battery A of the 2d Artillery was equipped for that service, forming the first battery of horse artillery in the Army since Bragg's company was dismounted at Santa Fé after the Mexican War. Two others were soon organized, and the three formed a horse artillery brigade. 47. Reorganization after Civil War. In July, 1866, Congress passed an act to fix the military peace establishment of the United States, which provided that there would be five regiments of artillery of twelve batteries each. The wave of economy continued to sweep the country in the years immediately follow- ing the Civil War with the result that in 1869 Congress passed another act still further reducing the Army. Each of the artillery regiments lost one battery in the reorganization, and a great many officers with experience during the war were discharged in order to cut down the officer personnel. - HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF ARTILLERY 207 48. Artillery Schools Established. About the only progressive development of the period between the end of the Civil War and the war with Spain was the establishment of a school for heavy artillery at Ft. Monroe, Virginia, in 1867, and a school for light artillery at Ft. Riley, Kansas, then a frontier Indian post, in 1869. Battery K of the 1st Field Artillery, A of the 2d, C of the 3d, and B of the 4th were ordered to Ft. Riley for the garrison and school troops and arrived on April 18, 1869. 49. Spanish-American War. The Spanish-American War found the artillery of the United States Army, like the other arms of the service, behind the times in modern equipment. The field guns were of 3.2-inch caliber, breech-loading and of the semi-fixed type of carriage. They fired a projectile weighing 13% pounds, propelled by 3% pounds of black powder, an effective range of from 2500 to 3000 yards. The siege guns were 7-inch howitzers, of built-up steel, firing a projectile of 105 pounds with 10 pounds of black powder. The howitzer could range to 5000 yards. The cannon were crude and out of date. They had no modern recoil mechanism, no method of indirect laying, and the cannoneers, found their aim obscured by the smoke from the black powder. The guns were so unstable when fired that they soon received the nickname of “grasshopper guns.” (Compare these with the French 75-mm gun, model 1897, which was designed the year before the Spanish-American War). The artillery with the American Army during the Santiago campaign consisted of one light artillery battalion of four batteries hastily gathered together, without previous battalion training. 50. Reorganization in 1901. The events of the Spanish-American War so exposed our military deficiencies that Congress passed a reorganization act in February, 1901, pro- viding for an Army with a maximum strength of 100,000. The regimental organization of the Artillery was discontinued, and the Auxiliary was reorganized and designated as an Artillery Corps. The radical difference between Coast Artillery and Field Artillery was recognized, but nevertheless the new corps was made to comprise both branches. The special sphere of each was determined and its duties definitely defined. The Corps comprised 126 companies of Coast Artillery and thirty batteries of Field Artillery. It was also provided that there should be a Chief of Artillery. 51. Separation of Coast and Field Artillery. After six years’ experience the decision was made that the two branches should be organically separated. This was accomplished on January 25, 1907, by “an act to reorganize and increase the efficiency of the artillery of the United States Army,” which provided for the complete separation of Coast and Field Artillery. The thirty separate batteries of field artillery then in existence were increased by six and these thirty-six organized into regiments of six batteries each. There were no headquarters or supply companies in the regiments. This reorganization made it possible to place the Field Artillery in its proper relation to the Infantry as a part of the mobile army. 52. The Field Artillery School. The need for a school where the officers of Field Artillery could all be taught the same principles and which would make instruction throughout the branch of the service uniform was felt, and as a result the School of Fire for Field Artillery, now known as the Field Artillery School, was established at Ft. Sill, Oklahoma, in 1911, and Captain Dan T. Moore detailed as Commandant. The light artillery school had been established at Ft. Riley, Kansas, but all of the instruction was now concentrated at Ft. Sill. 53. Changes Under National Defense Act, 1916. The organization of the Field Artil- lery remained unchanged until June 3, 1916, when reorganization was begun under the National Defense Act. In addition to the six batteries in a regiment it was provided that each regiment should have a headquarters company and a supply company. The first of these increases was at once started with the organization of the 7th, 8th, and 9th Field Artillery regiments. In order to form these three new regiments the four light battery regiments then in existence, the 1st, 3d, 5th, and 6th, were ordered to transfer part of their officers and men to the new organizations to form the nuclei. 208 HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF ARTILLERY 54. First Motorized Regiment. One of these regiments, the 9th, was organized in the Hawaiian Islands by the transfer of officers and men from the 1st Field Artillery as the first motorized regiment in any army in the world. Prior to that time motorization had been experimented with in batteries and companies in foreign armies and in one battery in the United States Army; but the 9th Field Artillery was the first complete regiment to be motorized when considering artillery motorization in its full sense, that is, where animal transportation is entirely eliminated and vehicles driven by internal combustion engines are substituted therefor. 55. War with Germany. The outbreak of the war with Germany, April 6, 1917, found the United States Field Artillery consisting of nine Regular Army regiments (three of which had just been organized), sixteen National Guard regiments (only six of which were actually organized as regiments), and a reserve of 221 officers and thirty-three enlisted men. By reason of the reorganization of 1916, seven of the nine Regular Army regiments were in a state of reorganization, and in the entire Regular Army Field Artillery there were only 275 officers and 5253 enlisted men with more than one year's service. (When the war ended on November 11, 1918, there were 22,393 officers and 439,760 enlisted men in the Field Artillery and 13,605 students in the Field Artillery Central Officers' Training Camp in process of being made into 2d lieutenants.) The commissioned personnel was expanded 7100%, and the development of the Field Artillery in the face of the greatest difficulties stands out as one of the greatest achieve- ments of the war. As soon as war was declared the remaining four increases provided for in the Act of 1916 were put into effect and the Regular Army artillery was enlarged from nine to twenty-one regiments. Seven Cavalry regiments were converted into Field Artillery. The most serious handicap to the training of the Field Artillery was the shortage of materiel. The only guns on hand which was similar to those being used in Europe were 574 three-inch guns, fifty-five 4.7 inch rifles, and a miscellaneous assortment of other guns and howitzers. This materiel, some of it out of date and worn, had to be distributed among the 113 regiments of field artillery that were immediately organized. The result was that some brigades had only one to four guns to the three regiments, about one obsolete battery commander's telescope, and little other equipment. Materiel was improvised; gun crews which were in training for duty on the front in France were being practiced in the evolutions of mounted drill and in the duties of cannoneers on makeshift wooden guns, which varied in design and completeness with the ingenuity of the instructors. 56. Chief of Field Artillery Appointed. In order to coordinate training and planning for the tremendous increase in personnel, both officers and enlisted men, it was recognized in 1918 that a Chief of Field Artillery was necessary; and accordingly on February 10, 1918, the Office of the Chief of Field Artillery was created. Brigadier General Wm. J. Snow was detailed as the first Chief of Field Artillery. 57. Training in France. Upon arrival in France the Field Artillery regiments had to be taught to handle new materiel, usually the French 75-mm gun, the 155-mm howitzer or the 155-mm rifle. Under the Chief of Field Artillery of the A. E. F., Major General Ernest Hinds, firing centers were established for training in materiel, equitation, hippology, reconnaissance, topography, communications, principles and methods of fire, conduct of fire, etc. Each brigade was sent through one of these centers before going to the front. The complete course of training was never accomplished except for the 1st brigade. Because of the urgent need of troops other brigades were trained for about six weeks and then equipped and started for the front. In many instances regiments did not receive their horses or other equipment until a few days before moving from the firing centers. First porteá regiment equipped. The bulk of the Field Artillery in France was horse drawn, although toward the end of the war a few regiments were issued tractors for prime movers. One regiment, the 346th Field Artillery, was organized as a porteč regiment and was among the regiments designated in the summer of 1918 as Army artillery. That regiment became the first porteá regiment in the American Army. It was completely motorized. The French 75-mm guns were loaded into trucks by means HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF ARTILLERY 209 of ramps, and the guns were carried in trucks instead of being hauled behind them. Such a regiment has considerable strategical mobility but very little tactical mobility. 58. The Caliber Board. On December 5, 1918 the Chief of Field Artillery (Gen. Snow) recommended to the Chief of Staff that a board of field artillery officers be ap- pointed in France to investigate the trends of field artillery as shown by the war and to formulate a long-range plan for the development of future weapons. This board, headed by Brig. Gen. William I. Westervelt, has sometimes been called the Westervelt Board. The approved proceedings of this group constituted, during the ensuing two decades, a directive or “blueprint” for a development program which has been followed wisely and profitably by succeeding Chiefs of Field Artillery. Thus the U. S. Field Artillery now (1942) has in production or final stages of development the following modern weapons specified by the Caliber Board: 105-mm howitzer, 155-mm gun and 8-inch howitzer, 4.5-inch gun and 155-mm howitzer, and 240-mm howitzer; and, the 75-mm howitzer used by pack and horsed units. Concerning the Caliber Board Report, General Snow wrote in 1940: “Under it more progress has been made in research and development than in any other equal period in the world's history in any nation.” 59. Reorganization of 1920. When the Army was organized under the National Defense Act of 1920, all basic units of field artillery regiments were called batteries; prior to that time the headquarters and service organizations were called “companies.” Bat- talions as well as regiments received headquarters batteries; and battalion combat trains were added to reduce the gun batteries' burden in supply of ammunition. The brigade ammunition train, which had been so successful during the World War was continued in the new organization which, for divisional artillery, included a brigade headquarters and headquarters battery, an ammunition train, two light gun regiments and one medium howitzer regiment. It was hoped eventually, in line with the Caliber Board Report, to arm the howitzer regiment with 105-mm howitzers, but in the interim the 155-mm howitzer, M1918, was used. The 75-mm gun regiments were organized with two battalions of three batteries each, whereas the medium regiment contained three battalions cf two batteries each. Organic corps artillery consisted of a brigade having a headquarters and headquarters battery, an ammunition train, an observation (flash and sound ranging) battalion, two regiments of 155-mm howitzers and one regiment of 155-mm guns (GPF). Army and GHQ artillery contained (on “paper” only) such units as pack regiments, 75-mm gun regiments (porteč, horse-drawn, and motorized), and the larger calibers, including 240-mm howitzers. 60. Developments Between 1920 and 1940. Immediately after the war the School of Fire at Fort Sill became the Field Artillery School, the principal course offered being the Battery Commanders' Course. At the same time, a Basic Course was instituted at Camp Taylor, later moved to Camp Knox, Kentucky; and a Field Officers’ Course was started at Fort Bragg, North Carolina. In 1923 the Field Officers’ Course and Basic Course moved to Fort Sill; the former became the Advanced Course, and the latter was amal- gamated with the Battery Commanders' Course to become the Battery Officers' Course. In the meantime the Field Artillery Board had been located at Fort Bragg, North Caro- lina. For a number of years the question as to the permanent location of the Field Artillery School remained unsettled, which resulted in a lack of appropriation for much- needed new buildings and facilities. Finally, in 1930, a board of officers headed by Brig. Gen. William Cruickshank recommended that Fort Sill be the home of the Field Artillery School (Fort Bragg had been prominently mentioned), and this was so ordered. Little new construction occurred until 1934, however, and only then as a part of the government's program of relief for the unemployed. General Snow, the first Chief of Field Artillery continued in office until 1927. His successors, were, in order, Maj. Gens. Fred T. Austin, Harry G. Bishop, Upton Birnie, Jr., and Robert M. Danford. Motorization of the Field Artillery progressed steadily but slowly during the decade fol- lowing the war. The slowness was occasioned by the then current policy of govern- mental economy, in which the World War materiel had to be used for many years be- yond its normal life expectancy; and because it was not certain whether industry would develop tracklaying prime movers or wheeled vehicles which would be most suitable. Finally, in 1930 there was organized an experimental truck-drawn battery having com- 210 HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF ARTILLERY mercial light trucks as prime movers. After an extensive test it was determined that this type of motive power was sufficiently mobile for light artillery. At first no funds were available to equip units with new vehicles, but under the governmental relief program previously mentioned, in which large sums were spent to stimulate industry and promote the free circulation of national currency, all light batteries of the National Guard were converted to truck-drawn units, and a portion of the regular army field artillery was also so equipped, but at a slower rate. The larger calibers continued as tractor-drawn ar- tillery until it became evident in 1939 that multiwheel drive trucks were suitable for this purpose. In 1939 the Army adopted a triangular division for the Regular Army; and the Field Artillery accordingly changed its organization so that the divisional artillery con- sisted of: (1) A small headquarters of 11 men, (2) one light regiment of three bat- talions, and (3) one medium regiment of two battalions of two batteries each. Concur- rent with the motorization of the field artillery, some funds were appropriated for the conversion of existing weapons for high-speed transport. This consisted essentially of providing the carriages with disc wheels having pneumatic tires and high-speed bear- ings. The traverse and elevation characteristics remained unchanged. These modifica- tions were applied to large numbers of the 75-mm gun M1897 and the 155-mm howitzer, M1918. A year or so later, similar modifications were made to the 155-mm gun M1918. During this period (prior to 1940 or 1941) national policy indicated that no funds would be available for production of new materiel until after the outbreak of a major war; consequently efforts of the Field Artillery (and the producing service) under War Department policy were directed toward a proper utilization, by adaption and conversion, of existing types of cannon and other materiel. With respect to vehicles, the national, and consequently, the military policy, was that commercial types should be utilized. The natural consequences of the forementioned policies was to inhibit the development and procurement of new cannon and the development of specially designed military types of vehicles. Nevertheless, the Field Artillery continued within the scope of very limited appropriations to test and develop (in conjunction with the ordnance) new weapons such as the split-trail 75-mm gun, the 105-mm howitzer, and a new 155-mm howitzer and 155-mm gun. Thus when the present war commenced, or became imminent, development had progressed to such an extent that the 155-mm gun was already standard and in limited production, the 105-mm howitzer was standard- ized very quickly, and most of the other weapons recommended by the Caliber Board were in various stages of development or test. In other words, the far-sighted policy of the Chiefs of Field Artillery bore fruit in spite of the lack of funds up to and immediately preceding the mobilization of 1940-41. 61. Reorganization of 1940, and Latest Developments. In the fall of 1940 a new triangular division was adopted for the regular army as well as new armored and cavalry divisions; and about a year later a new motorized division was adopted. All this required a corresponding change in the organization and armament of the Field Artillery. For divisional artillery, the regimental and brigade organization disappeared, to be replaced by the new four-battalion set-up (described later in this volume). Similar changes were made in the armored division, and in the cavalry division; in the latter there appeared for the first time a truck-drawn battalion of 105-mm howitzers. The new standard light weapon for all units (except pack and certain horsed units) became the 105-mm howitzer; in 1942 the standard light weapon for the armored divi- sion became the self-propelled 105-mm howitzer. The square division persisted for a time in the National Guard, but as the National Guard units gradually lost their identity, as such, in the Army of the United States, their organization too was changed to the triangular form. The corps artillery organization remained essentially as before. Great changes occurred at the Field Artillery School, where the one-year and half- year courses gave way to numerous courses of eight- and twelve-weeks duration, and where an Officer Candidate School was established. The Field Artillery Replacement Centers, conceived by Generals Snow and Danford in 1918, were reestablished, there being three for the Field Artillery. On February 28, 1942, General R. M. Danford retired and the Office of Chief of Field Artillery became vacant under a reorganiza- tion of the War Department. MAP READING CONTENTS Paragraphs Chapter I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5 Chapter II. Location and Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-12 Chapter III. Distance and Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-22 Chapter IV. Direction and Azimuths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-32 Chapter V. Elevation and Relief . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-41 Chapter VI. Map Reading in the Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42-51 Chapter VII. Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52-59 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1. Military Map Reading. Maps or map substitutes play a vital part in military opera- tions. (The term “map” as used in this text often may be considered to include aerial photographs and map substitutes.) It is by means of the map that the commander studies the area in which he is to operate, and learns its essential characteristics. All of these are called terrain features. It is on the map that the commander and his staff work out the details of the general plan. It is by means of the map and references thereto that the commander transmits his orders to his command, and it is in this manncr that the subordinates learn the plans of their commander, and the specific part thereof allotted to them. It is again by means of the map that the various combat units move to their allotted positions, identify their lines, boundaries, and objectives, and conduct their subsequent movements. The map . is also a source of data for the delivery of artillery, machine gun, and other supporting fires. The map or map substitute is a primary fighting instrument of the commander of any unit from an army to a squad. Be he a general, a junior lieutenant, or a noncommissioned officer, he will find himself depending on the map for the successful accomplishment of his mission. From the first to the last day of his service, every soldier will have need of skill and accuracy in the reading of maps. Proficiency in map reading proceeds from study of the theory and development of technique through practice. 2. Military Maps or Map Substitutes. a. Definition. (1) Maps. A map is a conventional representation of a portion of the surface of the earth as a plane surface. (2) Map substitutes. This is a general term used to designate substitute maps that may be produced in a few hours. The map substitute may consist of direct reproduction of wide coverage aerial photographs, photomaps or mosaics, or of pro- visional maps. The term “photomap” is used as a general term to describe reproduc- tions of various types of aerial photographs. A provisional map is produced by com- piling existing map detail or by tracing information from aerial photographs. b. Types. Maps used in the theater of operations will consist of those available at the outbreak of hostilities and of those produced thereafter. These maps vary from crude, small-scale planimetric maps to accurate, large-scale topographic maps, and may include various special purpose maps, such as road maps, railroad maps, aeronautical charts, etc. The issue of large scale maps, elaborately contoured and colored, will be exceptional both in training and in combat and will usually be confined to troops in stabilized situations and to those in a few isolated areas. c. Classification. Military maps are classified generally according to scale. The general types are— (1) Small. Maps of small scale varying from 1:1,000,000 * to 1:7,000,000 are needed for general planning and for strategical studies by the commanders of large units. Various types of general maps are employed for these purposes. * This means one unit of measure on the map represents 1,000,000 of the same units on the ground. 211 212 MAP READING (2) Intermediate. Maps of intermediate scale, normally from 1:200,000 to 1:500,000, are required for planning operations, including movements, concentration, and supply of troops. The “Strategic Map of the United States,” 1:500,000, is designed for these uses. Maps of a scale of about 1:250,000 are particularly applicable to movements of armored forces and as maps of maneuver areas. (3) Medium. Maps of medium scale, normally from 1:50,000 to 1: 125,000, are needed for strategical, tactical, and administrative studies by units ranging in size from the corps to the regiment. The United States Geological Survey map, scale 1:62,500 with wooded areas and road classifications added, has been found suitable for these purposes. This scale is used by the War Department for map production in strategic areas. While not suitable for all purposes, the scale of 1:62,500 has been found to be the most advantageous for recording topographic detail for future use. During cam- paign, these maps may be used at this scale or they may be enlarged or reduced as required. Plate 1. Globe Showing Meridians and Parallels. (4) Large. Maps of large scale, normally not greater than 1:20,000, are intended for the tactical and technical battle needs of the Field Artillery and of the Infantry. The battle map or map substitute will be furnished for these purposes. 3. Projection. a. Shape of earth. Theoretically the earth is an oblate spheroid in shape; a figure formed by rotating an ellipse around its shorter axis. Because of the continents and islands, the actual surface is slightly irregular. The distance from the center of the earth to a point at sea level on the Equator is 3963.3 statute miles and the distance from the center of the earth to either of the poles at sea level is 3950 statute miles. This difference is so slight that the earth may be mentally pictured as a round ball or sphere which rotates on a line or axis passing through its center. The imaginary inter- sections of this axis with the surface of the earth are called the North and South Poles. Circles on the earth's surface, cut by imaginary planes passing through the poles, are called meridians of longitude (Plate 1). Circles cut by imaginary planes at right angles to the axis are called parallels of latitude. The parallel midway between the poles is called the Equator. b. Latitude and longitude. Latitude is expressed by the number of degrees north MAP READING 213 or south of the Equator, the Equator being 0° and the poles 90°. Points in the Northern Hemisphere have north latitude and in the Southern Hemisphere, south latitude. The meridian of longitude through the Greenwich Observatory, London, England, has been adopted as 0°. Longitude is measured east or west of the Green- wich meridian to 180°. All points in North and South America have west longitude. (See Plate 1.) c. Projection. A map is a representation of a portion of the earth's surface on a plane, and since the earth is a spheroid whose surface is incapable of development as a plane, it is obvious that a map cannot depict a portion of the earth's surface exactly. It is customary in constructing maps to project the portion of the earth's surface under consideration to a surface which is capable of being developed into a plane. A system of developed lines designed for the purpose of constructing a map on a plane surface is called a projection. There have been many kinds of projections devised, all of which may be classified either as equal area, conformal, azimuthal, perspective, or some com- promise between these. For further explanation of projection see TM 5-230. d. Mercator's projection. There are several projections based upon a cylinder tangent to the earth along the Equator. That invented by Mercator and known by his name has the latitude scale distorted to equal the stretching in longitude that takes place in developing the sphere upon the cylinder. This distortion is zero at the Equator and infinite at the poles. Due to the rapid distortion when nearing the poles, Arctic land areas such as Greenland are greatly out of proportion. Mercator's projection is used in instrumental navigation, and is the standard projection for hydrographic charts (U. S. Navy), Navy air navigation charts, and Army long distance air navigation charts of small scale. Plate 2. Development of Polyconic Projection. e. Polyconic projection (Plate 2). The system adopted for the production of military maps is known as the polyconic projection. On the polyconic projection, each parallel of latitude is the developed base of a right cone tangent to the spheroid along that parallel of latitude. Each parallel therefore is a circle whose radius is an element of its tangent cone and whose center is on the axis of the spheroid prolonged. Therefore the radii of no two parallels of latitude, north or south, can be the same. They actually vary between a point at the pole to infinity at the Equator. The result is that parallels of latitude on a polyconic projection are equally spaced along the central meridian of the projection (map). 4. Conventional Signs. The purpose of a map is to convey to the reader accurate information concerning the various terrain features occurring in the area under study. The body of the map consists of signs or symbols, each representing some terrain feature occurring in that area. These are arranged on the body of the map in the same horizontal relationship, one to another, that the features themselves hold to each other on the ground. The symbols by which the ground features are represented are called Conven- tional Signs. These have been standardized and are published in Basic Field Manual, Conventional Signs, Military Symbols, and Abbreviations (FM 21-30). The map shown in Plate 3 contains most of the standard conventional signs used on both military 214 MAP READING and civilian maps. Conventional signs have been so devised that they picture or suggest the feature that they represent. Further to increase their value and ease of identification, certain maps may be printed in five colors, as follows: a. Black for the works of man, for names, and for the grid. b. Blue for water and water-covered swamps. c. Green for woods and other vegetation. d. Brown for contours and other forms of relief portrayal such as cuts and fills. e. Red to indicate road information. 5. Special Military Symbols. The map is used as a plotting board upon which to record the dispositions and locations of the enemy and our own troops, and upon which to plan the details of operations. For this purpose a series of symbols have been devised. These are known as Special Military Symbols and by means of them the size, identity and designation of the various units and installations, the location and type of auxiliary weapons, and the various lines and boundaries involved in an operation can be indicated. See Basic Field Manual 21-30 for symbols of any type of units not covered in Plate 4. The following general rules are applicable: a, Units or installations in territory occupied by our forces are usually shown in blue; those belonging to the encry in red. m"- CONVENTIONAL SIGNS SHOWN ON PLATE 3. Numerical Key. Alphabetical Key. 1. Good motor road, paved. Bench mark . . . . . . e e º e g is • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 2. Telephone or telegraph line. Bridge, foot . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 3. Double track standard gauge Tailroad. Bridge, highway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . 32 4. Stream or creek (blue on a map in colors). Bridge, highway, made of steel (S) ....... 28 5, Fence, Smooth Wire. Bridge, truss, or girder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 6. Triangulation point or primary traverse Bridge, suspension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 station. Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 7. Corn fleld. City, town or Village (generalized) . . . . . . . 43 8. Fence, barbed Wire. Combination showing city, town or village 24 9. Tall tropical grass. CrOSSing, railroad (R.R. above) . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 10. River (blue on a map in colors). Crossing, railroad (R.R. beneath) . . . . . . . . . . 15 11. Woodland (deciduous trees.) Cemetery . . . . . . . . . . . . . • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * e ... 23 12. LOne trees. Church . . . . . . . . . . • e º s • e º e s tº e e s c e s is e e s s . . . . . 22 13. Bulldings. Accentuated (every fifth) contour . . . . . . . .35 14. Orchard. Cultivated field, corn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 15. Railroad crossings, railroad beneath. Cultivated field, sugar cane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 16. Fence of any kind. Cut . . . . . . . . . • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * e e e o e s e e º 'º e e e s e 29 13. Cultivated field, Sugar Carle. Dam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº º ºs e º 'º e s sº º . 20 19. Grass-land. Demolitions (ruins) . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . 39 20. Dann. Electric power transmission line ........ 21 21. Electric power transmission line. Fence of any kind (or board fence) ...... 16 22. Church. Fence, barbed wire . . . . . . . . º e º e º º tº dº . . . . . . . . 8 23. Cemetery. Fence, Smooth Wire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . 5 24. City, town or village. Fence, stone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 25. Bridge suspension. Fence, worm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . e e º ºs e º e . . . . . 45 26. Railroad crossing, railroad above. Fill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . sº e s s e º a s g g g g is e . . . . . . . 27 27. Fill. Ford, equestrian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 28. Bridge, steel (S). Ford, for vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 29. Cut, railroad. Grass-land . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 19 30. Eridge, truss or girder, for standard gauge Sºras; tall tropical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 RR. Marsh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 31. Narrow-gauge railroad. Mine or quarry of any kind (or open cut) 34 32. Bridge, highway. Orchard * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * e s e e s is e º e e s s e e 14 33. Railroad, single track, standard gauge. Pasture or grass-land . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 34. Mine or 'quarry of any kind (or open cut). Railroad, double track, standard gauge .. 3 35. Accentuated (every fifth) contour. Rallroad, narrow gauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 31 36. Wire entanglement. Railroad, single track, standard gauge .... 33 37. Low or portable entanglement. River (blue on a four-color map) . . . . . . 10 38. Trenches (dotted when proposed). Road, good motor, paved . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 39. Demolitions (Ruins). Road, poor motor or private, unpaved . . . . 49 40. Ford, general symbol for vehicle ford. Stream or creek, intermittent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 41. Good pack trail or foot path. Stream or creek, perennial (blue on a four- 42. Bridge, foot. color map) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 43. City, town or village (generalized). Stream, head of ....... * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * . . 51 44. Intermittent stream. Tank trap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 45. Worm ſence. Telephone or telegraph line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 46. Stone fence. Trail or foot path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 47. Tank trap. Trees, lone - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 12 48. Equestrian ford. Trees, deciduous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 11 45 Road, poor motor or private, unpaved. Trenches (dotted when proposed) . . . . . . . . 38 50. Marsh. Triangulation point or primary traverse 51. Head of small stream. station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 52. Bench mark, Elev. 555 ft. Wire entanglement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Wire entanglement (low or portable) .... 37 Woodland (deciduous trees) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 16 ſº-ºº ºl RÉSERVATIO łșº • * gº: 44} • y iſſºirſ: FE-ºf- ºrrº-º-º: =} lli %ic. 45 £, a' * $2. & & ); <^$3 £ © ®\} $ ¢ £ € © {} {ſ} ，) gº tº 43 InS (3 © º, Ç loooYards Cº. º. 4Mile 2O,000 g Scale s 1. onal Si Conventi *iate 3. 216 MAP READING SPECIAL MILITARY SYMBOLS Military post or station; corn- mand post or headquarters. . (Lower end of staff or sym: bol will terminate at point of establishment repre- sented.). • * troop unit D Observation post . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4:= Temporary depot in combat f } 3CID.C. e. e. e. e. e. e. e. e s e o e e s see e s - " " " " " " Supply point - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - supply train or transportation unit Animal-drawn .............. […] An Motor-drawn or motorized . . […] Pack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * * * * * * * * [...] PK Railway e e s e s e e e s is e e º e º ºs e > * * […] Ry Weather station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Arm or Service. (Usually placed inside of basic symbols shown above) Air Corps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C-º) Airship ......................... <> O Armored FOTC6 . . . . . . . . . * * * * * * * * (When used with any arm or service symbol indicates mech- anized unit.) Artillery e e s e o e o e o e s e e s e e s e e º e º " " Cavalry e e - e. e. e. e. e. e. e. e. e. e. e. e. e. e. e º e º e º " " Cavalry, mechanized . . . . . . . . . Cavalry, horse and mechanized Chemical Warfare Service . . . . . Engineers e e s e a e e s e s e e º e o e º 'º e º 'º º i Infantry e e s e e o e s e e s e e s e º e º 'º " " " * * Infantry, motorized . . . . . . . . . . X Mtz X Preht MP Infantry, parachute - - - - - - - - - - Military police . . . . . . . . • - - - - - - Medical Department. . . . . . . . . . . " i Company, troop, battery, or air force filght . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0. Battalion, cavalry squadron, or air force squadron . . . . . . . . . . . 0 0 Regiment or air force tº IOUlº) . . . § 0 || Brigade or air force wing ...... X Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XX Corps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxx Army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXXX General Headquarters ......... GHQ Boundaries. Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Platoon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Battalion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Regiment . . . . . . . * * * * * * * * * e e s e e º e Brigade . . . . . . . . © & © e º 'º e º e º e e º e º 'º e Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * D - *! 3 - *X*e *XX&ºme Front line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . /2772 Limit of wheeled traffic, day ... -DY- Limit of wheeled traffic, night .. -NT- Straggler line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Miscellaneous. —[5]- Antitank gun (Specify caliber.) d 75 Antitank gun in position, prin- AT cipal direction of flre ...... 75 Antitank gun emplacement with AT principal direction of fire .. 37 &#~ Automatic rifle e dº e º 'º e º e º 'º e º e º a º (Dotted when emplacement is -> not occupied, thus) . . . . . . . . *: ...º.º.º.º. j and notation, type) . . . . . . . . Machine gun ................... O-º- (Arrow to point in principal directi fire. When used alone it in:"...: Chine gun, water-cooled, cal. 30.) Machine-gun symbol under symbol of unit of any arm indicates machine-gun unit of that arm.) Antialrcraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *TART" Antitank * * * * * * * * * * * * tº e º e º 'º e º ºs e e e-Fr-º- Caliber .50 * * * * * * c & s e o e º e e º e e e o e •—32–- ſo unoccupied, ! thus ......... Ordnance Department . . . . . . . . . . Ammunition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . " Prisoners of War . . . . . . . * * * * * * * Quartermaster Corps - - - - - - - - - - - Class I Supplies • - - - - - - - - - - - - Gasoline and Oil only - - - - - - - Signal Corps e e e s e o e e s e e s > * * * * * * Signal Corps, Aviation - - - - - - - Size of Units. (Usually placed above basio symbols shown above, or, in boundaries shown below.) Squad e e g º e º dº e º e e g º e º e o 'º e º e º dº º & © O Section * * * * * e a e e s e e s e e º 'º e º e º 'º e º 'º' O O. Platoon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - © OO Gun bat- Open when en- tery placement is Łº-º-; isiºn HOWitzer Oº Imortar - . . -4. Howitzer of * tº .44-4-4 Göölöö. } MAP READING 217 37-mm gun . . . . . . . . . . e e s e º e º e º 'º $ 37-mm 81-mm mortar . . . . . . . . . . e is tº e º 'º & -º- 81-mm 4.2” chemical mortar . . . . . . . . . . -º- ; trni Machine gun (single gun) . . . . . <--> (Arrows to indicate sectors of fire: shaded portion to show danger, space when flre is placed in final protective line.) Machine-gun section (two guns) • .2% AP exism–e Message center . . . . . . . as e e e s & ſº e º º Msg Cen Mines, individual, layout or @ area included shown to scale. . Qor Obstacle, individua) Obstacle, bridge out . . . . . . . . © +}{={ Road block Switching control at command post e e s e s e a e o e e s e e s • * * * * * * * * cºe Tank trap • e º e s e º e e e e e o e º e e º e º e e s’ Ye Traffic: *sº One-Way e e s , e. e. e. e. e. e. e. e o e º e º " " " " e->=>-º- TWO-WaW. e e s e e º e º e = * * s e e s e e º 'º tº 2 º > t Application of Symbols. The following examples show the use of special symbols as applied to various military organizations or activities. They are in- tended to illustrate the method of combining basic symbols and abbreviations to show the desired information and are only a few of the possible combinations. Pºzo (1) Air Corps. 701st Air Base Squadron Éa 90it Éa 7 obsn 901st Transport Squadron . . . . . E3 88 ſcſ, E31st [æ]ar Élio º e º 'º º & © 7th Observation Squadron . . . . . 88th Reconnaissance Squadron. • 1st Staff Squadron . . . . . . . . . . . . . Headquarters and Headquarters Squadron, GHQ Air Force . . 101st Balloon Squadron - - - - - - - - X 3d Air FOTC6 . . . . . . . e s e e s e e s º º º º Ésaf 701st Bombardment Wing . . . . . . Eäzo Bºsq) (Light, medium, heavy) 532d Pursuit Group (intercep- É532P., ( J) tor) (or fighter) 203d School Squadron . . . . . . . . . Ea 203 Sch (2) Cavalry. Light Machine-Gun PlatOOn, e dº & Troop A, 2d Cavalry . . . . . . . . ALZ12 Transportation Platoon, Head- tº ſº º quarters Troop, 2d Cavalry. . Hqſ: 12 Scout Car Platoon, 2d Cavalry. . setCſ:#2 1st Platoon, Special Weapons • * * Troop, 14th Cavalry . . . . . . . . 1 SPWonſºlia *st Platoon, Antitank Troop, & º & 1st Cavalry Division . . . . . . . 1 ATſzll Div 1st Platoon, Troop A, 4th Cav- C & e alry, Horse and Mechanized 1 AP1 4. 2d Platoon, Troop G (Motor- © C & cycle), 4th Cavalry, Horse and Mechanized . . . . . . . . . . . * 2 G|2| 4. Headquarters Troop, 8th Cavalry wº #: sº e º & & © p tº e º & & * @ G º 'º e º º Ho ſº. 8 bris Machine-Gun Troop, 7th Cavalry ph 7 Machine-Gun Troop, Caliber .50, L-12 2d Cavalry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CŞ. aſºl, Troop A, 1st Reconnaissance Squadron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *[H]is Special Weapons Troop, 3d Cavalry • e s e º e º e º e º s e e *...*s, wDºns Troop F, 2d Cavalry . . . . . . tº e º s º F ſº 2 Troop E (Scout Car), 6th Cav- alry, Horse and Mechanized Eſ:16 Reconnaissance Troop (Mechan- 1zed), 9th Division . . . . . . . . . Renſä19 Dž1. e e º e e s is e e s e e s e o e º 'º e º ºs º º 1st Squadron, 1st (mechanized) 1st Squadron, 4th Cavalry . . . . . 1 tº 4. 18th Cavalry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº 18 1st Cavalry Brigade . . . . . . . . . . . . tº 4th Cavalry Division ........... à4 Cornm and Post, 5th Cavalry * Brigade e e º e s tº e e º 'º e º e e e º ſº º e º º Fa 5 Park, Mechanized Units of , – 14 ſ,. Horse Cavalry Regiment ... : YPrk (3) Chemical Warfare Service. COm C, 901st Chemical pany Battalion (or Regiment) . . C. (#) 9 Ol 901st Chemical Battalion . . . . . . [3] 90. (4) Coast Artillery Corps. 55th Balloon Barrage Battalion 2d Battalion, 2d Coast Artillery, Harbor Defense . . . . . . . . gº tº e - Searchlight Platoon, Battery A, & 104th Coast Artillery (AA). . Machine-Gun Platoon, Battery * *...* Coast Artillery © º º 37-mm Platoon, Battery F, 104th Coast Artillery (AA) . . . . . . . Battery A, 104th Coast Artillery (AA) . Battery B, 104th Coast Artillery (AA) e sº e º e º ºs e º e º e º e º e º e º e º 'º º 1st Battallon, 104th Coast Artil- lery (AA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2d Battalion, 104th Coast Artil- lery (AA) . . . . . . . . . tº e º e a e g º ºs 77th Separate Coast Artillery Cº-e Battalion (AA, 37-mm) . . . . DZSJ77s eP º 37 104th goast Artillery ºt. (AA) DžSJoa 912th Coast Artillery Regt., Rall- WBy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº º te e º ſº e º C. [*192Ry 57th Coast Artillery Regt., 155- mm Gun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº º º & [*157ca (5) Corps of Engineers. Company A, 2d Engineers (corn- bań), tº sº tº dº e º º tº º º 4.e. e º e s e e º e s s e e this 15th Engineer Squadron . . . . . . . . *ºneer Battalion (sepa- [+] 3O2 Sep 301st Engineers (general service) ſé,30 gen serv *...*.*.*.*.*, [Élooshveonmi. 801st Engineers (water supply) [#180 w sup XX Engineer dump, 5th division ... {E} 5 12th Engineer Battalion (Tri- [É12 angular Division) . . . . . . . . . . 2d Platoon, 70th Engineers, Light º tº & Ponton, Motorized, GHQ Re- 2[...]7ol Pon GHQ Serv6 e e is e º ºs e º 'º e º gº tº tº dº ſº º º tº tº tº Bridge Company, 16th Engineer [E] Battalion Armored . . . . . . . . . Br [Gº]16 2d Platoon, Company B, 28th © C o Engineers (Aviation) ...... 2 B [E]28 Avn Engineer Park II Corps . . . . . . . . §m. ^sº Engineer Depot No. 2, First XXXX Army tº gº e º 'º e º & tº e e º e º sº e e tº $ tº gº tº º Żë First (6) Field Artillery. Battery F, 2d Field Artillery .. (This symbol may be used to F[t]2 ShoW artillery position area.) COmbat Train, 2d Battalion, 3d Field Artillery . . . . . e e º ºs e º e º e CTN 2 [...] 3 Headquarters Battery, 2d Bat- talion, 4th Field Artillery ... Ho 2 [...] 4 Battery A, 3d Ammunition Train a ſº, 3 1st Battalion, 8th Field Artillery iſ: 8 1st Ammunition Train . . . . . tº º tº º [5] | 21st Field Artillery (horse) . . . . . Cºzi 103d Field Artillery (155-mm [*] gull e & © e º º e º e º e º e º ſe e º e tº º e º 'º 101.**ield'Artier;“tiss: Lºllºn'55" howitzer) tº e º 'º º e º e º 'º - e. tº e º ſº tº º [*] ! O! how. 155 funtº Command Post, 8th Field Artil- lery e g c e º ºs e º e e e e º 'º º ſe a e º ſº e º 'º tº e Fie Observation Post, 3d Battalion, 203d Field Artillery . . . . . . . . 3 Å 2O3 Gasoline Section, Service Bat- tery, 54th Field Artillery Regiment (105-mm Howitzer e Q —Armored) e ſº º e º ºs e º 'º e º º º tº e º ſº YServ[E] 54 2d Section, Battery B, 71st Field -à-IO 5 Artillery Battalion, Horse- © tº drawn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . e e s e s e e e 2BET 71 (HD) Headquarters Battery, 1st Divi- slon Artillery (Triangular). . HQL:1 Div (7) Infantry. *Cºlis The Infantry Company, Rifle Co. A (B) (C) (E) (F) (G (I) (K) (L) (29th Inf.) . . . . Headquarters Platoon (Co. © O C. 29th Inf.] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . HoAS3]29 Q Q Mortar Section (Co. A 29th Inf.) AD-329 Mortar Squad 1st (2d) (Co. A + .) * * * g e º e º e º ºs º e º e º te sº iADS329 Light Machine Gun Section (Co. :*: A 29th Inf.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Aft’s C-L-º- Light Machine Gun Squad 1st (2) (Co. A 29th Inf.) ...... 1st:18 Rifle Platoon 1st (2d) (3d) (co. *. iAC329 Rifle Squad 1st (2d) (3d) (4th) (5th), (6th) (7th) (8th) (9th) (Co. A 29th Inf.) The Infantry Company, Heavy Weapons Co. D (H) (M) (29th Inf.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Heavy Machine Gun Platoon 1st (2d) (CO. D 29th Inf.) . . . . . Heavy Machine Gun Section 1st (2d) (3d) (4th) (Co. D 29th Inf.) © tº e º e º e º ſº tº tº º ſº gº e º 'º º º e e º º º * @ e º ºs º ºs e º º Heavy Machine Gun Squad 1st (2d) (3d) (4th) (5th) (6th) (7th) (8th) (Co. D 29th Inf.) Machine Gun Platoon Caliber .50 (Co. D 29th Inf.) Machine Gun Squad Caliber .50 1st (2d) (CO. D 29th Inf.) .. 81-mm Mortar Platoon (Co. D 29th Inf.) 81-mm Mortar Squad 1st (2d) (Co. D 29th Inf.) 1st Antitank Squad, Antitank Company, 1st Infantry . . . . Weapons Platoon, Company E, 6th Infantry, Armored . . . . . 3d Platoon, 205th Military Pollce Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . e - ſº 501st Infantry Battalion (Para- chute) . . . . . . . . e e º u e º e s e e s e º º 8th Infantry (Motorized) . . . . . . 8th Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e º e º sº * Command Post 3d Battalion, 4th Infantry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Observation Post, 6th Infantry 1st Infantry Train Medical Detachment, 29th In- fantry 1st Battalion Section, Medical Detachment, 29th Infantry. . ge º 'º e º 'º º is gº à é º º e e e s a e e s e s tº a e s e º e º e º 'º º Aid Station, 1st Battalion, 29th Infantry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Headquarters, Medical Detach- ment, 29th Infantry . . . . . . . (8) Armored Force. Headquarters Company, Armored Division Military Police Platoon, Head- Guarters Company, 1st Ar- mored Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . Transportation Platoon, Head- quarters Company, 1st Ar- mored Division . . . . . . . . . . . . 1st Reconnaissance Battalion Rifle Company, Co. D, 1st Re- connaissance Battalion Weapons Platoon, Co. 1A5:1-3 dº s § § ovº - & oºt oº Oºº ºf $3. ol." OA. O9 | Plate 14. Map Reading Protractors. A—Semi-circular Protractor. B–Rectangular Protractor. LINE EXTENDED TO CUT PROTRACTOR SCALE TO FACILITATE READING. 36O `se 18O EXTENDED TO INTERSECT 18O VERTICAL GRID. Plate 15. Measuring Map Azimuths. The azimuth of the line A — B is 63°; of C–D, 298°. | BASE LINE CONSTRUCTED **-īāºjº P PARALLEL TO O VERTICAL GRIDS. f S/ | ôN | INITIAL POINT | $5 FROM WHICH AN AZ1 MUTH OF | | | 5° S TO || BE PLOT TED. *~! O P > O | >> | \Ss, | A-POINT PLQTIED FROM | Bř PROTRACTOR SCALE | '73> -- 670 a / * * ...” f e' * * ºs _ -- ~ * ~~~~ º º 22 º: * ~~~~~ -* § ſº Vº - Ž% ~ - " - *śRs - –— *T--~22.2%.2%T/ ~~~~ 2:2:22° 2, 2 º NS== = ~% ºf 2%/4%. 2222*2: 2? rºº tºº § – i. § Š azº- 2% Žº * * -222 w t # gº §: N § º f ſº * ~ .* 2% ſº * * J- " - ;: . . . . .Y.: § * 2. Ž. º#5 wºm iºniº is 2 %| § ſº ''''''''''}}<=>- Z. Z :/lºš --~ Z-rº-º-º-º: Y” * /*, * Plate 23. Contours of Ground Forms. The top figure is a sketch of the ground. The bottom figure shows how this ground would be indicated on a contoured map. f. The steeper the slope, the closer the contours; and conversely, the gentler the slope the wider apart the contours. g. On uniform slopes, contours are evenly spaced, on uneven slopes they are irregularly spaced. h. Closed contours indicate hilltops (sometimes depressions—rare). i. A contour always runs at right angles to the direction of the steepest slope. j. In map reading it is presumed that the ground between two adjacent contours has a uniform slope, though this may not be true in fact. 35. Contour Interval. a. The contour interval, or the vertical distance in feet between 238 MAP READING one contour and the next is stated as marginal information, usually under the scale at the bottom of each map. This interval differs according to the topography of the area mapped and the scale of the map; in a flat country it may be as small as 1 foot; in a mountainous region it may be as great as 250 feet. b. For military use it is necessary that the various sheets of a map of any given area have a common scale and contour interval or intervals that match. The following contour intervals have been adopted for standard quadrangle maps. The intervals in general conform to contour intervals found on most existing topographic maps. (1) Contour intervals of 5, 25, 50, or 100 feet in the States which lie all or mostly west of longitude 103 degrees as follows: Washington, Oregon, California, Idaho, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, Montana, Wyoming, Colorado and New Mexico. RIDGE _^ SADDLE NOSE 2’ º LL TOP VALLEY SPUR DRAW Plate 24. Contours of Characteristic Ground Forms. (2) Coutour intervals of 5, 10, 20, 40, or 100 feet in the States which lie all or mostly east of longitude 103 degrees. The 5-foot contour interval is used only on large-scale maps of limited areas. c. On most maps every fifth contour line is made heavier than the others and is accompanied by figures showing the altitude at convenient intervals. 36. Elevations of Important Features. The elevations of important features such as road junctions, summits, and surfaces of lakes, called spot heights, and those of bench marks are given on the map in figures to the nearest foot. - 37. Determining Elevation. a. Of a point on a contour. To determine the elevation, of a point on a map that happens to fall on a contour, search along the contour line for its stated elevation. This will be the elevation of the point. On most maps every fifth contour is accentuated for convenience, and often only every fifth contour is numbered. In such cases, note the vertical interval shown on the map, the elevation of the nearest numbered contour, and the number of intervening, contours, and compute the elevation of the required contour. The elevation of point A on Plate 25 is 580 feet. b. Of a point on a slope between contours. To determine the elevation of a point on a slope between contours, first determine the elevation of the two contours between which the point lies. Then note the relative position of the point with respect to these two con- tours, and along the line of the steepest slope, which is the line perpendicular to the con- tours. Interpolate the distance in terms of elevation. Point B on Plate 25 is 594 feet. MAP READING 239 c. Of a point above the top contour. In the case of a point falling within the top con- tour of a hill or ridge, only an approximation is possible. The elevation of point C on Plate 25 must be greater than 600, and must be less than 620 feet. Since the top of the hill itself cannot be as great as 620 feet (or the 620 contour would appear), and the point “C” is obviously not at the top of the hill, its elevation would be estimated as roughly between 605 and 610 feet. A C. E.--- 6oo 560 *e, V : 2O F.T. Plate 25. Determining Elevation. 38. Approximate Contours and Form Lines. a. Approximate contours. When it has not been possible for the topographer to locate accurately contours for a map, they are shown to be approximate only by the use of broken lines. b. Form lines. Form lines are similar to contours in that they are drawn at right angles to the direction of steepest slope. However, form lines have not a fixed interval and do not indicate elevations. Their purpose is to show the configuration of the ground. 39. Terrain Structure. The relief of the ground is, with race exceptions, due to water erosion, or weathering. During the course of geological ages the streams and rivers wash away portions of the earth's surface thereby forming valleys. The more resistant portions do not wash away as rapidly, and remain as hills and ridges. Through the natural work- ing of this process the streams seek and follow the lowest ground available to them, and therefore the drainage net, as shown on the map, is the pattern of the low ground of the area. Between any two adjacent streams there will always be found a ridge or crest, its direction generally bisecting the angle between the streams, and usually centrally located. The tops of the ridges are usually irregular, the high points constituting hills or peaks, and appearing on maps as a succession of closed contours. The basic terrain structure consists of a drainage system, following a characteristic pattern, and a ridge system which conforms to and complements the drainage system. The best way to study the terrain structure of an area is to trace out the drainage system, and then to trace out the ridge system. The exact location and trace of the drainage system is shown on maps by the proper stream conventional signs. The exact location and trace of the ridge system can be determined by tracing along the line established by the hills and ridges as shown by the contours. 40. Profiles. A valuable method of visualizing the details of relief is by profiling a selected line on the map. The profile gives a cross-section view of the terrain as it would appear on a vertical section through the line being profiled. The vertical scale is greatly MAP READING 241 exaggerated in most profiles, in order that the details of the relief can be more easily studied. Assuming the scale of the area shown in Plate 28 to be 1:10,000, the relief in the profile has a vertical exaggeration of about ten to one. To construct a profile, a working space (see Plate 27) is first constructed consisting of equally spaced horizontal lines, each line to represent the elevation of a contour, and the spaces between the lines representing the difference in elevation between two contours. The number of spaces must be sufficient to accommodate the total number of contour intervals between the lowest and the highest point involved in the profile. Lines are numbered in sequence to conform to the contour lines involved. The working space is placed on the map, lines 4 OO 38 O 36O 34 O 32O 3 O O 28O 26O 24 O Plate 27. Profile Working Space. parallel to the line to be profiled. Perpendicular lines are dropped down into the working space from each point where the line (O-P on Plate 28) crosses a contour a stream line, or a ridge line. This method maintains the proper horizontal spacing of these points, which is essential to the accuracy of the profile. The contour crossing points are plotted on their appropriate elevation lines of the work space. The elevations of the stream and the ridge crossing points are determined by interpolation and plotted ac- 242 MAP READING cordingly. In Plate 28 they are (reading from O to P) / (at O), 1/3, 2/3, 1/3 and /. of a contour interval, respectively. The profile is completed by connecting, by straight lines, the points thus plotted. 41. Visibility. a. By profile. Reliable knowledge of the visibility, or lack of visibility of points or areas is very essential to commanders. It greatly affects the location of ob- servation posts, the siting of weapons, selection of targets, and may determine the suit- ability of combat positions. The profile is the most reliable and useful means of deter- Plate 28. Profile. mining visibility, because it gives accurate information of what points are and are not visible, the location and the extent of invisible (defiladed or dead) areas, and from it the actual amount of vertical defilade can be computed for any point. On Plate 28, assume an observer to be standing at O, eyes five feet above the ground, looking toward P. The profile indicates that there are two areas invisible to the observer, and their extent can be plotted back on the map from the profile. The amount of vertical defilade at the second stream can be computed in terms of the vertical intervals of the working space, and found to be approximately 50 feet. The profile also shows that the nearest point, MAP READING 243 to O from which the first stream can be seen (military crest of the east slope of hill O) will be at the 320 contour line (indicated on the profile by an arrow). The visibility of entire areas, such as the field of view from an observation post, can be plotted on a control map by profiling each of a series of radiating lines and completing the outline of the invisible portions by inspection. (See Plate 29.) | > % | º º % Aſ * @* ºy C "f***{{#ſº Ó - º Ú & Plate 29. Visibility of Areas. b. By hasty profile. When speed is essential, and the visibility of specific points, only, is at issue, the necessary information can be quickly determined by plotting on the work- ing space only the points involved. Such points would be the observer, the probable masks, and the points whose visibilities are to be determined. In Plate 30, assuming the visibility of points A and B, only, are at issue, the plotting shown is sufficient to determine that A is visible and that B is not visible from O. c. By computation. The visibility of any single point can be determined by calcula- tion. The line of sight from an observer to any point would follow a straight line (if uninterrupted) which would be the hypotenuse of a triangle, the other sides being the distance, and the difference of elevation. These data can be determined by measurement and by calculation. The visibility of point B on Plate 30 could be determined in the fol- lowing manner (see Plate 31). Measure the distance O to B and O to M in any common unit of measurement (in this case the measurement was made in inches). Determine the difference in elevation between O and B. Stated in simple terms we now know that the line of sight has dropped 87 feet in 3.40 inches of map distance. We can easily determine how much this line of sight will drop in the 2.24 inches of distance from O to the mask, by applying the law of similar triangles: 3.40 : 2.24=87 : X X=57.3 Therefore, the line of sight from O to B will have dropped 57 feet by the time it reaches the mask, and will have a theoretical elevation of (375 – 57) 318 feet. The actual eleva- tion of the mask as shown by the contours is about 332 feet. Therefore, the mask is too high (by 14 feet) to permit observation from O to B. d. By inspection. Most visibility problems can be solved by inspection. If the inter- 244 MAP READING vening mask is higher than both the observer and the point, then there can be no visibility. If it is lower than both the observer and the point, then obviously the point can be seen. The line of theoretical sight, being a straight line, will drop, or rise) one-half the total drop (or rise) in half the distance; one-third in one-third of the distance; three-quarters in three-quarters of the distance, etc. Therefore, by noting the amounts of the differences in elevation of O-P and O-M, and comparing their relation Plate 30. Visibility by Hasty Profile. with the relative location of the mask between O and P, one can by inspection classify visibility cases as visible, not visible, and doubtful. The visibility of the doubtful cases must be determined by one of the methods described above. Plate 32 shows a case of a mask approximately one-half the height of the difference of elevations O and P. It shows that only when such a mask is located approximately half way between O and P, would there be any doubt as to the visibility of P. Practical Exercises 1. What is the elevation of: a. The house at (18.71-19.68)? (Special Map A) MAP READING 245 b. The church at (1751-1743)? c. The stream junction at (21.28-1958)? d. The top of DAVIDSON HILL (19.19)? 2. What is the location and the elevation of: a. The highest point on this Special Map “A”? b. The lowest point on this Special Map “A”? }* – 3.40” - & M 2. 24* —º- B 3.4O 2.24 = 87 X. X = 57 Plate 31. Visibility by Computation. -u- !/2 *-*. O --— — — z-- - - - = --z-r ---H. 4’ \ Z A. £ \ ſ \ f \ \ A \ / \ S. Af A \, B A C \ *N ^e P Plate 32. Visibility by Inspection. 3. Identify the topographic features found at the following locations. Use the topo. graphic terms: ridge, valley, spur, draw, hill, or saddle. a. (1977-1947). b. (21.64-1944). c. (22.08-2006). d. (23.48-2003). e. (23.33-20.27). f. (24.25-19.06). g. (23.30-18.94). h. (20.12-1874) 246 MAP READING 4. A detachment is traveling from DAVIDSON HILL (19-19) to RJ (22.57-17.69) via the OHIO and KEYSTONE ROADS. Give the location to the nearest 10 yards, and the elevation of the following: (NOTE. Disregard minor relief features of less than one full contour interval.) a. Each ridge line crossed en route. b. Each drainage line crossed en route. c. Give the location of the steepest up-grade encountered. d. Give the location of the steepest down-grade encountered. 5. An observer is standing on the top of ELLIOT HILL (18-18), elevation 442, look- ing northeast toward CR (20.37-1923), elevation 383. His eyes are 5 feet above the round. g a. Disregarding vegetation, can the observer see the CR (20.37-19.23)? b. What is the maximum elevation of a mask at the spur at (19.62-18.77) that would still permit observation of the crossroad? c. If the woods shown on the mask have a height of 30 feet, how much would this affect the visibility of the crossroads? d. What is the amount of defilade (vertical distance in feet of the target below the line of sight) at the stream at (20.14-19.08)? Disregard vegetation, and use the spur at (19.62-18.77), elevation 402 feet, as the mask. 6. Construct a profile of the line from ELLIOT HILL (18-18) to CR (2037-1923). a. Verify by the profile the results obtained in 5 above. b. Indicate, by hatching, all of the ground along the line that is not visible to the observer on ELLIOT HILL. c. Indicate the highest point on the eastern slope of ELLIOT HILL from which riflemen in the prone position can see all the ground between them and the nearest stream (military crest). CHAPTER VI MAP READING IN THE FIELD 42. General. The map and aerial photograph are often the only means available for studying distant or inaccessible terrain. Even when the terrain is accessible, the map is still most valuable as a source of names, and a convenient means by which to find one's way about. The commander should always take his map with him into the field, and refer to it constantly. When operating over unfamiliar territory he should keep his movements plotted on his map, verify his location at every opportunity, and from his map learn the names of the terrain features encountered. 43. Terrain Feature Terms. The standard terrain terms, such as hill, ridge, stream, crest, and the like, are used in map work and in the field. For use in the field to identify more readily the special and the minor terrain features, a large number of less common terms are used. Those most frequently encountered are shown in Plate 33. 44. Distance. The determination of distance in the field presents many difficulties. Distance can be measured by pacing or by tape, but this method is slow, tedious, and often impracticable. Long road distances can be measured by the odometer of an automobile. Visible areas can be measured by estimation by eye. This requires a certain amount of skill and experience, and is not successful in the dark, in woods, over long distances, or in broken country. Two other methods of handling distance in the field are the landmark method, and the travel-time method. For example, a patrol is directed to proceed two miles down a road and take up a position in observation. The patrol leader could take a map, scale off two miles, study the map and select some recognizable feature in that vicinity. He would then march until he reached the feature. On the other hand, if no map were available, he might calculate that the two miles would require forty minutes of marching. He would march forty minutes and then take position. 45. Magnetic Compass. a. Types. The three types of compass issued to the service are watch, prismatic and lensatic. The compasses are affected by presence of iron, “a2--"zº 2? . 33 cleaning 12EAK, tººk §§gº. &PUR. 5MALL VALLEY OR. 1)RAW CONCAVE 6LOPE VAL LEY” 12A66 OR. GATP TOPOGRAPHICAL, 6KYLINE 5ADDLE 6TEEp C1R E5 r 5.I.OPE KNOLL 17 OATO cºśR gºv CLIFF ME5A BLUEF l” N f tº as : | 20 2099.9% *o-o: N- %4 /%// o Kºś2, /.../ V///n)/. RAVINE º O12. GULLY %3 *> |||| | \ \ Ž * *. “st:2^ & 'biseºrtos £cRoessoape ºséº" 22.2% Of FLOW Žs TAVE1D 12 OATO ºgºsº Fºssésºzºza::========ºsášš. * ty | \rs ºr * * º É% %23 ass=s====gs ºz. * f º RS ~2.4% sº 3. % & {} 2% S㺠eºs 1R OAD J S- -zerº gº wº XVE 13% s/ºs- ~s ## / FILL, -T_-s: culverr =%s/s is, SJonction Plate ss. Military Features of the Terrain. 248 MAP READING steel, or electricity, and will not give accurate readings near an automobile, tank, field piece, machine gun, or power line. A steel, helmet, rifle, or pistol on the person of the observer may influence the needle and make readings inaccurate. b. Watch compass. The watch compass has a movable needle, a fixed dial graduated The Prismatic Compass The Lensatic Compass LEGEND. A. Cover. A. Front sight. B. Front sight. B. Index mark on case. C. Index markings on case. C. Movable index on crystal (luminousy. D. Holding ring. D. Rear sight. E. Lens. E. Prism mounting. F. Level. F. Clamp for compass card. G. Compass card or dial. G. Holding ring. H. Xylonite indicator. Plate 35. Types of Military Compasses. MAP READING 249 in bearings, and has no sighting device. (Plate 34.) It is now being replaced by the lensatic compass. c. Prismatic. The prismatic compass has a circular magnetic floating dial, prismatic eye piece, and a north point painted in luminous paint in the case. One of the two dial graduations is read through the prism and the other is read direct. Each dial is graduated from 0 degrees to 360 degrees. The forward sight is a hair line on the glass in top of the case. (Plate 36.) H | D - º - º ºilſ tº D 2. ×2 2T→ º F. B. A E. C A. Case. E. Front Sight. B. Compass card or dial. F. Holding ring. C. Cover. H. Movable index on crystal D. Rear sight (luminous) I. Dial needle. - Plate 36. The Prismatic Compass Open. d. Lensatic compass. The lensatic compass functions in much the same manner as the prismatic compass. It contains a magnifying lens fixed in a hinged eye piece. The face has two scales, one graduated in degrees, the other in mils (Plate 37). º º º º º º Plate 37. The Lensatic Compass. 46. Measuring Azimuth With the Compass. To read the azimuth of a point on the terrain (distant hill, house, etc.) proceed as follows: Raise the cover and the eyepiece and unlock the dial. Hold the compass to the eye and sight the compass at the object. Hold the compass steady until the dial comes to rest. Read the azimuth figure on the 250 MAP READING dial at the index point This will be the magnetic azimuth of the line from the ob- server to the object. See Plate 38. To establish a given azimuth on the ground, proceed as follows: Raise the cover and lens and unlock the dial. Permit the dial to come to rest. Hold the compass to the eye and watch the dial, facing the entire body about until the desired azimuth figure on the dial is at the index point. Holding the com- N º - =}|-- ---> t º | |N Tº - wº- §: º Plate 38. Using the Compass in the Field. pass in this position, look through the sights of the compass and pick up some ground feature on the line of sight. The line determined by this feature will be the azimuth desired. 47. Marching by Compass. a. By day. Orders to troops may direct them to attack cross-country in a prescribed direction given in terms of azimuth. Groups or individuals selecting cross-country routes from the map may compute the azimuth of various legs of LUMINO US MARK SET BY THE NIGHT MARCHING SCALE. COMPASS SO HELD THAT LUMINOUS ARROW ON DIAL POINTS TO LUM [NOUS MARK. Plate 39. Compass Set for Night Marching. the trip to prevent the possibility of getting lost. In any such case, map azimuths must be converted to magnetic azimuths before they can be used with the compass. To march by compass, the commander rotates the compass until the dial reads the re- quired azimuth. He then sights along the axis of the compass and selects some hill, house, tree, or other feature on this line (Plate 38). He then marches toward the ºssedutoo kq đeĪN 9ų, ſuņuºÞIO '0ý ºſºld YITV N 252 MAP READING above feature until he reaches it, or it becomes invisible. He then repeats the operation, selecting a new feature on the line of the required azimuth upon which to guide the march. This is continued until the goal is reached (the compass is not in use while actually marching). The compass is used to select successive features on the required line, and the actual marching is always conducted toward such visible feature. The more distant and prominent the feature the easier the procedure. b. By night. For use in marching at night, the compass is equipped with a movable luminous marker on the top of the case, and with a night-marching azimuth scale on the outside of the case near the base. To set the compass for night marching on a pre- determined azimuth, rotate the ring on the top of the case until the luminous mark is at the proper azimuth on the night-marching scale. Hold the compass in the hand with the dial free and turn the entire body until the luminous arrow of the dial points to the luminous marker. The direction of march is now the line of the axis of the compass (Plate 39). Select some features such as a low star, skyline hilltop or saddle, or other recognizable feature on this line and march in the direction of the feature selected. Repeat the operation as often as necessary, and make frequent checks of the direction while en route. The setting of the night-marching mark on its correct azimuth must be done before going into the field, or by flashlight screened from enemy ground and aerial observation by an overcoat, shelterhalf, or other means. 48. Orientation in the Field. Whenever the map is studied in the field, it should be oriented to the ground. A map is “oriented” when the directions on the map are parallel to the corresponding directions on the ground. If any one direction on the map can be made parallel to its corresponding ground direction, all other directions will automatically become parallel to their corresponding ground directions also, and the map will be oriented. An individual in the field is said to be “oriented” when he knows his location, both in the field and on the map, and also knows the cardinal directions on the ground. 49. Orienting the Map in the Field. a. By compass. In unfamiliar territory, when the individual is not sure of his location, and when accuracy of orientation is desired, the fastest and best method of orientation is by compass. Place the map on a level surface. Place the compass, opened and with the dial free, upon the map so that the axis of the compass (etched line on the glass cover) is accurately superimposed on and in coin- cidence with a vertical grid line of the map. The cover of the compass must be toward the top of the map. Revolve the map and compass together until the needle is in the same relation to the grid line as is shown for the magnetic north arrow in the orientation symbol on the map. (See Plate 40). b. By inspection. When traveling by road, and when the reader knows his approxi- mate location on the map, the map may be oriented as follows: Lay the map in the road. Rotate the map until the road as shown on the map is pointing down (is parallel to) the road itself. Any trail, stream, ridge, or other line identifiable on both the map and the ground can be used in the same manner. c. By ground feature. An individual in the field who knows his location, but who may not have a compass available, and who does not know the cardinal ground directions, can orient the map as follows: Study the ground and the map and select some distant feature recognizable both on the map and on the ground. On the map draw a line from the known map position to the above feature. Revolve the map until the line so drawn points toward the feature itself. The map will then be oriented. Sighting is facilitated by laying an alidade, straight edge, or pencil on the line. 50. Locating Oneself on the Map. a. By inspection. When an individual knows his ap- proximate location on the map, he studies the visible terrain for distinctive features, and the map to locate and identify these features. He estimates the distance and direction to the features on the ground and notes the corresponding distances and directions on the map. Location by inspection is greatly simplified if the map is oriented to the ground. b. By single point. To locate one's position on the map while traveling a known road, proceed as follows: Orient the map. Select some distant feature of the terrain that can zº- ass= ---** Tsū —T S Tº = −s ~ —-T –ss =s’ T=S =S/ —=> — ` Plate 41. Orienting the Map by Inspection. { Q& R º º / % ... ºº's 2^. & sº y ſº \\ {\\ Ø % }ºs (º's º) ſ | ‘ſ TE=- N __s= = swº- ==T smºsºmºsºmºmºsº, →#= * =- -: -- —== _s=- —r -- Plate 42. Orienting Map by Ground Feature. *s sºme smº- É H º J º Jº º * º º: s:<āś, >SS- * ~. * * arlºs POSITION OF OBSERVER Plate 43. Locating Position on the Map by Inspection. POSITION OF OBSERVER Plate 44. Locating Position on the Map by Single Point. MAP READING 255 be located and identified on the map. Place a pin through the feature on the map. Take an alidade, pencil, or any straight edge, hold it against the pin and turn it until it points at the feature on the ground. Draw a line on the map along the edge from the pin toward the road. The point where this line intersects the road is the location of the position. Check the results by studying the near-by terrain features and com- paring them with the map. c. By resection. (See paragraph 29.) To locate one's position on a map in the field by resection, proceed as follows: Orient the map accurately. Select a distant visible feature of the ground, and locate and identify it on the map. Place a pin in the feature, place an alidade or any straight edge against the pin, and turn it until it points at the feature on the ground. Draw a ray on the map from the pin toward your position. Select a second feature, at as nearly a right angle as possible from the first feature. Repeat the operation. The intersection of the two lines is the desired map location. During the entire procedure the map must remain oriented. N N ~ V. A&Mſ, HOUSE N * N N O MAP ORIENTED POSITION OF BY COMPASS a º OBSERVER Plate 45. Locating Position on the Map by Resection. 51. Identifying Features in the Field. Features, such as hills and woods, are shown on the map in their horizontal plan. In the field, one sees these features in profile instead of in plan, and their characteristic sizes and shapes may not be apparent. An officer directed to proceed to “SMITH HILL” may see several hills to his front, all of similar appearance, and be in doubt as to which one is “SMITH HILL.” Or again, an officer in the field in unfamiliar territory, may wish to report some activity noticed in one of several clumps of woods of indefinite and indistinguishable identity. The map is a source of names and therefore of identification. The use of the map for this purpose is one of its most important military uses in the field. a. To identify on the ground a feature shown on the map. Orient the map. Locate own position on the map and place a pin in this position. Locate the feature on the map and place another pin in its position. Lay a straight-edge against both pins and sight along the straight-edge. The ground feature will lie on this line of sight, and at the distance indicated by the map. b. To locate or to identify on the map a feature seen on the ground. Single ray method. Orient the map. Locate own position on the map and place a pin in this position. Lay a straight-edge against the pin and sight the straight-edge at the ground feature, keeping the straight-edge in contact with the position pin. Draw a ray (line) on the map on the pin side of the straight-edge. Estimate the ground distance to the feature, and scale this distance off along the ray. This point will be the map location of the feature. c. To locate on the map a feature seen on the ground. Intersection method. Orient 256 MAP READING the map. Locate own position thereon, and place a pin in this position. Lay a straight-edge against the pin and sight the straight-edge at the ground feature. Draw a line on the pin side of the straight-edge. Proceed to some other location from which the feature is visible, and repeat the operation from this point. The intersection of the two lines will be the map location of the feature. (See paragraph 29.) CHAPTER VII APPENDIX 52. General. The following paragraphs contain a brief discussion of certain items that have at times been associated with map reading. Knowledge of those items not already discussed is not essential to the practical reading of military maps. In many cases, they pertain to obsolete methods, once employed and now superseded, or to the subject of map making and sketching. They have been included herein purely as a matter of incidental information. 53. Marginal Information. The following items of marginal information usually appear on standard military maps: a. Geographic index number of the map. The geographic index system is explained in Par. 59. b. Name of the State or States within which the mapped area lies, and the name of the quadrangle or area. c. Its scale, showing both the Representative Fraction, and the mile and yard graphic scales. Y. * * ¥ 845 N | & * - - ... ". 892 X & / X f \ - & 865 Plate 46. Basic Sketch Before Contouring. d. Its orientation with the local magnetic declination and probable annual change. e. Explanation of any symbols appearing that have not been adopted as standard. f. The contour interval, if map is contoured. g. Name of the organization which issued the map. h. The date of issue or revision. i. The names of the organizations executing the surveys, date of surveys, and any compilation sources. j. The projection used. - MAP READING 257 k. The horizontal datum. - l. The vertical datum. tº m. The zone of the military grid, including reference to overlap zone, if any. n. The designations of the geographic grid lines, usually by ticks or both ticks and CIOSSCS. o. The designations of the military grid lines. p. The names of adjoining map sheets. q. An index of the adjoining map sheets. r. The filing name designation. | A º, , ” ºf , #so N. assºs * .." * sis * 870 880 A ,- N sºme #sso ." * / ‘. pſ & * / x * - - , t y as: . . . * 845 865 Plate 47. Based on the Critical Points, the Number and the Spacing of the Contours are Figured and Control Ticks Plotted. 54. The National Grid System. A nation-wide grid system has been devised, by which the location and the identification numbers of the grid lines for the entire United States is prescribed. Briefly, the United States has been divided into seven grid zones, desig- nated from east to west as Zone A, Zone B, etc. Each zone is nine degrees of longitude in width and extends all the way across the country (Gulf to Canada) in height. The width allows for a one-degree overlap of adjacent zones. The center vertical grid of each zone is placed on the central meridian of the zone, and therefore is on a true north-south axis. The numbering of the grids of each zone is based upon the inter- section of this central y-grid with an x-grid tangent to the 40° 30' parallel of latitude. The y-grid (vertical) at this point was given the arbitrary grid number of “1,000,000," and the x-grid (horizontal) the arbitrary number of “2,000,000," and the other grids of the zone are numbered to conform. Further details of the national grid system will be found in paragraph 34 and 35, Basic Field Manual 21-26. 55. Location. a. By geographic coordinates. The system used for indicating location in surveying and in navigation is called the geographic coordinate system. This is a world-wide system in which the location of a point is given by means of latitude and longitude. The latitude figure gives the location in degrees, minutes, and seconds of the point in a north or south direction from the equator. The longitude figure gives the location of the point in degrees, minutes, and seconds east or west of a base line (known as the prime meridian) which passes through Greenwich, England. This method of indicating location is not used in military map reading. It is explained more fully in paragraph 32, Basic Field Manual 21-26; and is usually described in geography textbooks. FA1 (1) 258 MAP READING The geographic coordinates of Fort Benning, Georgia, are 32° 22' North Latitude and 84° 58' West Longitude. b. By rectangular coordinates. The rectangular coordinate system of indicating loca- tion is often encountered in ordinary life in the form: “three blocks north and two blocks f t as” . * *so; A 7908 Y .. Y. / / . → Se... * 873 x A e & • e < e < * Plate 48. The Number and the Spacing of the Contours Having Been Determined, They Are Drawn in to Conform to the Basic Terrain Structure. Plate 49. The Completed Contoured Sketch. west . . .” It consists of giving the distance and the direction of the point along two of the cardinal directions from some base point. In the field the distance would be given in terms of miles or yards. In Plate 3 there is a bridge whose location could be described by this method by saying “600 yards east and 500 yards north from the center MAP READING 259 of MILLDALE.” This system is seldom used by the military, the polar coordinate method being more simple and practical. It is explained in greater detail in paragraph 30, Basic Field Manual 21-26. 56. Direction by Bearings. The standard method of indicating accurate direction, until the development of the azimuth system, was by means of “bearings.” In this system the degree is the unit of direction measurement, as in azimuths, and the direction is ex- pressed by first indicating either North or South as the base direction, and then indicat- ing a number of degrees to the east or to the west of this line. This method is seldom used in military map reading. The following are a few examples of bearings as com- pared to their respective azimuths: Azimuth: Bearings 25° North, 25° east. 150° South, 30° east. 215° South, 35° west. 3oo° North, 60° west. 57. Slopes. The amount of slope between any two points on the ground (called grade in railroad and road work) can be indicated either in terms of degrees, per cent, or gradient. Average slopes for average purposes are usually measured with an instrument designed to measure vertical angles in degrees, called a clinometer. A slope of one degree would be a slope that rises at an angle of one degree from the horizontal, which would be one foot in a horizontal distance of 57 feet. For gentle slopes, and in cases where great accuracy is required, slopes are expressed in per cent. A one per cent slope is one that rises one foot in 100 feet of horizontal distance. The determination of slopes is a factor in map making, but seldom encountered in map reading. The subject is covered more fully in paragraphs 54-55 of FM 21-26. 58. Logical Contouring. Contours are placed on maps, not through detailed surveying of each contour line, but by a system known as “logical contouring.” The procedure is as follows: First, the basic terrain structure is surveyed, and the location and trace of the stream lines and the ridge lines carefully plotted. Then the elevations of the hill tops, selected points on the streams, and intermediate points where major changes of slope occur are determined with instruments. These points are known as critical points. (See Plate 46.) By computing the difference in elevation between any two adjacent critical points, the number of contours that must pass between them is determined. Since the critical points were selected at the major changes of slope it follows that the slope between any two adjacent critical points would be more or less uniform, and therefore its contours would be equally spaced. Construction control ticks are therefore plotted between the adjacent critical points, their spacing being uniform, and their number based on the known difference of elevation. (See Plate 47.) These control ticks are next connected up, terrain feature at a time, as shown in Plates 48 and 49, their trace conforming to the pattern of the ridge and the stream lines. In the field, this last step is performed at a position from which the topographer can see the section being contoured, and he will adjust, by estimation, the actual trace and the spacing of the contours to conform to the minor changes of slope and the minor relief. 59. Geographic Index. a. Decision has been made to supersede the Harriman Index as rapidly as practicable by the system known as the Geographic Index. This will require several years as old maps with the Harriman Index will be retained until replaced. As each map of any part of the United States or its possessions, except historical maps, now in the files of any office of the Military Establishment, is used in the military service, it will be marked with the proper Geographic Index number for use in filing and cataloging. Each map of a permanent value hereafter prepared in time of peace by any organization of the Army will bear its Geographic Index number. Maps will be requisitioned by geographic index together with name and scale when appropriate. b. Index symbol. The index symbol for each map shall consist of a series of letters, digits, and signs, to express first the latitude and longitude of that point which is nearest the equator and the Greenwich meridian (hereafter referred to as the “index point”); and, second, the extent of the area covered by the map away from that point. 260 MAP READING For these purposes the index symbol shall be constructed in the following order and manner, with the significance of each part as indicated: (1) The letter N or the letter S, whichever is appropriate, to show whether the index point is in north or south latitude. (2) A series of digits representing the degrees and minutes of latitude of the index point, without separation and without degree and minute signs; only when especially required, fractions of minutes may be added. (a) For standard quadrangles, whose extent in minutes is the same for both latitude and longitude, the number of minutes shall be written only once. (b) For special or irregular areas whose extent in minutes differs for latitude and longitude, the extent shall be expressed by the number of minutes of latitude, the letter “x”, and the number of minutes of longitude. c. This system provides for areas throughout the world, but the greatest application by the War Department will be in north latitudes and west longitudes which embrace the United States and most of its land possessions. Here all latitudes are north and all longitudes are west, and the southeast corner is closest to both the equator and the meridian of Greenwich. d. Examples of the application of this system to specific areas in north latitudes and west longitudes are given below: (1) The Searles Lake, Calif., 1-degree quadrangle, the geographic location of the southeast corner of which is at Lat. 35° 00' N., Long. 117° 00'W. The index number would be N3500-W11700/60. (2) Standard quadrangles extending 30, 15, 7%, and 6 minutes in both latitude and longitude and having their southeast corners at the same location as in the preceding example would be numbered N3500-W11700/30, N3500-W11700/15, N3500-11700/7.5, and N3500-W11700/6, respectively. (3) An area extending 15 minutes in latitude and 30 minutes in longitude from a southeast corner located at Lat. 35° 30' N., Long. 117° 30'. W., would be numbered N3530-W11730/15x30 and other special areas would be numbered in a similar manner. (4) The Kearney Park, Calif., 7%-minute quadrangle, the southeast corner of which is located at Lat. 36° 37' 30” N., Long. 119° 52' 30” W., would be numbered N3637.5-wl 1952.5/75. (5) The San Diego sheet of the Strategic Map of the United States, extending 2 degrees in latitude, and 6 degrees in longitude from a southeast corner located at Lat. 32° 00' N., Long. 114° 00'W., would be numbered N3200-W11400/120x360. e. All maps which are bounded by military grid lines will have either lines of longitude and latitude or tick marks indicating their location. These gridded maps will be indexed by interpolation and estimation. CONTENTS PHYSICAL TRAINING Paragraphs Chapter I. Advice to Instructors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-25 Chapter II. Exercises and Group Games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-46 Chapter III. Exercises and Group Games (Continued) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-56 Chapter IV. Rifle Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57-62 CHArrºn I ADVICE TO INSTRUCTORS 1. Necessity for Physical Training. To perform his duties satisfactorily, the soldier must possess great organic vigor, muscular and nervous strength, endurance, and agility. The average recruit does not possess the degree of physical fitness required of a trainee soldier. The required degree of physical fitness can be acquired only through physical training. The performance of purely military exercises, that is, drill, marching, etc., is not alone sufficient to correct the deficiencies and incorrect postures too often acquired before becoming a soldier. Further, the complexities of modern warfare require so much technical training for the soldier that all too frequently no time is allotted for physical training; yet the soldier who possesses great technical skill but is unable to withstand the rigorous life demanded is of questionable value. Hence, physical training must be an integral part of every training program. 2. Purpose. a. The primary purpose of military physical training is the production of a state of health and general physical fitness which will permit the soldier to perform the arduous duties required of him. The ultimate goal of this training, in Plate 1, is physical efficiency which is essential to military effectiveness. The attainment of physical efficiency through physical training is shown graphically. b. The disciplinary and setting-up exercises prepare the soldier mentally and physically for training in such basic skills as marching and running, jumping and vaulting, climb- ing, crawling, lifting and carrying, and throwing and kicking. Superiority in these basic skills becomes the soldier's immediate objective and gives him a definite goal for which to strive. From the effort the soldier puts forward to become proficient in these simple skills, he develops endurance and agility. The development of endurance results in health and physical fitness. The development of agility results in body control and physical alertness. The soldier is among the first to become aware of his own physical development. This knowledge of improvement results in confidence, courage, alertness, initiative, pride, discipline, and posture. The development of these many desirable quali- ties during the conduct of the physical training program is a certainty and may equal, if not surpass, the purely physiological value of the training. The final result of all of this training is physical efficiency, which, as stated before, is an essential to military effectiveness. (See Plate 1.) 3. Relationship Between Physical Training and Military Training. The transformation from civilian to soldier is accomplished by training, and it is not complete until the man develops those qualities which characterize the trained soldier. The chart (Plate 1) shows at a glance that physical training develops many of these desired qualities while making the man physically efficient. 4. Physical Training Program. a. Scope. The physical training program described in this section is composed of several different activities, each having a special purpose. The activities may be conducted either without the aid of equipment or with the aid of such as may be improvised. These activities are— (l) Disciplinary exercises. (2) Setting-up exercises. (3) Marching and exercises while marching. 261 262 PHYSICAL TRAINING (4) Running, jumping, and climbing. (5) Personal contests. (6) Mass athletics and group games. (7) Rifle exercises. *. Description and purpoſe. (1) Disciplinary exercises. These embrace the positions of attention, rests, facings, hand salute, mark time and halt, and the starting positions for setting-up exercises. These exercises must be executed with snap and precision. They are given at the very beginning of the daily morning period in physical training and are designed to give the instructor complete control over his unit as well as to alert the men for the work to follow. tractic for wº ALERTNESS CONTROL BODY DISCIPLINARY AND SETTING-UP EXERCISES Plate 1. Chart. (2) Setting-up exercises. These exercises are for all parts of the body—arms, neck, shoulders, trunk, and legs. All are employed in each lesson in the harmonious develop- ment of the entire body. They serve not only to develop all parts of the body, but also as a warm-up to prepare the soldier for the more strenuous exercises which follow im- mediately after. Properly executed, they also have an educational and disciplinary value which is equal, if not superior, to the purely physiological benefits. (3) Marching and exercises while marching. These exercises consist of marching in quick or double time, and such exercises as can be performed while marching. They are designed to develop poise, posture, coordination, control, suppleness, and endurance. (4) Running, jumping, climbing, and crawling. This phase of the physical training program consists of work on the obstacle course, or, if no obstacle course is available, in traversing rough and varied terrain. It is designed to develop endurance, agility, and co- ordination, as well as to train the soldier to overcome such obstacles as may confront him during field service. PHYSICAL TRAINING 263 (5) Personal contests. Personal contests are the simpler forms of competitive gym. nastics, where the participants are pitted against each other. Such contests never fail to produce rivalry for superiority. Their chief value lies in the development of agility and quickness of thought and action. (6) Mass athletics and group games. Mass athletics and group games are those forms of competitive or recreational sports which can be indulged in by all the men of a unit. They develop mental and physical alertness, coordination, and unit or group spirit, and give variety and interest to the physical training program. (7) Rifle exercises. Rifle exercises are in reality setting-up exercises with the rifle as equipment. Owing to the weight of the rifle, these exercises are useful for the de- velopment of the muscles of the arms, upper back, shoulders, and chest, and when taken in conjunction with trunk and leg exercises they are excellent agents for the all-around development of those who possess the strength to wield the piece to advantage. (8) Activities requiring special equipment. Activities requiring special equipment are not included in this manual. Activities of this type are— (a) Gymnastics. This includes exercises utilizing the horse, parallel bars, hori- zontal bar, rope, etc. The chief object of this instruction should be the development of the ability of the soldier to control his body while his weight is supported by or sus- pended from the arms and hands, thus enabling him to overcome such obstacles as may present themselves during field service. These exercises will tend to make the soldier agile and active and will teach him decision and self-reliance. (b) Boxing and wrestling. Boxing and wrestling develop endurance, agility, and . and are important factors in the development of confidence, courage, and self- COIntrol. 5. Standards and Tests. a. Standards. The physical training program should be based upon the condition and aptitude of the men to be trained. The best method of determining this condition and aptitude of the group is by comparison with known standards. (1) The following table of standards may be used as a guide for men in field uniform: Minimum Event standard Average Above average $uperior Ioo-yard dash . . . . . . . . . . . 14 seconds . . . . . 13 seconds . . . . . 12 3/5 seconds ... | 12 1/5 seconds. Running high jump . . . . . . 3 feet 9 inches . . . 4 feet . . . . . . . . . 4 feet 3 inches . . . 4 feet 6 inches. Running broad jump . . . . . 12 feet . . . . . . . . 13 feet 6 inches | 15 feet . . . . . . . . 16 feet 6 inches. Push-up from ground . . . . . 20 . . . . . . . . . . . 25 . . . . . . . . . . 30 . . . . . . . . . . . 35. (2) Other minimum standards for average men are— (a) Baseball throw—125 feet. (b) Basketball throw—60 feet. (c) Bar or fence vault—4 feet. (d) Run a quarter mile—87 seconds. (e) Run a half mile—3 minutes 15 seconds. (f) Walk 2 miles—23 minutes 30 seconds. (g) Jump and reach—13 inches. 1. From a position with the feet close together and heels and toes on the ground, the man stretches both arms overhead, fingers extended. Measure this height. 2. He then jumps vertically, reaching as high as possible. Measure this height. 3. The difference between the heights in 1 and 2 above gives the “jump and reach” distance. (h) Pull-up (chin)—6 times. (i) Climb 20-foot rope—20 seconds. (j) Standing hop, step and jump-18 feet. (k) Running hop, step and jump-22 feet. (l) Standing broad jump-6 feet. 264 PHYSICAL TRAINING (m) Standing backward jump-2 feet 8 inches. (n) Running long dive—5 feet 6 inches. b. Tests. Tests give the soldier an opportunity to compare his ability with that of others and, consequently, are of tremendous value in stimulating his interest and his effort. Tests serve the instructor as a means of measuring the progress of his men and the efficiency of his instruction. They also serve to point out to the instructor specific . or deficiencies of individual men which require special nstruction or corrective WOIK. 6. Allotment of Time and Physical Training. The time allotted to physical training for recruits should, when the training schedule permits, consists of 1% hours each day. This period may have to be reduced but each commander concerned should utilize to maximum advantage, the time available for physical training. a. Morning period. (1) The morning period should begin not earlier than 1 hour after breakfast and should last at least 30 minutes. Men should not be required to indulge in strenuous exercises before breakfast. Exercises before breakfast are not rec- ommended; if indulged in at all, they should be confined to a few arm stretchings and relaxed trunk-bending exercises—just exertion enough to accelerate circulation mildly. To exercise strenuously before breakfast is likely to .#. the digestive operation seriously, and is more apt to weaken than to strengthen the body, which is at a very low state of physical efficiency immediately after arising, when its resistance is low. It has been shown that the body does not regain its normal state of physical efficiency until well after breakfast and that it reaches its highest peak of efficiency in the middle of the afternoon. (2) The morning period should embrace the following forms of exercise in the order named: (a) Disciplinary exercises, 2 or 3 minutes. (b) Setting-up exercises, 12 to 15 minutes. (c) Marching and exercises while marching, 3 to 5 minutes. (d) Running, jumping, climbing, etc. (work on the obstacle course), 8 to 10 minutes. (e) If more than 30 minutes are available, add personal contests. (f) At times it is desirable to substitute personal contests and group games for (c) and (d) above, even though only 30 minutes are available for the period. b. Afternoon period. The afternoon period should be closely supervised but should be primarily recreational. It should be devoted to conducting tests, mass athletics, and group games. Where facilities exist for swimming, gymnastics, boxing, and wrestling, such instruction should be given at this time. 7. Uniform to be Worn. a. The uniform worn will depend upon the season of the year and the state of the weather. At no time should a uniform be worn which does not admit of the freest possible movement of the body. b. Undershirts, slacks, or loosely laced breeches without leggins, and regulation shoes comprise the usual uniform during the summer months; olive-drab shirts are usually prescribed during cold or inclement weather. Hats, caps, or blouses should not be WOrn. 8. Elementary Rules for Health. a. Health is that quality of the entire body, including the mind, which renders the soldier capable of developing to the highest degree of efficiency. In giving rules for health, it is essential that mental hygiene as well as physical hygiene be considered. b. A healthy state of mind is characterized by cheerfulness, confidence, and interest. An unhealthy state of mind is characterized by indifference, discouragement, worry and a feeling of inferiority due to lack of success or progress. Much can be done through physical training to develop in the men a healthy mental state. This may be accomplished by— (1) Instructor being a worthy example to the men. (2) A fair, impartial, understanding attitude on the part of the instructor. (3) Work being interesting and varied. (4) Work being arranged so as to result in progressive development. PHYSICAL TRAINING 265 c. The importance of proper personal habits, such as cleanliness, proper eating, rest, and elimination, should be stressed to the men during instruction in physical training. d. Physical training should not be scheduled immediately after reveille or immediately before or after meals (see par. 6). e. Clothing suitable for exercise should be prescribed (par. 7). f. Men should be “warmed up” gradually before engaging in strenuous exercise. g. Muscular action produces an unusual amount of bodily heat which should be lost gradually, otherwise the body will be chilled. Hence after exercise, never remove cloth- ing to cool off, but, on the contrary, wear some additional clothing. If no additional is available, men should be kept mildly active allowing the body to cool gradually. h. Drinking water, particularly cold water, during or immediately after exercise should be discouraged; the body should be allowed to recover its normal condition be- fore quenching the thirst with draughts of cold water. If necessary to do so while exercising, cool, not cold, water may be used in small quantities, but exercise must con- tinue, especially if the body is in a state of perspiration. 9. Posture. a. Definition. (1) Posture may be defined as the bearing of a person. It is determined by the relative arrangement of the parts of the body, and hence may be whatever one wishes it to be, unless some structural defect prevents. Even in such cases, proper exercise and effort may matrially assist in overcoming or modifying defects. Usually, however, defective posture is due to carelessness or ignorance and not to structural causes. (2) The position of the spinal column, which runs from the head to the pelvic region, is the cause of most defects in posture. Such defects as poor head carriage, humped-up shoulders with resulting hollow chests, sway backs and protruding stomachs and buttocks can be attributed to a faulty position of the spinal column. b. Promoting good posture. (1) The gaining of good posture depends upon the efforts of the individual soldier. It depends upon his desire, pride, attitude, and alert- ness, his constant thinking of his own bearing; this will tend finally to change his usual bodily carriage. Exercises for correcting posture serve to build a healthy condition of the muscles with better muscle tone, but this is merely one of the prerequisites for the promotion of posture improvement. (2) The best commands to promote and encourage good posture will be similar to the following: stand tall, walk tall, relax your muscles and stand tall, think of your head as pulling your body upward. The desire must be instilled into the soldier as well as constant attention being directed to his carriage. The points for the physical instructor to consider and emphasize are- (a) A desire in the individual for good posture. (b) Very frequent thought on the part of the individual to maintain good posture. (c) Sufficient strength and muscle tone. (d) A body sense of the feeling of good posture. (e) Pride in one's self and one's organization. (f) A confident and optimistic attitude. c. Value of good posture. (1) In a well-poised body, the internal organs are held in a position best suited to the proper performance of their functions. By the elimination of a crowded and sagging position, abdominal pressure of the organs is removed. Circu- lation, digestion, elimination, glandular secretion, and all the processes vital to health are aided. Strain on the nerves and the vessels leading to the abdominal organs, which causes lack of sufficient vitality in the internal tissues, is remedied. (2) Aside from the physiological values of correct posture, a well-poised soldier is more impressive, gains more confidence, and is more effective than he otherwise would be. 10. Conduct by Instructor. a. Qualifications. The instructor must realize the necessity of physical training and understand its purpose. He should be of better than average physique, ready and able to demonstrate personally what is required of the men, and possess those qualities of leadership which will bring out the best efforts of the men 266 PHYSICAL TRAINING being trained. He must prepare himself thoroughly for conducting each day's work if his instruction is to get the results intended. The success or failure of a program in physical training depends upon his ability and enthusiasm more than upon any other one thing. The importance of the instructor cannot be overemphasized. b. Attitude. The attitude of the instructor to the work in physical training will deter- mine the results attained by it. A lack of enthusiasm on the part of the instructor will be apparent to the men immediately, and the period will be just so many minutes of time wasted. The instructor must be patient and reasonable. He should commend good performance as quickly as he censures bad. He should require all men to give their best efforts, and he should, by his attitude, inspire his men to do their best. He must be able to distinguish between poor performance caused by lack of ability or apti- tude on the part of the soldier and poor performance caused by lack of effort. He should treat the first with patience and understanding and the latter with firmness; he must never employ sarcasm or ridicule. 11. Condition and Aptitude of the Men. The condition and aptitude of the men should always determine the nature and extent of the task expected of them. The instructor must so organize the work as to condition the men gradually. Too often an over-zealous in- structor mistakes quantity for quality, with the result that the men undergoing training become sore and stiff, and look upon the next period of instruction with apprehension. Since the work for the recruit is not satisfactory for the trained soldier, the instructor must give deep consideration to the condition and aptitude of his men and plan his work accordingly. The benefits of this training cannot be recognized in a day, but a course progressively arranged will so condition the men and increase their aptitude that they will reach the standard required without any ill effects. 12. Size of the Class. As a rule for most efficient instruction, the class should be limited in size to the platoon. This size class permits of maximum control by the instructor and results in efficient and thorough instruction. For disciplinary purposes and for welding the command into a compact, alert, and spirited unit, occasionally whole companies, (troops, batteries) or even battalions and regiments, should be drilled as a unit. 13. Arrangement of the Lesson. a. Balanced lessons. (1) The necessity for balanced lessons cannot be overemphasized. If the maximum benefit is to be derived from the physical training program, the ultimate aim or purpose must be kept in mind and the work organized so as to include as many as possible of the basic skills required of the soldier. This is especially true of the morning period. This period is the foundation of the entire program and must be arranged to include instruction which will result in the soldier developing in discipline, endurance, agility, good posture, body control, and health. (2) There is no doubt but that setting-up exercises are of great value in developing discipline, coordination, alertness, muscle tone, and posture; however, endurance and agility cannot be developed by setting-up exercises alone. The setting-up exercises must be supplemented by contests and such exercises as running, jumping, climbing, crawling, vaulting, and dodging. It is realized that all of the activities listed above cannot be in- cluded in one morning period of 30 minutes; however, they can and should be alter- nated so that the physical training instruction results in well rounded development. See paragraph 6 for a guide in arranging this period. & tº (3) Since the primary purpose of the afternoon period is recreational, the principal requirement for this period is interest. b. Interest factor. Physical training instruction should be made as interesting as possi- ble, so that it will react as an exhilarant and awaken the enthusiasm of the men This enthusiasm will not result, however, if the mind is not employed as well as the body. This work, therefore, should be so conducted as to appeal to the mental, as well as the physical, side of the men By appealing to their intelligence, a cheerful, intelligent, and enthusiastic responsiveness always results. An officer who does not grasp this fact will find himself unable to arouse the men to the point where they will voluntarily extend themselves to the limit of their capabilities. No stone must be left unturned in an effort to make the work interesting. The use of tests and competitions will assist greatly in securing this result. PHYSICAL TRAINING - 267 14. General. a. Definition of commands. Commands are the means through which an instructor orally communicates what is required of those in his charge, and when this requirement is to go into effect. b. Use of commands. The importance of proper commands in conducting the phys- ical training program cannot be overestimated. The proper execution of disciplinary exercises, setting-up exercises, marching, and exercises while marching is so dependent upon the proper use of commands that the instructor must be thoroughly familiar with the proper commands and accomplished in their use. This knowledge and ability will be of great assistance in conducting all other phases of the program. Invariably the performance is the direct reflection of the command calling for it. When a command is given distinctly, concisely, with energy and snap, and with proper regard to rhythm, the performance will be found to fit the command; whereas a lifeless, slovenly, and dis- organized performance will result from a careless and indifferent command. 15. Type and Development of Voice for Giving Commands. a. General. Officers should, by constant practice, develop their vocal powers until they develop a commanding voice with the requisite amount of “carry” and quality, and with proper pitch. Every individual's voice will carry farther if pitched in a certain key. Officers should make it their business to find out what key that is and develop it. b. Chest voice. (1) Commands should be delivered with what is commonly known as a “chest voice” in contradistinction to what is known as a “head or nasal voice.” The former is usually a low-pitched voice that will carry farther, be more distinct, and require very much less effort than the latter. (2) In order to cultivate the chest voice, the muscles of the chest, neck and those that control the larynx should be relaxed in order to enable the trachea or windpipe to be fully distended when the air is being forced up through it and against the vocal cords by the action of the diaphragm. (3) The mouth should be opened fully and, with the assistance of the proper use of the tongue, teeth, and lips, the words of the command should be articulated and enunciated distinctly and precisely and with sufficient volume to fit the occasion. c. Exercises for voice. The following simple exercises are recommended to cultivate these qualities: (1) Take a moderately deep inhalation and then, following the instruction given in b(3) above, utter the word “hong” moderately loud and in the proper pitch for 3 or 4 seconds; inhale again and repeat the process, uttering the word “kong.” (2) The volume should be gradually increased and variation given to the exercise by substituting the words “sing-song” and “ding-dong.” These words are recommended because they are simple, easily remembered, and because the sounds required in uttering them adapt themselves best in bringing out the intent of the instruction. d. Articulation and enunciation. All the words of a command, particularly of the preparatory or explanatory command, must be articulated distinctly. The enunciation must be clear, have the proper intonation, possess the proper inflection and power, and be convincing. The diction must be pure; the substitution of sounds, which in many instances have no relation whatever to the sounds of the words for which they are sub- stituted, should be avoided. 16. Kinds of Commands. a. Preparatory commands and commands of execution. There are two kinds of military commands, the preparatory, and the command of exe- cution. The preparatory command describes and specifies what is required and the command of execution calls into action what has been prescribed. All preparatory com. mands must be given with a rising inflectivn, the instructor having the feeling that he is lifting the entire command with his voice and creating an eagerness on the part of the men to be off when the command of execution is practically shot at them. b. Commands for static exercises. (1) Static exercises are those in which a position is held for an appreciable length of time. If it is the purpose of the instructor to have any exercise performed in this manner, he will use words rather than numerals to indicate the successive movements. Thus: 1. On toes, 2. RISE, 3. Knees, 4. BEND, 5. Knees, 6. EXTEND, 7. Heels, 8. DOWN, or, 1. Trunk forward, 2. BEND, 3. RE. COVER. 268 PHYSICAL TRAINING (2) In these commands, the command of execution must indicate how the move- ment is to be performed. (3) In the first of these exercises the command Rise is given sharply and snappily, indicating that a snappy performance is wanted; the command Bend is drawn out mod- erately, to indicate moderately slow performance; the command Extend is also given moderately slow, while the command Down is given with more or less snap and finality. c. Commands for continued exercises. (1) In these, the preparatory commands must explain the entire exercise while the command of execution which is almost invariably confined to the word “exercise” calls for the continuation of the exercise; the commands fitting the repetition are usually confined to numerals. (2) When very large bodies of men are exercising simultaneously, it is advisable to follow the preparatory command with another that acts as a cautionary command. This will insure the exercise being performed simultaneously and in unison by the whole number. Thus: 1. From the arms forward position swing the arms downward and re- cover, then sideward and recover in four counts, 2. In cadence, 3. EXERCISE. (3) The command used in the repetition of an exercise may be expressed in words or numerals. In either case, however, they must not only be used to indicate rhythm or the cadence of an exercise, but they must also be indicative of the manner in which each movement of an exercise is performed. Through proper use of these commands, long explanations are avoided and instructors are able to place themselves in absolute accord with the men. Thus: 1. Bend Trunk Forward, 2. EXERCISE, o-n-e, Two, o-n-e, Two. Here the long drawn-out o-n-e indicates that the blending movement should be performed slowly, while the short, snappy two indicates a quick recovery. d. Commands of discontinuation. (1) To discontinue an exercise performed rhythmi- cally or in cadence, the command Halt is given in place of the last numeral. In order to prepare the men for this command, all numerals spoken in the final repetition should be spoken with a rising inflection. Thus: 1. Thrust arms forward and sideward alternately, 2. EXERCISE, one, two, three, four, one, two, three, HALT. (2) When numerals are used, they should always be equal to the number of move- ments of which the exercise is composed except in an exercise executed in two counts. In this case the count should be as for an exercise in four counts. For example, a move- ment of two or four counts will be repeated at one, two, three, four; one of six movements will require six counts, etc. (3) If any particular movement of an exercise is to be performed with more energy than the others, the numerals corresponding to that movement should be emphasized. In fact, in all cases, the manner in which the numerals are spoken should be indicative of the nature of the movement required. e. Interval between commands. The interval between the preparatory command and the command of execution should be long enough to insure the average man having understood the former before the latter is given. 17. Mass Commands. a. Results obtained. (1) Mass commands assist greatly in over- coming individual diffidence and timidity and in developing confidence, self-reliance, as- sertiveness, enthusiasm, and proficiency. (2) Through this method it is possible, by constituting each individual virtually his own drill instructor, to give to large masses the benefits accruing from individual instruction. The principal advantage of this method lies in the fact that each in- dividual is made to rely upon his own initiative and intelligence, as he must learn not only to give the commands properly but also how to perform properly the movement required by the command. (3) As each individual is required to give the commands as if he alone were giving them to the entire unit of which he is a member, the volume and “smash” of these combined voices literally impel every man to extend himself to the limit in per- forming the movements with snap and precision. By giving the commands in unison with his comrades, coordination and a sense of cadence are developed from the very beginning. (4) In the setting-up exercises, the giving of mass commands teaches the proper esdence of an exercise, when to accentuate or emphasize a count and when to drawl PHYSICAL TRAINING 269 it, and how, by proper intonation, to convey the idea of the manner in which a move- ment is to be performed. In other words, the man learns the “feel” of a movement and how, if necessary, to convey this to others. It also develops the voice. b. Method of procedure in drills. (1) A thorough explanation of this method of instruction should be given to the men at the beginning, particular stress being laid upon the advantages it holds for them over other methods, in that it affords them the best possible opportunity to develop into efficient drill instructors themselves. (2) Each movement should be explained in detail and illustrated before it is at- tempted by the mass, and the necessary commands for putting the required movement into operation should be rehearsed, without performing the movement, until the mass has learned to give the commands properly. When this has been accomplished, the movement should be performed at the command of the mass. (3) The interval between the preparatory command and the command of execu- tion will depend upon the number of men being drilled and their degree of proficiency; however, it is a serious error to make this interval too short. (4) In no other phase of the soldier's training are the good or bad qualities of an instructor reflected so accurately as they are in the giving of mass commands. Since it is only natural that the men should endeavor to emulate their instructor, the success or failure of this instruction may be accepted as a fair criterion of an instructor's ability to handle men. (5) To overcome timidity and self-consciousness, which are always present with beginners, and to instill confidence, self-reliance, and assertiveness, and also to teach the men how to use their voices properly when giving commands, the instructor should frequently repeat the voice exercises described in paragraph 15. These exercises should first be done in an ordinary tone of voice and then gradually increased in volume until each man is capable of performing these exercises with the full power of his voice. c. Mass commands for disciplinary exercises. The procedure in mass commands for disciplinary exercises is shown by the examples below. Nore.—Examples given are for the drill of a platoon. They may be applied to any unit by substituting for “platoon” the designation of the unit. (1) Military Movements. (1) Instructor: 1. Call the platoon to attention, 2. COMMAND. Mass: 1. Platoon, 2. ATTENTION. (2) Instructor: 1. Face the platoon to the right, 2. COMMAND. Mass: 1. Right, 2. FACE. (3) Instructor: 1. Give the platoon “at ease,” 2. COMMAND. Mass: AT EASE. (4) Instructor: 1. Have the platoon stand at parade rest, 2. COMMAND. Mass: 1. Parade, 2. REST. (5) Instructor: 1. Have the platoon salute, 2. COMMAND. Mass: 1. Hand (rifle), 2. SALUTE. (6) Instructor: 1. Have the platoon mark time, 2. COMMAND. Mass: 1. Mark Time, 2. MARCH. (7) Instructor: 1. Halt the platoon, 2. COMMAND. Mass: 1. Platoon, 2. HALT. (2) Starting Positions. (8) Instructor: 1. Raise arms forward (sideward) (overhead), 2. COMMAND. Mass: 1. Arms forward (sideward) (overhead), 2. RAISE. (9) Instructor: 1. Raise arms to thrust, 2. COMMAND. Mass: 1. Arms to thrust, 2. RAISE. (10) Instructor: 1. Place hands on hips (shoulders), 2. COMMAND. Mass: 1. Hands on hips (shoulders), 2. PLACE. (11) Instructor: 1. Lace fingers behind head, 2. COMMAND. Mass: 1. Fingers behind head, 2. LACE. (12) Instructor: 1. Resume position of attention, 2. COMMAND. Mass: 1. Arms, 2. DOWN. 270 PHYSICAL TRAINING (13) Instructor: 1. Assume the various starting positions in sequence, 2. COMMAND. Mass: 1. Arms forward, 2. RAISE; 3. Arms sideward, 4. MOVE, 5. Arms over- head, 6. RAISE, 7. Fingers behind head, 8. LACE, 9. Hands on shoulders, 10. PLACE, 11. Arms to thrust, 12. MOVE, 13. Hands on hips, 14. PLACE, 15. Arms, 16. DOWN. Nore. In all arm movements the command of execution should be indicative of the movement re- quired; thus, movements in the same place are performed at the command Move; movements to a higher plane at the command Raise; to a lower plane at the command Lower; and those movements where the hands come in contact with the body are performed at the command Place. d. Mass commands for setting-up exercises. (1) Mass commands for setting-up exer- cises should be limited to those necessary to assume the starting position, to begin the exercise, to indicate the cadence or rhythm, and to stop the exercise. Mass commands must not be required in the trunk exercises (except when the trunk movements are relaxed ones), in the neck or breathing exercises, or in any other exercises in which they will interfere with proper breathing. t (2) The instructor should describe and demonstrate the exercise to be performed before employing mass commands in executing it. The description of the exercise must be clear, brief, and simple. (3) In all these exercises, in order to insure a prompt and uniform response, the mass will use the command In cadence as a preparatory command. This rule is general. (4) An exercise is discontinued on a signal from the instructor, who raises one or both arms just prior to the beginning of the last repetition. On this signal the mass will count, with a rising inflection, as One, Two, Three, HALT, or One, Two, Three, Four, Five, HALT, as the case may be. (5) The following examples will suffice to familiarize instructors with the pro- cedure to be followed in applying the mass commands to the setting-up exercises. The method of discontinuance and the return to the position of attention does not vary and is applicable in all cases. It is given only in (a) below. (a) The mass is At Ease while the explanation of the exercise is given. Instructor: I shall demonstrate the exercise. From the position of Attention; raise the arms forward at One (demonstrate); move them sideward, palms up at Two (demonstrate); back to the forward position at Three (demonstrate) and to the starting position at Four (demonstrate). The cadence is one, t-w-o, three, four (demonstrating the exercise). Instructor: 1. Call the platoon to attention, 2. COMMAND. Mass: 1. Platoon, 2. ATTENTION. Instructor: 1. Execute the exercise, at your command, 2. COMMAND. Mass; 1. In cadence, 2. EXERCISE—one, t-w-o, three, four; one, t-w-o, three, four. Instructor: Signals for discontinuation. Mass: one, t-w-o, three, HALT (rising inflection). (b) Another method of describing the exercise is to require the unit to perform each step separately and then demonstrate it to indicate the cadence. Thus: Instructor: 1. Arms Forward, 2. RAISE, 3. Arms Sidewards, Palms Up, 4. MOVE, 5. Arms Forward, 6. MOVE, 7. Arms, 8. DOWN. Take those movements as an exer- cise in four counts; the cadence is: one, t-w-o, three, four (demonstrating the exercise); 1. At Your Command, 2. COMMAND. Mass: 1. In cadence, 2. EXERCISE. (c) Instructor: 1. Hop to the Side Straddle Position, with Hands on Hips, 2. COMMAND. Mass: 1. To the Side Straddle Position, Hands on Hips, 2. HOP. Instructor: Twist the trunk to the right slowly on one; recover sharply at two; to the left at three and recover at four (demonstrate), 2. Ready, 3. Exercise, 4. O-n-e, two, t-h-r-e-e, four (repeat desired number of times), 5. HALT. 18. General. a. The schedules contained in this chapter are given to assist instructors in arranging their daily program. However, these schedules serve only as a guide. The daily work should follow the same general sequence as shown in the model. A PHYSICAL TRAINING 271 model schedule is given for the training of recruits, followed by a model schedule suit. able for trained soldiers. b. Other training requirements may not permit daily scheduled physical training periods or may greatly curtail the time allotted in the model schedules. However, with the models as guides, the preparation of a well-rounded and beneficial schedule of physical training suitable for shorter periods and for any group is a matter of judicious selection only. 19. Model Schedule for Recruits. a. Morning period (30 minutes). (1) Disciplinary exercises (3 min.). See paragraphs 30 and 31. (a) The position of Parade Rest. (b) The position of Attention. (c) Execute Left Face. (d) Execute Right Face. (e) Execute the Hand Salute. NoTE. These movements may be given either before or after the unit extends for setting-up exercises. In this schedule they are given before the extension is made. (f) Extend the unit for setting-up exercises. (g) Assume three different starting positions (see par. 29). (2) Setting-up exercises (12 to 15 min.). See paragraphs 32 to 35, inclusive. (a) Arm exercise, paragraph 49a(3). (b) Leg exercise, paragraph 49b(2). (c) Trunk exercise (turning), paragraph 49c.(1) and (3). (d) Trunk exercises (bending), paragraph 49d(2) and (4). (e) Shoulder exercise, paragraph 49e(4). (f) Neck exercises, paragraph 49f(1) and (3). (g) Balancing exercise, paragraph 493(2). (h) Coordinating exercise, paragraph 49h (3). (i) Combined exercises, paragraph 49i(1) and (6). (j) Breathing exercise, paragraph 49;(2). (3) Marching and exercises while marching (3 to 5 min.). See paragraphs 36 to 38, inclusive. The following exercises will be given as the unit marches to the obstacle course. If the disciplinary and setting-up exercises are given in the immediate vicinity of the obstacle course, these exercises will be given as the unit marches in a large square about the instructor. (a) March on toes in quick time. (b) March, raising knees chest high, in quick time. (c) Assume the squatting position with hands on hips and march in quick time. (d) March in double time. (4) Exercises in running, jumping, vaulting (8 to 10 minutes). See paragraphs 39 to 41, inclusive. (a) If the unit has not received instruction in overcoming the various obstacles, it will be taken to one of the obstacles not previously practiced. The instructor ex- plains and demonstrates how to get beyond the obstacle and has the men practice three or four times, as many men practicing at the same time as the width of the course will permit. Then the instructor command Follow Me and leads his unit on a run, the length of which depends upon the condition and training of the men. (b) If the unit has already received instruction in overcoming all the obstacles, the instructor will have each man run the entire course. The number running at one time is dependent upon the width of the course. When all have finished he com- mands Follow Me and leads his unit on a run. (5) Personal contests and group games. As stated in paragraph 6, the time devoted to marching and exercises while marching, and work on the obstacle course should be devoted to personal contests or group games on alternate days. A model schedule for this type work is (a) Personal contests (about 5 min.). Divide the unit into groups for a contest in Indian wrestling (par. 51a). Run an elimination contest within each group to select 272 PHYSICAL TRAINING a champion. Then run off an elimination tournament with these men to determine the unit champion. (b) Group games (about 10 min.). Divide the unit into groups of an equal number of men (about 12 to a group) or use squad organizations in forming relay teams. Conduct one running relay race (par. 53) and one jumping relay race (par. 54). b. Afternoon period (1 hr.). (1) Informal calisthenics or loosening-up exercise (5 min.). In order to “warm up,” each soldier individually takes a few exercises, such as swinging the arms, bending the trunk, kicking legs high in the air, walking in squat- ting position and double-timing in place. (2) Personal contests (15 min.). Pair off all men and run off the following three personal contests in the order given: rooster fight, back-to-back tug, and Roman wrest- ling, matching winners against winners and losers against losers. (See par. 51 j, d, and i.) (3) Group games (40 min.). For the first 10 minutes, run off a relay using the circle º (par. 53c). For the remaining 30 minutes, play mass volley ball (par. 56b(6)). (4) Tests. Usually one afternoon a week should be devoted to administering tests in order to indicate to the instructor the progress of his unit and to the individual soldier the improvement in his condition or ability. 20. Model Schedule for the Trained Soldier. a. General. The physical training course for the trained soldier differs from that for the recruit in that its aim is more for the purpose of keeping the already trained men fit and prepared for any emergency rather than for instruction. The time required for physical training for the trained soldier can be considerably less than that required for the recruit. In the model schedule given below, the daily morning period is 15 minutes and the afternoon period 30 minutes. At least two afternoon periods per week should be scheduled. b. Morning period (15 min.). (1) This period is devoted to setting-up exercises alternating with running, jumping and climbing (work on the obstacle course), per- sonal contests and group games. The setting-up exercises should be scheduled every other day. Work on the obstacle course should be alternated with personal contests and group games and scheduled on the day setting-up exercises are not held. For example, schedule setting-up exercises Monday, Wednesday and Friday; work on the obstacle course Tuesday; group games on Thursday. (2) A model schedule for one period of setting-up exercises is shown below. (a) Arm exercise, paragraph 49a(8). (b) Leg exercise, paragraph 49b(9). (c) Trunk exercise (turning), paragraph 49c.(5). (d) Neck exercise, paragraph 49f(5). (e) Balancing exercise, paragraph 493(5). (f) Coordinating exercise, paragraph 49h (5). (g) Combined exercises, paragraph 49i(8), (11), (18), (26), (28), and (30). (h) Breathing exercise, paragraph 49; (5). (3) The following example is given to illustrate the work scheduled for the period to be spent on the obstacle course: (a) Have all men perform “warming up” exercises at will for the first 5 minutes. (b) Have all men run the obstacle course against time. They may be required to carry rifles or some other piece of equipment, or may run the course wearing light acks. p (c) After all men have completed the obstacle course, have them take a short run. (4) The following example is given to illustrate the work scheduled for the period to be spent in personal contests and group games. (a) For the first 5 minutes conduct contests in back-to-back tug and back-to-back push (see par. 51). (b) For the last 10 minutes conduct a relay in football kicking using the shuttle method (par. 53b). Have all men take a short run. c. Afternoon period (30 min.). (1) Informal calisthenics or “loosening-up” exercises at will for the first 5 minutes. (2) Have all men participate in mass soccer for remaining 25 minutes (see par. 56). PHYSICAL TRAINING 273 21. Purpose. The purpose of this chapter is to set forth suggestions and helpful hints which may assist the physical training instructor in the execution of his duties. 22. Corrective Exercises. a. To insure success, instructors must endeavor to enlist the cooperation of the men they are training, for without it little will be accomplished in aggravated cases. b. Minor physical defects can be readily overcome by the ordinary physical drills if such drills are harmonious; that is, if all corresponding parts of the body are employed equally. This is based upon the theory that if an equal amount of exertion is required of all parts of the body, the weaker ones will increase in strength much more rapidly than the stronger ones, thus constantly diminishing the difference between the two until the difference ceases to be marked or material. This is particularly true in the training of younger persons. When defects are of long standing, due to faulty posture, occupation, or the result of previous illness, special instruction may be necessary, but this must not interfere with the man's participation in the regular physical drills unless it is found that he is unable to participate in them. Such cases should be treated separately by concentrating on those exercises which will overcome the weakness or defect noted. The setting-up exercises in this manual are arranged in groups accord- ing to the parts of the body involved; therefore the instructor should have no difficulty in selecting exercises which will correct any particular weakness or defect. 23. Hints to Instructors. a. General. (1) Avoid all loud shouting and noisy, im- patient, discouraging, and bullying methods. A quiet, encouraging manner, free from hesitation and indecision, is productive of the best results. (2) All men are not alike, but have different characters, temperaments and cap- abilities; handle them accordingly. (3) Men should never be kept too long in one position, especially a constrained one. An exercise should never be performed so many times that it becomes wearisome, and the strength and endurance of the men should never be pushed to extreme limits. Great care must be exercised in this respect and no exercise should ever be performed a greater number of times than can be accomplished without loss of style and position, or the otherwise good effects of the exercise will be destroyed. (4) The instructor should perform all exercises himself, while preparing his daily lesson, in order to determine how many times he can reasonably expect his men to repeat the exercises. (5) Keeping in view the important principles of gradual and easy progression, the instructor must note that there should not only be progression in the amount and strength of the actual muscular work, but that there should also be progression in ac- curacy and precision of execution, and in activity and quickness of movement. Do not expect a finished performance during the first time an exercise is executed. (6) If required, the instructor should have a list of the work to be performed on a card for reference. The card should not, however, be consulted more than is neces- sary, and then only when the men are at ease, never when they are at attention or per- forming an exercise. b. Explanation and illustration of exercises. (1) In giving explanations, a conversa. tional tone should be adopted, and not a monotonous intonation, as if repeating a lesson. (2) In demonstrating and executing exercises which are performed successively to the right and left, the instructor should move in the direction opposite that required of the class. For example, the instructor, facing the class, bends his trunk to the right when the class is required to bend to the left. Likewise the instructor moves his right arm or right leg in exercises where the class moves the left arms or legs and vice versa. (3) Avoid long explanations. -As a rule, it should be necessary to give a full ex- planation only of a new exercise, or of the new portion of an exercise, and the explana- tion should then be given, and the exercise illustrated immediately before it is per- formed. The men should be given At Ease during such explanation and demonstration. (4) The most essential features of an exercise should be explained first, and later on, the details may be added. Reference to too many details at one time is more likely to confuse the men than to assist them. J. 274 PHYSICAL TRAINING c. Correcting faults. (1) All minor corrections should be made at the time by men- tioning the correction shortly to the whole class, for example, “heads up,” “knees straight,” “stretch arms fully,” etc. following this occasionally, if necessary, by mention- ing the name of the man who is particularly at fault. (2) If a man requires special correction involving considerable attention, he should be taken separately so as not to waste the time of the others. d. Conducting group games. The following suggestions are given to aid the instructor in conducting group games: (1) He should never attempt to conduct a game with which he is not entirely familiar. (2) He should be sure that any equipment needed is on hand and available for immediate use. (3) In starting a new game, be clear; talk little; demonstrate. (4) Insist on fair play—enforce the rules. (5) Develop the spirit of competition. (6) Put “pep” into the games; make them snappy; keep them going. § No man should be allowed to drop out without permission. 8) To get the best results, there must be discipline and good order. (9) Do not let a game drag out. Stop it while the men still want more. (10) With a reasonable injection of enthusiasm, any game can be conducted success- fully. (11) Do not hesitate to use new games or variations of old ones. 24. Method for Conducting Tests. Conducting tests of physical ability for small groups requires very little equipment or planning; however, when tests are to be conducted on a large scale, considerable thought and planning are essential in order to administer the tests effectively. Experience has shown the method described below to be an ef- ficient one. a. Dash, 100-yard. (1) Aline all contestants in columns of files 6 feet apart on any level field. Put not more than 20 men in each column. As many columns may be used as the ground and number of judges permit. (2) Run all the first men in each column of files in the first heat, the second men in the columns in the second heat, continuing rapidly until all contestants have run. (3) Have a judge for each lane or column who acts as scorer. (4) Use but one stop watch. The start of the race is signaled by a revolver shot. The completion of 12 1/5 seconds is marked by a second revolver shot. Each judge de- termines the position of the contestant in his lane when the shot signaling the com- pletion of 12 1/5 seconds is fired. According to the number of lanes and columns, the judge for each column takes position where he can best determine the location of the men in his lane at the second revolver shot. Lines should be drawn across the track as shown in the table below. This table also shows the time or rating of each man according to his position in his lane at the completion of 12 1/5 seconds. —t- Distance Time (yards) (seconds) Score IOO . . . . . . . . . . . . . Men on or beyond this line at end of 12 1/5 | Superior. 12 1/5 seconds. 97 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . do . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 3/5||Above average. 94 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . do . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3 Average. 9I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . & sº & º do s is a e a e s e s e s e º e s ∈ tº e º 'º e º & © tº e º º I3 2/5 Qualified. 88 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . do . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 4/5 Do. 85 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . do . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 1/5 | Undualified. 82 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . do . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 3/5 Do. b. Running high jump. (1) Keep the same assignment of judges and groups as for the 100-yard dash. (2) Arrange each column in one lane with six high jump standards set as follows: PHYSICAL TRAINING 275 Jump Height Score Feet Inches l ISt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 3 Men who cannot jump 3 feet 9 inches lified. 2d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 6 } are classed as unqualified. Unº 3d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 9 Men who jump this height . . . . . . . . . Qualified. 4th . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 O . . . do . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Average. 5th . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 3 do . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Above average. 6th . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 6 do . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Superior. (3) Standards should be set far enough apart to allow contestants the required run before the “take-off.” Have each column run through its respective lane, trying each height. The best jump made counts. c. Running broad jump. (1) Keep the same assignment of judges and groups as in previous events. (2) Arrange for each column to jump rapidly in its own lane. Mark on the sides the four distances from the “take-off” which determine the classification of the in- dividual; that is, 12, 13%, 15, and 16% feet. This method obviates all necessity of measuring each individual jump. Three trials are allowed each contestant with the best jump only counting. Usual rules with reference to running broad jump govern as regards fouls. d. Run, 440- or 880-yard. Runs of this length may be conducted on either a circular track or a measured course. Large groups of men may be started at one time. One watch only is necessary. As soon as the first man crosses the finish line the timer should start calling off the time, by seconds, loud enough so that the contestants can hear their time. 25. General Suggestions. a. Have a chief scorer for the contests, with a chief scorer for each event, and one assistant for each event for each 60 men. b. Have score sheets for each event made out for each column of files (groups), with space for recording each man's record. Number each column. c. Have assistant scorers collect immediately from the column of files scorers all sheets for an event, turning them in to the chief scorer. d. Number conspicuously each column of files score sheet, keeping the same number for each event. e. This method, or adaptations of it, may be used in conducting tests in almost all kinds of events. CHAPreR II EXERCISES AND GROUP GAMES 26. Formations. a. Formations for disciplinary and setting-up exercises. The fol. lowing formation is recommended for the disciplinary and setting-up exercises as it is not only the simplest but the most compact. It requires less time and may be applied with equal facility and promptness to any unit. This formation is a column of threes or fours, at close interval between squads, facing the instructor who commands: (1) 1. Extend to the left, 2. MARCH (Plate 2). At this command the men in the right flank column stand fast, with arms extended sideward; all other men turn to the left and, taking up the double time, run forward to the original left, men in the center column of a 3-squad unit or men in the right center column of a 4-squad unit taking two paces, men in the left column of a 3-squad unit or men in the left center column of a 4-squad unit taking four paces, men in the left column of a 4-squad unit taking six paces. All face to the front with arms extended sideward after taking the required distance. The distance between finger tips is about 12 inches. 276 PHYSICAL TRAINING (2) 1. Arms, 2. DOWN (Plate 3). At this command the arms are lowered smartly to the side. (3) 1. From front to rear, 2. COUNT OFF. At this command the leading man in each column turns his head to the right, rear, calls off one and faces the front. Other men in each column call off in turn, two, three, four, five, etc., ºn the same manner. PHYSICAL TRAINING 277 (4) 1, Even numbers, to the left, 2. UNCOVER. (Plate 4). At the command Un- cover, each even-numbered man stride-jumps sideward to the left, squarely in the middle of the interval. In doing this, he swings his left leg sideward and jumps from his right foot and lights on his left foot, smartly bringing the right into position against the left. (5) To assemble the unit, the instructor commands: 1. Assemble to the right, 2. MARCH. At the command, March, all return to their original position in column on the double. b. Formations for marching and exercises while marching. For marching and exercises in marching, the unit should be in a column formation. Men should be in column of files, twos, threes, or fours, and at such intervals as will permit each man perfect freedom. 27. Position of Attention. a. Nothing equals the importance of proper and correct posture; it is the very foundation upon which any successful course in physical train- ing must be based. The position of attention is the position an unarmed, dismounted soldier assumes when in ranks or whenever the command Attention is given (Plates 5 and 6). This position must be one of mental as well as of physical alertness, and for that reason it must be free from all mental and physical constraint. All the muscles employed must be contracted only enough to maintain the position and any tendency toward rigidity should be avoided, as the position is one that depends upon coordination and not necessarily upon muscular effort. Instructors are cautioned to describe, illus- trate, and explain the position of the various parts of the body in this position, carefully calling attention to common errors. The men should be told to get the “feel” of mak- ing themselves just as tall as possible, to be proud of themselves and their unit, alert and ready for instant action. Proper posture must be consistently insisted upon at all times, both in and out of ranks, until the men will assume it from habit. b. The instructor commands: 1. Platoon, 2. ATTENTION. At this command the men spring into the position described below, bringing the heels together with a click. For the purpose of precise and simultaneous performance, the men should be cautioned not to move until the last syllable of the command A-t-t-e-n-shun is spoken. (1) Heels on the same line and as near each other as the conformation of the man permits. (2) Feet turned out equally and forming an angle of 45°. (3) Knees straight without stiffness. 278 PHYSICAL TRAINING (4) Hips level and drawn back slightly; body erect and resting equally on hips; chest lifted and arched; shoulders square and falling equally. (5) Arms hanging straight down without stiffness, so that the thumbs are along the seams of the trousers; back of the hands out; fingers held naturally. (6) Head erect and squarely to the front; chin drawn in so that the axis of the head and neck is vertical; eyes straight to the front. (7) Weight of the body resting equally on the heels and the balls of the feet. (8) In assuming the position of the soldier, or of attention, the heels are brought together smartly and audibly. 28. Rests. Being at a halt, the commands are: FALL OUT: REST; AT EASE; and 1. Parade, 2. REST. a. At the command Fall out, the men leave the ranks but are required to remain in the immediate vicinity. The men resume their former places at attention at the com- mand Fall in. b. At the command Rest, one foot is kept in place. Silence and immobility are not required. c. At the command At Ease, the right foot is kept in place. Silence but not immo- bility is required. d. At the command of execution, Rest, of 1. Parade, 2. REST (Plate 7), move the left foot smartly 12 inches to the left of the right foot; keep the legs straight so that the weight of the body rests equally on both feet. At the same time, clasp the hands behind the back, palms to the rear, thumb and fingers of the right hand clasping the left thumb without constraint; preserve silence and immobility. e. Being at any of the rests except Fall Out, to resume the position of attention, the commands are: 1. Platoon, 2. ATTENTION. At the command Attention take the position of the soldier as prescribed in paragraph 27. £º Plate 8. Arms Forward. Plate 9. Arms Sideward. 29. Starting Positions. a. These are the positions in which the various exercises orig- inate and terminate. In nearly all arm exercises, it is necessary to assume one of these starting positions. In performing exercises with other parts of the body, starting posi- tions are used as aids, either to add difficulty to a movement or to give a movement in which the arms are not employed a uniform, finished appearance. (1) 1. Arms Forward, 2. RAISE, 3. Arms, 4. DOWN (Plate 8). At the command Raise, raise the arms to the front, smartly extended to their full length till the hands are in front of and at the height of the shoulders, palms down, fingers extended and joined thumbs along the index fingers. At Arms down, resume position of attention. PHYSICAL TRAINING 279 (2) 1. Arms sideward, 2. RAISE, 3. Arms, 4. DOWN (Plate 9). At the command Raise, the arms are raised laterally until horizontal; palms down; fingers as in (1) above. The arms are brought down smartly without allowing them to touch the body. (3) 1. Arms overhead, 2. RAISE, 3. Arms, 4. DOWN (Plate 10). At the command Raise, the arms are extended to their full length, until they are vertically overhead; backs of the hands are turned outward; fingers as in (1) above. * | | Plate 10. Plate 11. Plate 12. Plate 13. Plate 14. Fingers Arms Arms to Thrust. Hands on Hips. Hands on Shoulders. Behind Head, Lace. Overhead. (4) 1. Arms to thrust, 2. RAISE, 3. Arms, 4. DOWN (Plate 11). At the com- mand Raise, the forearms are raised to the horizontal; elbows are forced back; upper arms are against the body; hands are tightly closed; knuckles are down. (5) 1. Hands on hips, 2. PLACE, 3. Arms, 4. DOWN (Plate 12). At the com- mand Place, the hands are placed on the hips; fingers are extended and joined, pointing to the front; thumbs point to the rear; the crotch formed by the thumb and forefinger rests just above the hip bone. (6) 1. Hands on shoulders, 2. PLACE, 3. Arms, 4. DOWN (Plate 13). At the com- mand Place, raise the elbows upward and outward until the upper arms are horizontal; bend the wrists and place the tips of the fingers lightly on the shoulders. (7) 1. Fingers behind head, 2. LACE, 3. Arms, 4. DOWN (Plate 14). At the command Lace, the arms are raised as described in (6) above and the fingers are laced behind the lower portion of the head; elbows are well up and pressed back. (8) 1. To the side straddle position, 2. HOP, 3. To the position of attention, 4. HOP (Plate 15). At the command Hop, a hop is executed and the legs separated at the same time, so that when the feet are planted they will be separated about 30 inches. The toes should strike the ground first and the position assumed without jar. In the final position assumed, the legs are straight and the body is in its normal erect position. Some posi- tion of the hands is usually assumed simultaneously with the assumption of the side straddle position. A typical command is: 1. To the tide straddle position, hands on hips, 2. HOP. (9) 1. To the squatting position, 2. BEND, 3. To the position of attention, 4. RISE. At the command Bend, bend knees fully and open legs outward so that each knee points 280 PHYSICAL TRAINING 45° to the oblique; at the same time place both hands flat on the floor 6 inches in front of the feet, about 15 inches apart, fingers spread and to the front, arms straight (Plate 16). b. These positions should be practiced frequently, and instead of recovering the posi- tion of attention after each position, the instructor may change directly from one to another by giving the proper commands instead of commanding 1. Arms, 2. DOWN. Thus, to change from the position described in (6) above to that described in (5) above, having commanded: 1. Hands on shoulders, 2. PLACE, he commands: 1. Hands on hips, 2. PLACE. Plate 15. Side Straddle Position. 30. Examples of Disciplinary Exercises. Those military movements included in the school of the soldier and the starting positions for setting-up exercises are classed as disciplinary exercises because they have no particular value in physical development but are of great importance in instilling in the men that sense of discipline which is neces- sary for the efficient conduct of the physical training instruction. See paragraph 17 for examples of these exercises. Plate 16. Squatting Position. 31. Method of Conducting Disciplinary Exercises. a. If the instructor conducts the disciplinary exercises with enthusiasm and snap at the very beginning of the morning period in physical training, he can be assured of having complete control over the unit the remainder of the period. The instructor should place himself in a position from which he can see his entire unit and well away from it so that his commands will be heard by all at the same time. b. Before the unit undergoing training is extended for setting-up exercises, the in- structor should give one or two commands, such as 1. Right, 2. FACE, or 1. Hand, 2. PHYSICAL TRAINING 281 SALUTE, and require a quick, snappy, accurate performance. He should have the unit, using mass commands, perform one or two movements, such as Mark time, halt, parade rest, and attention. Proper performance of these few movements will result in the men being alert mentally and physically, ready to form quickly and accurately for setting-up exercises. The instructor should give the commands for assuming the forma- tion for setting-up exercises (see par. 26) with vigor to keep his unit alert, and then, by mass commands, he should have the unit perform two or three starting positions and resume attention. c. The most important consideration in the conduct of these few disciplinary exercises is proper performance by the instructor. He must understand thoroughly the com- mands to use, the method of using mass commands, and the proper execution of the movement called for. By his example, he must inspire his men to execute the move- ments with snap and precision. He must be alert and soldierly and as quick to com- mend for good performance as to censure for poor performance. 32. Method of Conducting Setting-up Exercises. a. The instructions previously given for conducting disciplinary exercises (see par. 31) apply as well to the conduct of setting-up exercises. b. The purpose of setting-up exercises, as explained in paragraph 4b(2), should always be kept in mind. Setting-up exercises form the foundation upon which the entire physical education program is built. Their importance is unquestioned. Their value, however, depends on their proper conduct and presentation, so that the purpose for which they are designed is fulfilled. c. Setting-up exercises by large groups in unison and in response to military com- mands do have great disciplinary value. But if this aim predominates, the instructor is apt to give only those exercises which lend themselves readily to a snappy military per- formance, thereby neglecting the more complex and more beneficial exercises in favor of the simpler and less beneficial ones. d. Setting-up exercises should be conducted so that they impart the physiological, as well as the disciplinary, benefit of which they are capable. Accuracy and precision of performance will be insisted upon whenever they are possible of attainment and should be striven for even in those exercises which, because of their complexity and difficulty of execution, do not lend themselves readily to complete accuracy and precision of per- formance. But this insistence upon accuracy and precision of performance should be with the aim in mind of insuring that the men get the maximum physical benefit from the exercises and should not be employed for purely disciplinary motives. The dis- ciplinary phase of physical drill should be largely taken care of in the period allotted to disciplinary exercises. e. In order to inculcate rhythmical and coordinated movements and flexibility of the mass, such exercises as lend themselves to rhythmical repetition may be performed. However, this should never be done at the expense of the physical value of an exercise. f. As the value of an exercise depends upon the manner of its execution and not upon the exercise itself, the cadence in which it is performed must fit the exercise. g. Short periods of rest or at ease should be given during the setting-up period when- ever the instructor feels they are necessary to enable the men to regain their breath and to relieve undesirable strain or tension. These periods should be very short, never over 30 seconds, and before giving them the instructor should caution the men to breathe slowly and deeply during these periods. h. Instructions in the proper commands for setting-up exercises are fully covered in Chapter I. The instructor is again cautioned not to use mass commands when the more difficult exercises are to be executed. i. In conducting setting-up exercises, the instructor should remember that the men are there primarily for physical exercise. Long, unnecessary explanations or corrections are a waste of time. Whenever possible, an explanation of an exercise should coincide with a brief demonstration of it, and corrections should be confined almost entirely to those which will help the men get more benefit from the exercise. 33. Sequence in Giving Setting-up Exercises. a. The setting-up exercises in this man- 282 PHYSICAL TRAINING ual (See Chapter III) have been classified into ten separate groups according to the parts of the body involved most in doing the exercises. These groups have then been arranged in a definite order or sequence. The instructor should follow this sequence in conducting setting-up exercises. It is not the only one that could be used, but it has been found to be the most satisfactory. The grouping and sequence are as follows: (1) Arm exercises. (2) Leg exercises. (3) Trunk exercises (turning). (4) Trunk exercises (bending). (5) Shoulder exercises. (6) Neck exercises. (7) Balancing exercises. (8) Coordinating exercises. (9) Combined exercises. (10) Breathing exercises. b. The designation of the above groups is somewhat arbitrary and was chosen principally for convenience. It does not follow, for example, that all the exercises in each group actually belong in that group from a physiological or anatomical point of view. Most of the arm exercises, for instance, should be called shoulder girdle exercises. That would be more scientific; but all of the arm exercises involve more movement of the arms than of any other part of the body and are therefore conveniently placed in the category of arm exercises. c. The exercises are further arranged within their respective groups according to their difficulty of execution, insofar as this is possible of determination. This does not mean, however, that setting-up exercise given in paragraph 49i(10) is necessarily more difficult that that in (9), but it does mean that, for most persons, exercise (10) is more difficult of execution than (1) and easier than (20). d. In planning the daily lessons, the instructor should choose exercises from each group with due consideration of their order of difficulty. He does not need to choose the same number of exercises from each group but no group should be entirely neglected. As his men become more physically fit and more proficient in doing setting-up exer- cises, he will, of course, make his lessons more strenuous. He will then find himself choosing most of his exercises from group given in paragraph 49i, and a few from the other groups, perhaps only one from each other group. For this reason the group in paragraph 49i contains by far the greatest number of exercises. The exercises in this group are more interesting as well as more beneficial. By their use a much more complete and thorough “workout” may be given within the allotted time since they exercise many parts of the body at once. 34. Progression of Setting-up Exercises. a. In general, a lesson in setting-up exercises may be made more strenuous in one of three ways: By choosing exercises that are more difficult of execution; by increasing the number of repetitions of any given exer- cise; or by making the cadence faster or slower, whichever will make that exercise more strenuous. It is essential that all three of these methods be utilized in order to obtain the desired progression in the complete course. This progression should be a gradual one from the simple to the complex and from the nonstrenuous to the strenuous. b. The cadence has been definitely prescribed for many of the exercises in Chapter III; for the rest the cadence is optional. Where the cadence is prescribed, it should not be altered as this would change the exercise entirely, but where the cadence is optional the instructor may use his own judgment. c. The number of times some of the exercises should be performed is specified in Chapter III. Where specified it serves only as a guide, being the number of times the average soldier should be able to perform that exercise when first attempting it. (This has been determined by actual experience.) In all other exercises the instructor should, of course, determine for himself the proper number of times an exercise should be performed. 35. Terminology of Setting-up Exercises. For the sake of simplicity, technical terms PHYSICAL TRAINING 283 have been avoided wherever possible in the description of the setting-up exercises, being replaced by simpler words more commonly used and more readily understood. In order to insure uniformity, the terminology used in this manual should always be used by the instructor and taught to the men. 36. General Rules. a. All steps and marchings executed from the halt, except right step, begin with the left foot. b. The length of the full step in quick time is 30 inches, measured from heel to heel, and the cadence is at the rate of 120 steps per minute. c. The length of the full step in double time is 36 inches; the cadence is at the rate of 180 steps per minute. d. The instructor, when necessary, indicates the cadence of the step by calling one, two, three, four, the instant the proper foot is planted. e. In marching, the head and trunk should remain immobile but without stiffness, head erect, body well stretched from the waist, chest arched, chin up, and arms swing- ing naturally about 6 inches to the front and about 3 inches to the rear of the body. f. In double timing the forearms are raised to a horizontal position along the waist line, fingers closed, knuckles out, the arms swinging naturally. The step is an easy run with the weight of the body forward and the muscles relaxed. 37. Method of Conducting. a. Men should be marched in a column formation either on a large circle or square with the instructor in the center. If marched on a square, changes in direction should be made without command. b. In performing exercises while marching at quick time and double time, the normal cadence is used except when the nature of the exercise necessitates a different cadence. The intervals and distances between men are variable and are determined by the nature of the exercises being performed. c. The command that causes and discontinues the execution of an exercise should be given as the left foot strikes the ground. To discontinue an exercise being performed while marching, the command is: 1. Quick time, 2. MARCH, instead of HALT. d. In maintaining cadence the instructor may count one, two, three, four or may have the men count cadence themselves. The latter is accomplished by commanding Cadence as the left foot strikes the ground. The next time the left foot strikes the ground, the men start their count and count one, two, three, four; one, two, three, four. They then cease counting without command. 38. Examples. The following examples are given to illustrate how these exercises are conducted. Many more exercises will be found in Chapter III. a. The unit being in march or at a halt: (1) On toes, 2. MARCH, 3. Quick time, 4. MARCH. (2) 1. Raise knees, chest high, 2. MARCH, 3. Quick time, 4. MARCH. b. The unit being at a halt: 1. To the squatting position, hands on hips, 2. BEND, 3. In that position, forward, 4. MARCH, 5. Quick time, 6. MARCH, or 5. Platoon, 6. HALT, 7. RISE. 39. General. Running, jumping, vaulting, climbing, and crawling are basic activities required of all soldiers. They are also excellent means for developing endurance, agility, confidence, and self-reliance. Instruction and training in these basic activities are best conducted on an obstacle course. 40. Obstacle Course. The obstacle course described below is given as a model. It is easy to construct and contains obstacles sirmilar to those encountered in field service. The diagram of the course shows the lanes for only two men. A course should be wide enough to permit a minimum of four men running at the same time; a still wider course is most desirable. a. To jump the hurdle, run straight at it and, without breaking stride, kick the front foot up and forward just enough to clear the obstacle. From the rear foot, get the spring necessary to carry the body and rear leg over the hurdle. Land on the leading foot and continue in stride. Just clear the hurdle, as time is lost while the body is in the air. If carrying the rifle, throw it sharply upward and forward on taking off and bring it back to the high port on landing. 284 PHYSICAL TRAINING b. To vault the fence, run forward, place both hands on top of the fence, jump up with arms straight, tuck up the knees, throw both legs over the top to the left (right), release the grasp with left (right) hand, and drop to the ground facing the original front. If armed with a rifle, carry it in one hand, place the other hand on the top of the fence, and vault over as described. c. To dodge around the panels, slow down so as to be able to run as close to the ends of the panels as possible without touching them. Lean in the direction of the turn and take fast, short steps when passing around the ends of the panels. d. The 7-foot wall is surmounted as follows: Run forward and jump forward and upward at the wall, placing the left foot as high against it as possible; seize the top with both hands, pull the body up, swing the right leg followed by the left over the wall, and vault to the ground. When the rifle is carried, sling it over the shoulder; then the top is reached in the same manner as without a rifle, but it is necessary to turn so as to face the wall before dropping to the ground. This is done to permit the rifle to clear the wall. A / Aº zzº e s & s sº e º 'º %. Øſ. %. y/ * * * * * * * * *% º º/- &^_^)/ Z* * * * * ~. tº e º ºs s & sº s sº º 7– 2"/: * WA Li CRAVVt. 6 DłTCH 8ALANCE RUN HURDLE UNDER 8 ROAD JUMP ; w iſ) 8.2 HiC, H. ;PLAY FORM 3 12' SECTIONS 2’ HIGH Plate 17. Obstacle Course. e. Before crawling under the platform, the soldier must drop to the ground while at a run, which is done as follows: The left foot is advanced and turned in across the front of the body. The soldier throws his left arm over his head and drops forward on the left side of the left knee, left hip, and left shoulder. If carrying the rifle, the soldier drops forward on the left side of the left knee and at the same time holds the rifle forward vertically in both hands so that the butt strikes the ground a full arm's length directly in front of the left knee. f. To broad jump the ditch, get sufficient speed to carry the body forward while it is in the air. At the take-off, spring off one foot and raise both knees and arms in order to get elevation. If sufficient speed has been attained, the momentum will carry the body over the ditch. Land on both feet without losing balance and continue forward at full speed. 41. Use of the Obstacle Course. a. During the early stages of the recruit's training he should not be required to run the obstacle course against time but rather should be instructed in the proper method of overcoming each obstacle in turn and should be given an opportunity to practice overcoming each obstacle until he is proficient. When the soldier has shown that he can overcome each obstacle in the course, he should be required to run the course against time. However, the time allowed should be deter- mined by the condition and ability of the soldier. As his condition and ability im- prove, the time should be reduced. As the development of the man continues, he should be required to run the course carrying a rifle or other object, and, finally, he should be required to run the course wearing light equipment. b. In beginning the soldiers' instruction, it is recommended that the instructor explain and demonstrate the method of overcoming the first obstacle, require his unit to prac- tice three or four times, and then have the soldiers run a hundred yards. Each suc- ceeding day, or period, during which work is scheduled on the obstacle course, the PHYSICAL TRAINING 285 same procedure should be followed, the instruction being directed to overcoming a different obstacle and the run afterwards being gradually lengthened. Later the men should be required to overcome more than one obstacle and run a greater distance until finally they are ready to run the entire course. 42. Method of Conducting Personal Contests. a. In conducting these contests the in- structor should realize that they are personal encounters which, aside from their physical value, add interest to the instruction and bring out and develop aggressiveness, agility, quickness of perception, confidence, and morale. In order to accomplish these aims and equalize the contests, he must pair the men off in accordance with their weight, agility, or strength. b. In contests in which superiority is dependent upon skill and agility, no restrictions need be placed upon the efforts of the contestants, but in those that are a test of strength and endurance, it is well to call a contest a draw when the men are equally matched and the contest is likely to be extended to the point of exhaustion . ODC or both contestants. c. Contests that require strength and agility should be alternated with those that de- pend upon strength and endurance. In order to facilitate the instruction, a number of pairs should be engaged at the same time. From time to time winners should be matched to determine the champion of the unit. 43 Examples. The following examples of personal contests are given to show how this work is conducted. For more contests, see Chapter III. Plate 18. a. Cane wrestling (Plate 18). Match men according to strength. The cane to be used may be an old broom handle. It is grasped with the right hand at the end, knuckles down, and with the left hand, knuckles up, inside and close to the opponent's right hand. The object is to wrest the cane from the opponent. Loss of grip with either hand loses the bout. b. Cock fight (Plate 19). Match men according to agility. Contestants hop on one leg, with the arms folded closely over the chest. The object is by butting with the fleshy part of the shoulder without raising the arm, or by dodging, to make the op- ponent change his feet or touch the ground with his hand or other part of the body. c. One-armed tug (Plate 20). Match men according to weight. Contestants stand facing each other, right hands grasped, feet apart. The object is to pull the opponent forward without moving the feet. Shifting the feet loses the bout. 44. General. a. Mass athletics and group games as a part of the physical training pro- gram are primarily recreational. They are designed to develop interest and morale. b. Contests in which a large number of participants engage simultaneously and which require the attention and interest of all those participating should always be 286 PHYSICAL TRAINING given the preference over those in which only a few are engaged at the same time and those which do not require the alertness of mind mentioned above. c. The spirit of rivalry between the groups must be incited and kept alive if the full value of these games and contests is to be obtained. Plate 19. d. The simpler games and relay races may be conducted in the morning physical training period for their interest value. Some of these games are described in Chapter III. e. The afternoon physical training period should be utilized for recreational purposes and therefore should be devoted to group games, mass athletics, and major athletic sports. 45. Major Athletic Sports. a. The major athletic sports, such as football, baseball, basketball, soccer, lacrosse, track and field meets, etc., are not treated in this manual. This work covers mass athletics only insofar as they apply to group games. Examples of these group games are given in Chapter III. $º-rº tºº." º Vº) E. * .*s- -- sº Yº 6N (ZZ a. } | Plate 20. b. If it is deemed advisable, and equipment and facilities are available, the afternoon physical training period may be used occasionally for these so-called major athletic games. Although all men do not participate, experience has shown that no activity, except actual participation in battle, does so much to build up esprit de corps and to instill in an organization a feeling of unit pride and loyalty as well organized and conducted athletic competition. 46. Method of Conducting Games. a. Relay games. Relay games adapt themselves very readily to our present military organization and are considered excellent group games. Outside of a lower limit of eight, which enables us to have two teams of four each, the number that may take part is limited only by the space and equipment available and the skill of the instructor. Relay games are classified in this manual as either running relays or jumping and throwing relays. PHYSICAL TRAINING 287 (1) Running relays. Running relays are those games in which the individual con. testant travels alone or carries some other individual. These relays may be conducted in three distinct ways: the lane method, the shuttle method, and the circle method. (a) Lane method. In this method teams of the same number of men are arranged in parallel columns behind a common starting line. These columns should be about 10 feet apart. A turning point should be established for each team directly to its front, the distance from the starting line to the turning point varying with each race. The race is conducted by having each runner travel from the starting line to and around the turning point and back to the starting line, where each touches off the next one of his teammates. This continues until all have run. (Plate 21 shows this formation.) TURNING O O O O POINTS . STARTING LINE U-4– 10' —-Cl [T] [I] [T] [T] [T] [T] [T] [T] [T] D [T] [T] [T] [T] [T] [T] [T] [T] [T] [T] [T] [T] [T] [T] [] [T] [T] [T] [T] [T] [T] [T] [T] […] [T] [T] [T] [T] SOUAD NO. I SQUAD NO. 2 SQUAD NO. 3 SQUAD NO. 4 Plate 21. Chart Showing Lane Method. (b) Shuttle method. The shuttle method is in many respects like the lane method. In the shuttle method two starting lines are used. These should be parallel and the desired distance apart. The halves in separate columns face each other directly in back of each line. Name the halves on one side “A’s” and the halves on the other side “B’s.” The race is run by having the first player of the “A” half run to the opposite line, where he touches off the first player of the “B” half. This player runs to the opposite line, where he touches off the second player of the “A” half. This continues until all have run. (See Plate 22.) (c) Circle method. The circle method is conducted around a track. This track may be readily devised by placing four objects so they form a rectangle of the desired size. The track is considered to be outside of the objects. This type of relay may be conducted in two ways: First, by having all the teams use a common starting line; and second, by having each team use a separate starting line, these being evenly distributed about the track. The second method adds the element of the chase (each team is anxious to overtake the team in front) and is thus much preferred. To run the race the first player of each group travels about the track and at his starting line touches off the next player of his team who runs about and touches off the next. This continues until all have run. (See Plate 23.) 288 PHYSICAL TRAINING (d) Suggestions. 1. The last player in a relay race should be conspicuously identified by tying a handkerchief around his head or arm, taking off his shirt, putting on his hat or taking it off, or some other method. 2. Another practice which is helpful in determining the progress of the race and eventually the winners, consists in having each player sit on the ground or assume a squatting position upon finishing. 3. Most relay races are best run with a baton. If a baton is not used, it is difficult to prevent stealing at the transfer. Handkerchiefs, short sticks, stones or other objects may be used as batons. 4. In conducting relay races it is very helpful to appoint a noncommissioned officer or some leader for each team. Make each leader responsible for the conduct of his team. In addition to his duty, he should coach and stimulate his team in any way he desires. Good team leaders are a great asset. i W. SQUAD NO. !/2 SQUAD NO. 2 !/2 SQUAD NO. 3 !/2 SQUAD NO. 4 [T] [T] [T] [T] [T] [T] […] [T] [T] [T] T] D [T] [T] DI] [T] [T] [T] [T] [T] STARTING B LINE A STARTING LINE [T]- 10’ —-U [T] [T] [T] [T] [...] [T] [T] [T] [I] [T] D [T] [T] [T] [T] [T] [T] [T] !/. SQUAD NO. I V2 SQUAD NO. 2 'ſ, SQUAD NO. 3 !/? SQUAD NO. 4 Plate 22. Chart Showing Shuttle Method. (2) Jumping and throwing relays. Jumping and throwing contests may be con- ducted in relay fashion similar to running relays. In these jumping and throwing contests the competing teams should be paired and competition conducted in elimination tournament fashion. These contests may be run off in two distinct ways: the shuttle method and the cumulative method. (a) In the shuttle method a base line is established. The two competing teams lined up on opposite sides of and facing the line. The leading man of team “A” is toeing the base line. The leading man of team “B” is some distance in front of the base line, the amount of this distance depending on the event. No. 1 of team “A” makes his jump (or throw) from the base line. No. 1 of team “B” executes a return jump (or throw), using as his starting line the rear (one nearest base line) heel mark of the first jumper or the spot where the first throw landed. No. 2 of team “A” then jumps back (or throws) from the mark made by No. 1 of team “B.” Teams alternate jumping (or throwing) in this way until every man has participated. If the last man PHYSICAL TRAINING 289 of team “B” jumps (or throws) beyond the original base line, team “B” wins; if his jump (or throw) falls short, team “A” wins. Any competitor who oversteps his base line in jumping or throwing is penalized twice the distance he overstepped the line, that is, his mark is brought back that distance. (See Plate 24.) [I] [T] [T] [T] […] [T] [T] [I] [T] Souad No. 2 Cl P- SQUAD NO. (Ö sº #, D [][] [][] [] [][] D D [] [] [] [][] [] [] [][] D SQUAD NO. 3 SQUAD NO 4 Plate 23. Chart Showing Circle Method. (b) Where there are ample facilities, jumping and throwing contests can be con- ducted in the ordinary cumulative relay fashion. The competing teams form in parallel columns. No. 1 of each team jumps or throws, No. 2 jumps or throws from No. 1's mark, and so on. The team jumping or throwing farthest from the base line wins. b. Circle games. Circle games are those games in which the participants are ar- ranged in a circular formation. (See par. 55.) c. Miscellaneous games. There are a great number of group games which do not fall under the groupings of relay games or circle games. This manual, therefore, classi- fies them as miscellaneous games. (See par. 56.) FA1 (1) CHAPTER III EXERCISES AND GROUP GAMES (CONTINUED) 47. Purpose and Use of Chapter. a. The purpose of this chapter is to serve as a “reser- voir” or “library” in which is included ample material to serve the needs of the in- structor in his planning of a physical training program. No. 1 of squad No. 1 makes his jurmp from base line. No. 1 of Squad No. 2 executes a return jump using as his starting line the rear (one nearest base line) heel mark of the first jumper. No. 2 of Squad No. 1 then jumps back from the mark made by No. 1 of Squad No. 2, etc. BASE LINE –-I 9 [] | OD SQUAD NO. 2 SQUAD NO. I [T]IO [T] 9 [T] 8 [] 7 [T] 6 [T] 5 [T] 4 [T] 3 [T] 2 Plate 24. Chart, Jumping and Throwing Relays. b. The material in this chapter is presented in a concise, abbreviated form. Few commands, instructions, or similar matter will be found since those items have already been fully covered in the preceding chapters of this manual. c. The various exercises, and contests are described as accurately as possible, con- sistent with brevity, and, wherever necessary, sketches have been supplied. The instructor should study both the descriotions and plates carefully to insure that he understands fully each exercise or contest. 290 PHYSICAL TRAINING 291 48. Disciplinary Exercises. No disciplinary exercises are listed here since a sufficient number of them have already been presented in paragraphs 14 to 17, inclusive. 49. Setting-up Exercises. a. Arm exercises. (1) Starting position: arms forward. Swing arms downward on One; recover to the starting position on Two. Cadence, optional. (2) Starting position: Attention. Stretch arms forward, palms down, on One; sideward on Two; forward on Three; recover to attention on Four. Drawl the first three counts and make the fourth count snappy. Cadence, slow. (3) Starting position: Hands on shoulders. Extend arms forward, palms down on One; swing arms sideward, palms up, on Two; forward, palms down on Three; recover the starting position on Four. Cadence, optional. (4) Starting position: Arms sideward. Rotate arms forward on One; backward on Two. The position of the arms does not change; they merely twist, they do not circle. Emphasize keeping the arms well stretched throughout. Cadence, slow. (5) Starting position: Right arm overhead. Swing right arm forward and down- ward and left arm forward and overhead on One; reverse on Two. Cadence, optional. (6) Starting position: Hands on shoulders. Extend arms forward on One; recover on Two, extend arms sideward, palms up, on Three; recover on Four. Cadence, fast. Plate 25. (7) Starting position: Arms overhead. Circle arms inward for four counts (Plate 25), then outward for four counts. The count should come as the arms cross at the bottom, but at each fourth count the arms continue to the overhead position and stop there. Cadence, moderately fast. tº (8) Starting position: Hands on shoulders, fists clenched. Strike arms forward on One; recover on Two; strike arms sideward on Three; recover on Four; strike arms upward on Five; recover on Six; strike arms downward on Seven; recover on Eight. The striking action should be done forcibly. Cadence, fast. (9) Starting position: Arms forward, fists clenched. Rotate fists outward for four counts; then inward for four counts. The rotation should be entirely at the wrists, stopping at the fourth count to reverse rotation. Cadence, moderate. (This exercise can also be done from starting position of arms sideward or overhead, or it can be performed by moving from one position to the other while maintaining the rotation of the fists.) (10) Starting position: Arms forward, fists clenched. Open and close the fists forcibly. Cadence, fast. (This exercise can also be done from the starting position of 292 PHYSICAL TRAINING arms sideward or overhead; and can also be done by moving the arms from one starting position to the others while maintaining the opening and closing of the fists.) b. Leg exercises. (1) starting position: Hands on hips. Rise on toes to fullest ex- tent on One; lower on Two. Cadence, optional. (2) Starting position: Hands on hips. Lower to the deep knee bend position on One (Plate 26); recover on Two. Cadence, slow. As the knees are bent, they are separated 45° and the body weight is supported on the toes. (3) Starting position: Hands on hips (or Attention). Rise on toes of right foot on One; recover on Two; rise on toes of left foot on Three; recover on Four. As the body rises on either foot, the opposite foot rises slightly off the ground. Both knees are held stiff and heels close together. Cadence, optional. (4) Starting position: Hands on hips. . Rise on toes on One; fully bend knees on Two (as in exercise (2) above); recover the first position on Three; recover the starting position on Four. Cadence, optional. (5) Starting position: Hands on hips (or Attention). Extend right leg fully to the rear, knee stiff on One; recover on Two; extend left leg fully to the rear on Three; recover on Four. Body is held erect throughout. Cadence, slow. Plate 26. Plate 27. (6) Starting position: Hands on hips (or Attention or Arms to thrust). Bend knees half way on One, keeping heels on floor; recover on Two. Cadence, fast. (7) Starting position: Fingers on rear of head, toes pointing inward (pigeon toes). Rise up fully on toes on One; lower on Two. Cadence, optional. (8) Starting position: Hands on hips. Hop alternately on right and left foot. Count four. While hopping, the unemployed leg is extended well forward, knee straight and toes depressed. The hop should be done four times on one foot, then four on the other. Cadence, moderately fast. (9) Starting position: Arms forward (or Hands on hips). Fully bend knees on One, keeping heels on floor, knees close together (Plate 27); recover on Two. Cadence slow. This exercise resembles the Filipino squat. (10) Starting position: Hands on hips. Run “in place” on toes, raising knees up as high as possible and springing up from the floor on each count as high as possible. Count four. Cadence, moderate. c. Trunk exercises (turning). (1) Starting position: Hands on shoulders. Turn trunk right on One; recover on Two; turn left on Three; recover on Four. The twist should be from the hips up, the lower body remaining motionless. Drawl the first and third counts, making the second and fourth snappy. Cadence, slow. (2) Starting position: Arms sideward. Turn trunk to the right on One; recover on Two; turn trunk left on Three; recover on Four. The arms remain in the plane of the shoulders throughout and the head and eyes are kept to the front. The trunk should twist from the hips up, the lower body remaining motionless. Cadence, slow. (3) Starting position: Side straddle, arms forward, fingers laced. Twist entire & 9. - PHYSICAL TRAINING 293 body as far as possible to the right on One (Plate 28); twist as far as possible to the left on Two. The feet do not move. Count four, recovering to the front on the last count of the last sequence. Cadence, slow. (4) Starting position: Arms overhead, fingers laced. Twist trunk to the right on One; recover on Two. Twist left on Three; recover on Four. The arms are kept stretched as high as possible throughout. The twist should be from the hips up only. Drawl the first and third counts, making the second and fourth snappy. Cadence, slow. Plate 29. (5) Starting position: Side straddle, arms sideward. Twist entire body as far as possible to the right on One; twist as far as possible to the left on Two. The feet do not move. Count four, recovering to the front on the last count of the last sequence. The arms are kept in the plane of the shoulders throughout. Cadence, fast. d. Trunk exercises (bending). (1) Starting position: Hands on hips. Bend trunk 45° forward, back arched, on One (Plate 29); recover on Two. Cadence, slow. *ść) *%:-- _|| Plate 30. Plate $1. (2) Starting position: Hands on hips. Bend trunk backward as far as possible on One (Plate 30); recover on Two. The legs are kept straight throughout. Cadence, slow. (3) Starting position: Hands on hips. Bend trunk sideward right as far as possible 294 PHYSICAL TRAINING on One; recover on Two. Bend left on Three; recover on Four. The legs are kept straight throughout. Cadence, slow. (4) Starting position: Arms forward. Bend trunk 90° forward on One, moving the arms to the side horizontal (Plate 31); recover on Two. Cadence, slow. (5) Starting position: Hands on hips (or Attention). Bend trunk forward as far as possible on One, extending arms downward so that the hands come as close to the ground as possible (Plate 32); recover on Two. The legs are kept straight throughout. Cadence, optional. Plate 32. Plate 33. (6) Starting position: Side Straddle, arms overhead. Bend trunk backward as far as possible on One (Plate 33); recover on Two. Legs are straight throughout. Cadence, slow. { ~ Ó & Plate 34. Plate $5. . (7) Starting position: Side straddle, hands on hips. Bend trunk to the right and rºse left arm overhead on One (Plate 34); recover on Two. Bend left and raise right arm overhead on Three; recover on Four. Cadence, slow. (8) Starting position: Side straddle, arms overhead, fingers laced. Bend trunk as PHYSICAL TRAINING 295 far as possible to the right on One (Plate 35); bend left on Two. Count four, recovering on the last count of the last sequence. Cadence, slow. (9) Starting position: Hands on hips. Bend trunk 90° forward on One; bend trunk as far backward as possible on Two, legs straight. Count four, recovering on the last count of the last sequence. Cadence, fast. (10) Starting position: Hands on hips. Bend trunk to right as far as possible on One; bend to the left on Two. Count four, recovering to the starting position on the last count of the last sequence. Cadence, fast. e. Shoulder exercises. (1) Starting position: Arms to thrust. Raise shoulders as high as possible on One; lower on Two. Cadence, optional. (2) Starting position: Arms to Thrust. Move shoulders as far forward as possible on One; move shoulders as far to the rear as possible on Two. Count four, recovering to the starting position on the last count of the last sequence. Cadence, slow. (3) Starting position: Hands on shoulders. Move elbows as far forward as possible on One; move elbows as far to the rear as possible on Two. Count four, recovering to the starting position on the last count of the last sequence. Cadence, slow. (4) Starting position: Arms to thrust. Move shoulders forward on One: upward on Two; backward on Three; recover on Four. Cadence, slow. (5) Starting position: Attention. Curl shoulders as far forward as possible on One; curl them as far to the rear as possible on Two. Count four, recovering to the starting position on the last count of the last sequence. As the shoulders curl forward, the backs of the hands turn inward; as the shoulders curl backward, the backs of the hands turn outward and rearward until the palms are facing to the sides. Cadence, very slow. f. Neck exercises. (1) Starting position: Hands on hips (or Attention). Turn head as far as possible to the right on One; recover on Two; turn head as far as possible to the left on Three; recover on Four. Drawl the first and third counts, making the second and fourth snappy. (2) Starting position: Attention (or Hands on hips). Revolve head in a complete circle to the right for four counts, then left for four counts. The head is bent forward and rotated entirely around reaching the front bent position before starting the second count. The movement is repeated on Two, etc. Cadence, very slow. (3) Starting position: Attention (or Hands on hips). Stretch neck as far forward as possible on One; recover on Two; stretch neck rearward on Three; recover on Four. Cadence, slow to moderate. In this exercise the head is held erect throughout, eyes to the front. (4) Starting position: Fingers laced in rear of head, elbows to the front. Push head well forward and downward on One, resisting the pressure with the neck muscles; recover on Two; bend the head well backward on Three, resisting with the hands; recover on Four. Cadence, very slow. (5) Starting position: Fingers laced in rear of head, head bent well forward. Turn head to the right on One, resisting by pressing downward with the hands; recover on Two; turn left on Three; recover on Four. Cadence, very slow. g. Balancing exercises. (1) Starting position: Attention, then rise on toes. Swing right leg well forward on One; swing right leg well rearward on Two; forward on Three; recover on Four; swing left 'eg well forward on Five; rearward on Six; forward on Seven; recover on Eight. Do not lower heels to the ground during this exercise. The legs are straight throughout. (2) Starting position: Hands on hips; then rise on toes. Bend body 90° forward on One; recover on Two; bend backward as far as possible on Three; recover on Four. Cadence, optional. Do not lower the heels to the ground during this exercise. The legs are straight throughout. (3) Starting position: Arms overhead; then rise on toes. Bend body well to the right on One; recover on Two: left on Three; recover on Four. Cadence, optional. Do not lower heels to the ground during this exercise. (4) Starting position: Hands on hips. Bend trunk to the right on One, raising 296 PHYSICAL TRAINING left leg (Plate 36); recover on Two; bend left on Three, raising right leg; recover on Four. Cadence, very slow. (5) Starting position: Squatting position. Raise body off the ground on One, bal- ancing weight of body on arms (Plate 37); hold this position for the next three counts, lowering on Four. Cadence, very slow. Plate 86. Plate $7. h. Coordinating exercises. (1) Starting position: Arms to thrust. Thrust arms for- ward on One; recover on Two; thrust arms sideward on Three; recover on Four; thrust arms overhead on Five; recover on Six; thrust arms downward on Seven; recover on Eight. Cadence, fast. (2) Starting position: Hands on shoulders. Extended the right arm sideward and the left arm forward on One; recover on Two; extend the left arm sideward and the right arm forward on Three; recover on Four. Cadence, optional. (3) Starting position: Attention. Move arms to vertical flex (Plate 38) on One; raise right arm overhead on Two; raise left arm overhead on Three; lower left arm to vertical flex on Four; lower right arm to vertical flex on Five; move both arms to hori- PHYSICAL TRAINING 297 zontal flex on Six (Plate 39); return both arms to vertical flex on Seven; recover to at- tention on Eight. Cadence, optional. (4) Starting position: Attention. Raise right arm forward and overhead and left arm sideward and overhead on One; recover on Two; raise right arm sideward and overhead and left arm forward and overhead on Three; recover on Four. Cadence, optional. Plate (10. (5) Starting position: Attention. Raise right leg forward and right arm sideward on One; recover on Two; raise left leg sideward and left arm forward on Three; recover on Four; raise right leg sideward and right arm forward on Five; recover on Sir; raise left leg forward and left arm sideward on Seven; recover on Eight. Cadence, optional. i. Combined exercises. Some of the exercises in this group do not lend themselves readily to a precise and military manner of performance. A few of them will have to be done entirely “at will.” This in no way detracts from their physiological value. (1) Starting position: Hands on shoulders. Rise on toes and extend arms overhead on One; recover on Two. Cadence, optional. (2) Starting position: Arms to thrust. Bend knees to one-quarter bent position on One, heels remaining on ground; continue bending knees to the half bent position on Two, rising on toes; continue bending knees to the full bent position on Three, at same time forcibly striking arms to side horizontal; recover on Four. Cadence, optional. ! 32. < \ (3) Starting position: Side straddle, arms overhead. Bend trunk forward and swing arms forcibly between legs as far as possible to the rear on One (Plate 40); recover on Two. Drawl the counts. Cadence, slow. (4) Starting position: Side straddle, hands on shoulders. Bend trunk fully forward 298 PHYSICAL TRAINING on One, extending arms downward until hands touch the ground; recover on Two; bend backward as far as possible on Three, extending arms to the side horizontal, palms up; recover on Four. The knees are straight throughout. Cadence, slow. (5) Starting position: Squatting position. Extend the right leg straight to the rear on One (Plate 41); recover on Two; extend the left leg to the rear on Three; recover on Four. Cadence, optional. g (6) Starting position: Attention. Hop to the side straddle on One, bringing arms sideward and overhead; recover on Two. Cadence, very fast. This exercise should be performed without pausing between any counts and should be performed until rapid breathing results. (7) Starting position: Lie on back clasping knees (Plate 42). Rock back and forth in this doubled up position at least 20 times. This is an excellent exercise for limbering, massaging, and toning up the back muscles. It is so easy to do that it can, and should be, continued for some seconds (at least 20 complete rocking motions). It is difficult to perform in cadence, hence may be done “at will.” (8) Starting position: Side straddle, arms sideward. Bend trunk forward on One, touching floor between feet with fingers of right hand (Plate 43); recover on Two; bend trunk forward on Three, touching floor with fingers of left hand; recover on Four. The knees are straight throughout and the arms remain in the plane of the shoulders through- out, hence the trunk must twist right or left as it bends forward. Cadence, optional. (9) Starting position: Hands on hips. Extend right arm forward on One, at the same time swinging left leg forward and upward until the foot touches the right PHYSICAL TRAINING 299 hand; recover on Two; extend left arm forward on Three and swing right leg up until foot touches the left hand; recover on Four. The knees are straight and the trunk is held erect throughout. Cadence, optional. (10) Starting position: Side straddle, arms overhead. Bend trunk obliquely to the right on One, swinging arms downward, rearward and up in rear as high as possible; recover on Two; bend trunk obliquely left on Three, swinging arms as on One; recover on Four. The knees are straight throughout. Cadence, optional. §, ,& ~% NS P Plate 44. (11) Starting position: Attention (or Hands on hips). Lunge well forward on right leg on One, at the same time raising arms to side horizontal, palms up (Plate 44); recover on Two; lunge forward on left leg on Three, raising arms to side horizontal, palms up; recover on Four. The trunk is held erect throughout and the leg remaining to the rear on each lunge is held straight. Cadence, slow to moderate. (12) Starting position: Attention (or Hands on hips). Lunge sideward right on right leg on One, raising arms to side horizontal, palms up (Plate 45); recover on Two; lunge sideward left on Three, arms to the side horizontal; recover on Four. The trunk is held erect throughout and the leg remaining behind on the lunge is straight. Cadence, slow to moderate. Plate 45. (13) Starting position: Attention (or Hands on hips). Lunge obliquely to the left on One, raising arms to side horizontal, palms up; bend trunk and encircle left thigh with arms on Two (Plate 46); recover to the position described in One (lunge position) 300 PHYSICAL TRAINING on Three; recover on Four; same to the right oblique on Five, Six, Seven, and Eight. The leg remaining behind on the lunge is straight. Cadence, slow to moderate. (14) Starting position: Side straddle, arms sideward. Bend trunk sideward right on One, swinging left arm upward and right arm downward and bending right knee slightly (Plate 47); recover on Two; same to left on Three and Four. Cadence, slow. Plate 46. (15) Starting position: Attention. Swing arins inward and upward to the over- head position on One, rising up on toes to the fullest extent and stretching the entire body; swing arms outward, backward and downward on Two, lowering along the out- side edge of the feet until the heels touch the ground. Drawl both counts. Cadence, slow. The inhalation should be made as the arms are raised and the exhalation as they are lowered. This is a combined breathing, stretching, and foot (arch) exercise. Plate (d. (16) Starting position: Squatting position. Extend the right leg straight to the right on One (Plate 48); recover on Two; extend the left leg straight to the left on Three; recover on Four. Cadence, optional. (17) Starting position: Deep knee bend position, arms sideward, palms up. Bounce up and down on the toes at the same time circling the arms in small circles (hand de- scribing about 12” circles), in an upward, backward, and downward motion. Count four, making each count come as the arms reach the high point of their circles, which should be the time when the feet reach their high point ël. 3 inches off the ground). Cadence, optional. (18) Starting position: Attention (or Hands on hips). Bend to the squatting posi. tion on One; move both legs laterally to the side straddle position on Two (Plate 49); recover to the squatting position on Three, and to the starting position on Four. Cadence, moderate. PHYSICAL TRAINING 301 (19) Starting position: Attention (or Hands on hips). Bend to the squatting posi- tion on One; extend legs straight to the rear and assume the leaning rest position on Two (Plate 50); recover to the squatting position on Three; recover to attention on Four. Cadence, optional. In the leaning rest position, the arms are straight and vertical; the back and legs are straight; the feet are together; and the head is up with the eyes to the front. (20) Starting position: Lying flat on the back, arms along sides legs straight and together. Rise up to the sitting position on One, extending arms forward and bending body forward until the hands touch the toes; lower back to the ground on Two. Drawl both counts. Cadence, very slow. In rising to the sitting position, the legs should be kept in contact with the ground and the knees held stiff. Nore. It is difficult to assume the above starting position in a military manner, that is “by the numbers”. It can be done, however, and the quickest way is as follows: Bend to the squatting position on One; move legs through arms to sitting position on Two; lie back on Three. - -- - ~. . *r * --———-TTT Plate 50. (21) Starting position: Lying flat on the back, arms along sides, legs together. Raise both legs, knees straight, up overhead on One touching the toes to the ground behind the head (Plate 51); bring legs back down to the starting position on Two. Drawl both counts. Cadence, very slow. This exercise should be performed at least 10 times. Plate 51. (22) Starting position: Sitting position on the ground, arms to the side horizontal, legs spread 45°. +. trunk to the right on One, touching the right foot with the left hand; twist to the left on Two, touching the left foot with the right hand; continue in this manner until completion of exercise, returning to the starting position on last count 302 PHYSICAL TRAINING of last sequence. The arms are kept in the plane of the shoulders throughout. Cadence, optional. (23) Starting position: Prone position on ground, hands beside chest. Extend the arms to the fullest on One, arching the back as much as possible while keeping the hips in contact with the ground (Plate 52); lower on Two. This is an excellent back stretching and limbering exercise. Drawl both counts. Cadence, very slow. NoTE. The prone position can be reached in cadence as follows: Bend to the squatting position on One; extend the legs and assume the "-aning rest position on Two; lower to the ground on Three. Plate 52. (24) Starting position: Lying flat on the back, arms along sides, legs together and straight. Raise right leg up to the vertical position on One; lower right leg and raise the left leg to the vertical position on Two; perform in a continuous manner for as many counts as desired, returning to the starting position on the last count of the final sequence. This exercise should be performed for at least 10 sequences of 4 counts each. In lowering the leg to the ground as the other leg is raised, contact with the ground Plate 53. should not be made; the foot should halt about 3 inches off the ground. Cadence, optional. (25) Starting position: Prone position with the arms overhead, palms on the ground. Raise legs, arms, and chest as high off the ground as possible on One, legs and arms straight (Plate 53); hold body in this position and open legs out wide while moving arms to the sides horizontal on Two (Plate 54); return to the position of One on Three; lower to the prone position on Four. Cadence, optional. (This exercise is an excellent one fol strengthening the lower back, especially the sacroiliac region). 26) Starting position: Lying on the back, arms along the tides, legs together and rtraight. Raise the legs slightly off the ground and hold. Now start a “bicycling” action PHYSICAL TRAINING 303 by drawing alternate knees back as far as possible while keeping the feet just off the ground throughout. Count four, the count of One coming as the right knee is drawn back (Plate 55); the count of Two coming as the left knee is drawn back and the right leg extended, etc. This exercise is very strenuous but should be performed for at least 10 sequences of 4 counts each. Cadence, optional. (27). Starting position: Prome position, arms locked behind the back. Raise the chest and the legs as high as possible, keeping knees stiff, and start rocking forward and backward on the stomach. It is difficult to do this exercise in cadence, hence it should be performed “at will”, continuing it for at least 20 seconds. Plate 56. (28) Starting position: Lying flat on the back, legs together, knees drawn up, feet on the ground, arms folded across the chest. Lift entire torso off the ground on One, so that the back is well arched and the body weight is supported at two points only, the head and the feet (Plate 56); lower to the starting position on Two. Drawl both counts. Cadence, very slow. This exercise should be performed about 10 times. It is an ex- cellent neck and back exercise. Plate 57. (29) Starting position: Lying flat on the back, knees drawn up, feet on the ground, hands beside head with palms on the ground. Raise body up off the ground on One, so that the back is well arched and the body weight is supported at two points only, the hands and the feet (Plate 57); lower to the starting position on Two. When the back is in the arched position, the arms are straight. Drawl both counts. Cadence, very slow. This exercise should be performed about 10 times. (30) Starting position: Lying flat on the back, knees drawn up, feet on the ground, fingers laced in rear of head. Holding the head down against the ground and the knees 304 PHYSICAL TRAINING drawn up, curl the trunk and bring the knees up on One, touching the chest, shoulders, or chin (Plate 58); lower to the starting position on Two. Drawl both counts. Cadence, very slow. This exercise should be performed about 15 times. It is one of the best stomach exercises known, if properly performed. Do not use the legs to help the body bend and do not raise the head off the ground at any time. The hips should come up well off the ground on One. This exercise will be difficult to perform properly at first but practice will strengthen the stomach muscles so that it can be done properly. Plate 59. (31) Starting position: Sitting position on ground, legs extended together, hands clasping the legs below the knee. Bend trunk forward on One, pulling the trunk down as far as possible with the arms, touching the forehead to the knees (Plate 59); recover to the starting position on Two. The legs are held straight throughout. Drawl the first count, making the second count snappy. Cadence, very slow. This is a difficult exercise for some individuals to perform, (those having stiff backs), but anyone can learn to do it. It is best to do the exercise “at will” at first. This is an excellent back limbering exercise and when the individual can accomplish it without too much pulling by the arms, it becomes, as well, an excellent stomach exercise. It should be performed at least 10 times. *S, 2 / | | |Plate 60. (32) Starting position: The leaning rest fºliº (Plate 50). Lower the body to the ground on One (Plate 60); recover on Two. The back is straight throughout. Cadence, optional. This exercise should be performed at least 12 times. This is an excellent arm, shoulder, and back strengthening exercise. It is commonly called “push 92 ups’. (33) Starting position: Attention. Bend to the squatting position on One; extend legs to the leaning restſ: on Two (Plate 50); lower to the prone position on Three (Plate 60); recover to the leaning rest on Four; recover to the squatting position on Five; PHYSICAL TRAINING 305 recover to attention on Six. Cadence, optional. This exercise is a variation of exercise (32) above. (34) Starting position: Attention. Bend to the squatting position on One; extend legs to the leaning rest on Two (Plate 50); lower to the prone position on Three, at the same time raising the right leg, knee stiff (Plate 61); recover to the leaning rest on Four; lower to the prone position on Five, at the same time raising the left leg, knee stiff; recover to the leaning rest on Six; recover to squatting position on Seven; recover to attention on Eight. Cadence, optional. This exercise is a variation of exercises (32) and (33) above. It should be performed for at least six sequences of eight counts each. (35) Starting position: Squatting position. Extend the right leg straight to the rear on One; draw up the right leg to the starting position on Two, at the same time extending the left leg straight to the rear. Continue in this manner. Count four. Cadence, fast. This exercise is strenuous if performed, as it should be, for at least 10 sequences of 4 counts each. It is similar to exercise (5) above of this group except that it is done alternating the legs in a manner similar to running. (See Plate 41). (36) Starting position: Squatting position. Extend the right leg straight to the right on One; bring right leg back to the starting position on Two, at the same time extending the left leg straight to the left. Continue in this manner. Count four. Cadence, optional. In performing this exercise, it is necessary to support the body weight on the arms for that instant when the one leg is brought back while the other is being extended. It is a strenuous exercise if performed, as it should be, for at least eight sequences of four counts each. Plate 62. (37) Starting position: Side leaning rest on right arm, left hand on hip (Plate 62). Lower body to the ground on One, keeping the right arm straight and the body in the same plane as at the start (facing to the left); recover to the starting position on Two. Cadence, slow. This exercise should be performed for at least four sequences of four counts each on each side; that is, four sequences on the right side and four on the left. This is an excellent exercise to strengthen the hip girdle and the muscles of the sides. /~) (- (. (38) Starting position: Lying flat on the back, arms extended along the sides with the hands about 12 inches from hips. Raise the legs, knees stiff, to the vertical on One; lower the legs, knees stiff, to the right until the feet touch the floor on Two (Plate 63); raise the legs up to the vertical on Three: lower the legs to the left side on Four; raise 306 PHYSICAL TRAINING the legs to the vertical on Five; lower the legs to the starting position on Six. Drawl all counts. Cadence, very slow. This is an excellent exercise for strengthening the hip girdle, lower abdominal region, and lower back region. It should be performed for at least five sequences of six counts each. (39) Starting position: Deep knee bend position with the arms folded in front and held horizontal. Extend the right leg fully to the front on One; extend the left leg fully to the front on Two, at the same time returning the right leg to the starting position. Continue in this manner, extending alternate legs forward in a continuous sequence. Cadence, moderate to fast. Count four. This is a difficult exercise to perform at first but is quickly learned. It is the so-called “Russian step”, and is an excellent exercise for the legs and back. It should be performed for at least six sequences of four counts each, returning to the starting position on the last count of the last sequence (Plate 64). Plate 64. (40) Starting position: Lying flat on the back, arms extended along the ſider with the hands about 12 inches from the hips. Raise the legs, knees stiff, straight up and overhead until feet are nearly overhead on One; swing legs around to the right close to the floor in a circling motion, so that the feet pass the starting position on Two; continue swinging the legs over to the left and up overhead so that the feet reach the overhead position on Three; continue swinging legs to the right, passing the starting position on Four; continue swinging the legs to the left and up until they reach the overhead position on Five; return the legs to the starting position on Six. Repeat in a like manner, swing the legs in opposite direction (to the left on two). Drawl all counts. Cadence, very slow. The legs should be straight throughout with the feet always about 4 inches off the floor as the legs are circled. This is an excellent exercise for strengthening the hip girdle, the entire back, and the entire abdominal region. It is strenuous, but should be performed for at least four sequences of six counts each (2 sequences each direction). In learning this exercise, it may be necessary at first to bend the knees slightly to relieve strain until the muscles become stronger. j. Breathing exercises. Breathing exercises are of little value unless they are given at a time when the body is laboring more or less for breath, that is, immediately after a good “work-out” in setting-up exercises or other forms of exercise. Hence they are placed last in this grouping of exercises. Their purpose is to teach the men to breathe deeply, slowly, and fully after exercise to enable them quickly to regain a normal state of physical composure. Breathing exercises should always be done very slowly and never repeated to the point where dizziness sets in through absorption of too much oxygen. This state is unlikely to occur if the body is in real need of oxygen at the time of giving the breathing exercise. Breathing exercises should impress upon the men the necessity for breathing slowly, and hence deeply. If one learns to breath more slowly, he involuntarily breathes more deeply in order to obtain the same amount of oxygen. The lung capacity will be increased, which is beneficial not only under normal exertion, but especially so when strenuous exercise or work is undertaken. PHYSICAL TRAINING 307 (1) Starting position: Attention. Raise the arms sideward and upward to the overhead position on One, while inhaling as deeply as possible; lower the arms on Two, exhaling fully in a natural manner, resembling a sigh. The exhalation should not be too forceful since this is unnatural and strained. (2) Same exercise as (1) above except raising the arms forward and upward to the overhead position. (3) Starting position: Lying on the back, arms along the sides. Inhale as fully as possible on One, while raising the arms upward and overhead; exhale fully on Two, as the arms are brought to the starting position. Cadence, very slow. The exhalation should be done in a natural manner resembling a sigh (1) above. (4) Starting position: Attention. Relax completely, and move the shoulders forward on One, while exhaling fully; resume the position of attention on Two, while inhaling deeply; exhale on Three and resume a normal attitude. Cadence, very slow. (5) Starting position: Attention. Bend the trunk 45° forward on One, in a sagging manner, at the same time exhaling fully; resume the position of attention on Two, while inhaling deeply; exhale on Three and resume a normal attitude. Cadence, very slow. 50. Marching Exercises. a. In all marching, at whatever cadence, the feet should be so planted on the ground that the toes point straight ahead (neither pigeon-toed nor sprayfooted). b. Most of the marching exercises are, for the convenience of the instructor, described by giving the commands necessary for the group to execute each exercise followed by a brief description of the exercise. Those which may be performed at the double time are so indicated. All others should be performed either at quick time or at a still slower cadence (if the exercise so necessitates). The exercises are as follows: (1) 1. On toes, 2. MARCH. The group rises on the toes and marches in this manner. This exercise may be performed at the double time. (2) 1. On toes with knees straight, 2. MARCH. (3) 1. Extend legs ankle high, 2. MARCH. As each leg is extended forward in turn, the knee is straightened so that the foot is about 4 inches off the ground at the fullest extension. (4) 1. Extend legs knee high, 2. MARCH. As each leg is extended forward in turn, it is straightened and raised so that the foot is about knee high from the ground. (5) 1. Extend legs waist high, 2. MARCH. As each leg is extended forward in turn, it is straightened and raised so that the foot is waist high from the ground. (6) 1. Raise heels, 2. MARCH. As each foot is planted in turn, the body rises on that foot so that its weight is momentarily supported on the toes of that foot. The motion is a springing or bouncing action. This exercise may be performed at the double time. (7) 1. Raise knees, 2. MARCH. As each leg is extended forward in turn, the knee is bent and raised as high as possible. This exercise may be performed at the double time. (8) 1. Circle legs forward, 2. MARCH. As each leg is extended forward in turn, it is circled around to and across the front of the body, knee high, leg straight. (9) 1. Toes inward, 2. MARCH. The feet are turned inward in a “pigeon-toes” manner. This is an excellent arch strengthening exercise. (10) 1. On ankles, 2. MARCH. Turn the feet so that the weight of the body is supported on the outer edge of the soles of each shoe and march with the feet thus turned. The toes remain pointed straight ahead. This is an excellent arch and ankle strengthening exericse. (11) 1. Cross step, 2. MARCH. As the legs are extended forward in turn, they are crossed in front of the body. The body does not turn. This exercise may be done at the double time. (12) 1. Continuous change step, 2. MARCH. The left foot is advanced and planted; the toes of the right are then advanced near the heel of the left and planted; the left foot is then advanced about half a step (15 inches) and the right foot is advanced with . the full step and planted; the toes of the left foot are then brought up to the heel of the right foot, which advances a half step, when the left foot is advanced a full step, etc. 308 PHYSICAL TRAINING (13) 1. Knee-rocking step, 2. MARCH. As each foot is planted, it is accompanied by a slight bending and the straightening of the corresponding knee, the other leg re- maining fully extended, heel raised. (14) 1. Lunging step, 2. MARCH. The length of the step is 45 inches, the knee in advance being well bent, the other leg remaining fully extended, heel raised; trunk erect. (15) 1. Cross step, raising knees, 2. MARCH. Execute the cross step and raise the knees. The cross step may also be executed in combination with the swings of the extended leg. (16) 1. Continuous change step hop. 2. MARCH. Execute the ordinary change step, hopping with the change. (17) 1. Forward Gallop hop, 2. MARCH. The left foot is advanced and planted; the right foot is brought up in rear and planted; this is done four times in succession. The same is done four times with the right foot in advance, etc. (18) 1. Hands on shoulders, 2. PLACE, 3. Extend arms upward and rise on right (left) toe, 4. MARCH. (19) 1. Hands on hips, 2. PLACE, 3. Swing extended legs forward, breast high, and extend arms on same side forward, 4. MARCH. The foot and hand come in contact. (20) 1. To the squatting position, hands on hips, 2. BEND, 3. In that position, forward, 4. MARCH. (21) 1. To the squatting position, hands on the ground, 2. BEND, 3. “Bear walk,” 4. MARCH. The hand and foot on the same side move forward simultaneously. (22) 1. To the squatting position, hands on the ground, 2. BEND, 3. “Kangaroo hop” forward, 4. MARCH. The hands are moved forward, followed by the feet, in a series of short hops. c. The following setting-up exercises listed in paragraph 49 may be performed while marching: (The first six exercises may be performed at the double time.) (1) Setting-up exercise, paragraph 49a(1). 2) Setting-up exercise, paragraph :3} § Setting-up exercise, paragraph 49a(3). 4) Setting-up exercise, paragraph 49a(6). § Setting-up exercise, paragraph 49a(8). (6) Setting-up exercise, paragraph 49a (10). % Setting-up exercise, paragraph 49d (4). 51. Personal Contests. There are many personal contests suitable for use in physical training. The instructor should not hesitate to use others, not listed. a. Indian wrestling. Contestants lie upon the ground face up, right shoulders in close contact, right elbows locked; at one, the right leg is raised overhead and lowered; this is repeated at two; and at three the leg is raised quickly and locked with the #. right leg. The object is to roll the opponent over by forcing his leg down (Plate 65). b. Back-to-back lift. Place two contestants standing back to back with elbows linked. At signal, each, by pulling and bending forward, attempts to lift the other off the floor. PHYSICAL TRAINING 309 Either contestant lifted off the floor loses the bout. Three bouts constitute a match. The contestant successful in two is the winner. c. Back-to-back push. Place two contestants standing back to back with elbows locked. Establish a line 10 feet in front of each contestant. At signal, each, by pushing backward, attempts to push the other over his (the opponent's) base line. The contestants are not allowed to lift and carry their opponents—pushing only is permitted. Either contestant pushed over his own base line loses the bout. Three bouts constitute a match. The contestant successful in two is the winner. d. Back-to-back tug. Place two contestants so they stand back to back with both arms linked at the elbows. Establish a line 10 feet in front of each contestant. At signal, each contestant attempts to drag the opponent over his base line. Lifting and carrying of the opponent are permitted. The contestants must maintain their original positions with arms linked. Either contestant carried across his opponent's base line loses. Three bouts constitute a match; the contestant successful in two wins. e. Drake flight. Place two contestants facing each other at a distance of 4 feet. Have each contestant lean forward and grasp his ankles with both hands. At signal, each moves forward and by butting, shouldering, and sidestepping, attempts to compel the other to fall over or release his hands. Either contestant falling over or releasing either hand loses the bout. Three bouts constitute a match; the contestant successful in two W1ſlS. f. Hand wrestle. Place two contestants so they stand with feet firmly spread in the stride position, each contestant with his right foot forward, touching the outside of his opponent's right foot. Have the contestants grasp right hands. At signal, each attempts by pulling, pushing, turning and twisting of hands, to overbalance his opponent or com- pel him to move either foot from its original position. The left hand must not be used against the opponent. Either contestant forced to touch the ground with any part of his body other than his feet, or forced to move either foot loses the bout. If the contestants break their grasp, they rejoin hands at once. Five bouts constitute a match; the contestant successful in three wins. g. One-man pull. Place two contestants so they face each other at a distance of 3 feet. Establish a line 10 feet in back of each contestant; the line in back of each contestant is that contestant's base line. Have each contestant grasp his opponent's two wrists with his own hands. At signal, each contestant attempts to pull his opponent back across his base line. Either contestant pulled across his opponent's base line loses. The contestants must not grasp each other except by the hands and wrists. In case the hands become separated they should be rejoined as in the beginning, at the point of separation. Three bouts constitute a match; the contestant successful in two bouts wins. h. One-man push. Place two contestants so they face each other at a distance of 3 feet. Establish a line 10 feet in back of each contestant; the line in back of a contestant is that contestant's base line. Have each contestant place his hands on the shoulders of his opponent. At signal, each contestant attempts to push his opponent back across his opponent's base line. Only straight pushing is allowed. Either contestant pushed across his own base line loses the bout. Three bouts constitute a match; the contestant successful in two wins. i. Roman wrestle. Two teams of two players each take part in this contest. Have one player of each team sit astride the hips of the other player and lock his feet in front. Place the two “horses” facing each other at a distance of 5 feet. At signal, the two “horses” move forward so that the “riders” can reach each other. Each “rider” attempts to overthrow his opponent. The “horses” are not allowed to help the “riders” in any way nor to interfere with each other. Their only duty is to hold the “riders.” The “riders” are allowed to use all fair wrestling tactics; they are not allowed to interfere with the “horses.” Either “rider” forced to touch the floor in any way, either forced down from his “horse” or overthrown with his “horse,” loses. If the two “riders” go down together, the one touching the floor first loses. Three bouts constitute a match; the con- testant successful in two bouts wins. j. Rooster fight. Place two contestants so they stand facing each other at a distance 310 PHYSICAL TRAINING of 5 feet. Have each stand on the right foot, clasp the left foot with the left hand, place the right arm across the front, and clasp the biceps of the left arm. At signal, each contestant hops forward and attempts by bucking, side-stepping, etc., to overthrow his opponent or compel him to release his grasp on the unheld foot. The contestants are not allowed to use their left hands against each other. Either contestant committing any of these acts loses the bout. If both contestants commit any of them on the same occasion, the one doing so first loses the bout. Five bouts constitute a match; the contestant successful in three is the winner. 52. Group Games. The group games listed in this manual are classified as relay games, circle games, and miscellaneous games. There are many games which are not listed and the instructor should not hesitate using others or making variations in the ones given. 53. Running Relay Games. a. Lane Method. (1) Medicine ball relay. Equipment needed: One medicine ball for each team participating. (Any kind of ball or similar object can be used in place of the medicine ball.) Formation: Column of files about 10 feet apart, each made up of an equal number of men. Players stand in the stride- stand position with the ball on the line in front of the first contestant. The man at the head of each column should be indicated in some well-defined way, such as wearing no olive drab shirt. At the start the ball is rolled back (or object passed) between the legs of the contestants in the column until it reaches the back of the column. There it is picked up by the end man who carries it forward on the left (or right) side of his column to the distance line, which he must touch. He then returns to the front of his column where he faces about and starts the ball (or passes the object) back between his own legs toward the back of the column where it is picked up by the last man who re- peats the performance of the preceding last man. After every man has carried the ball forward, the last man finishes the race when he crosses the distance line. (2) Sprint relay. No equipment needed. Formation: Column of files. The first man of each column runs to (or around) a given point and returns to starting line, where he hands baton (belt, handkerchief, stick, or any other small object) to the second man of his column. The second man repeats the run and brings baton back to third man. Continue in like manner until all men have run. Men fall in line in order at the foot of their respective columns immediately after finishing their runs. Men must receive baton at, or back of, starting line. The last man of each column should be indicated in some well-defined way. (3) Down-and-up. No equipment needed. Entire team spread legs at signal. First man in column passes some object between his legs to next man, who passes it on. Last man in column yells “down” when he gets the object, and with legs astraddle runs forward over the other men who have crouched to the ground. When he reaches the front of the column, the other men rise and the object is passed back between the legs, etc., until all have taken it forward. (4) Obstacle race. Equipment needed: Natural obstacles, etc. Obstacles of all kinds are placed in front (things to crawl under, jump over, vault, climb through, or run around). First man makes circuit and finishes at starting line. Second man receives baton and repeats, and so on. (5) Centipede relay. Equipment needed: One tent pole or broomstick for each team competing. Two men get astride a pole held by both hands or both men (one hand in front and one hand in back). They run forward to, or around, a given point and return to the starting point, where they drop the stick. The next two men pick up the stick, adjust it in the same way, and proceed. This race may be modified by using a larger number of men on the stick. (6) Wheelbarrow race. No equipment needed. First man walks on hands, second man carries the feet of the first man. Advance to given point (about 30 feet in front). At this point men change positions (second man walking on hands, first man carrying feet of second man), and return to starting line. After first two men cross starting line the next two men start as described, and so on. (7) Overhead ball relay. Equipment needed: One medicine ball for each column. PHYSICAL TRAINING 311 Players stand at attention with the ball on the line in front of the column. At the start- ing signal the ball is passed back over the head by the first man to the second, and so on until 1t reaches the last man. (Every man in the column must grasp and pass the ball.} The last man carries the ball forward over the backs of the men in the column in front of him who assume a stooping position. As soon as he reaches the front of the line he runs to the distance line and, after touching it, returns to the front of the column and starts the back over his head. After every man has carried the ball forward, the last man finishes the race when he crosses the distance line. (8) Pig-a-back relay. No equipment needed. Players stand at attention. At the signal to start, No. 2 in the column leaps upon the back of No. 1, who carries him across the distance line in pig-a-back fashion. There he drops him. No. 1 remains be- hind the distance line. No. 2 rushes back and picks up No. 3 in the column and carries him beyond the distance line and No. 2 remains there. No. 3 rushes back and picks up No. 4, and so on. When the last man in the column has been carried across the distance line, the race is finished. (9) Football passing relay. Equipment needed: One football for each column. Each ball is placed on the starting line in front of the column. Players assume a stride- stand position. At the signal to go, the ball is passed from man to man. Each man must catch and pass the ball back between his legs until it reaches the last man in the column, who rushes forward across the 25-yard distance line. From that position he makes a forward pass to the front man in the column and runs to the front of the column. The front man upon catching the ball starts it back, passing it between his legs, until it gets to the rear of the column. The end man carries it forward and repeats the performance of the man who preceded him. The race ends when the last man in the column throws the ball back from beyond the distance line. The ball first crossing the starting line determines the winner. (10) In-and-out. Equipment needed: Medicine ball, basketball or similar ball. Players stand in the stride-stand position with the ball on the line in front of the first contestant. At the starting signal, the ball is rolled back between the legs of the men in the column until it reaches the back of the column where it is picked up by the end man who runs forward to the right of the man in front of him, to the left of the second, to the right of the third, etc., until he has reached the front line, whereupon he runs to the distance line which he touches. Returning to the front of the column, he starts the ball back between his legs. When each man has carried the ball forward, the last man finishes the race when he crosses the distance line. b. Shuttle method. (1) Rescue relay. No equipment needed. Each team is divided, one half in column of files at the starting line, the other half lying on their backs on line 20 yards in front. At a signal, the first man of cach team at the starting line runs to first man lying down, picks him up, and carries him to the starting place. Second man starts as first crosses the starting line. The team that gets all its men across starting line first wins the race. (2) Runs. Sprint relays of 50, 100, and 220 yards for each man, using the shuttle method, make very interesing relay races. Hurdle races and obstacle races of all kinds may be conducted using the shuttle method. c. Circle method. (1) Six-day bicycle race. Equipment needed: Four sticks for corner posts. Stake off field at four corners so that running about stakes will represent a track. Players are paired off, each pair representing a team. Players line up across track after drawing for places. At signal, one player mounts hips of his partner who runs forward around track. Players may exchange places (as rider and horse) at will, and as often as they like. Race may be made two laps, three laps, four laps, or more in length, depending on the distance around the track. Two hundred yards represents a good race. (2) Pursuit relay. A circular track from 40 to 60 yards in length is required for this race. Place the teams at starting points equally distant around the track. At signal, the first runner of each team, carrying a baton, runs forward around the track. On completing one lap, each runner passes the baton to the next player on his team; this runner repeats. Any runner catching up to and tagging another runner puts the 312 PHYSICAL TRAINING tagged runner and his team out of the race. (The runner so tagged should withdraw from the track at once.) The race continues in this way until one team is left; this team wins the race. If the relay is not decided by the time all of the players on a team have run, the players run again and again in their regular order until it is decided. 54. Jumping and Throwing Relay Games. Either the shuttle or accumulative method may be used in conducting #. following relays. a. Jumps. (1) Standing broad jump. (2) Running broad jump. (3) Standing hop, step and jump. (4) Running hop, step, and jump. b. Throws. (1) Shot put. (2) Baseball throw. (3) Basketball throw. (4) Medicine ball throw. § Football throw (or kick). 55. Circle Games. a. Games which do not require equipment. (1) Three deep. For- mation: Double circle facing in, the outside circle covering off the inside circle. Each pair should be 6 feet apart. One man is “it”. “It" chases another man, who may jump in front of any one of the men in the inside circle. He is then safe. The player in the rear of the one he jumped in front of is then the third party and “it” must chase him. The player being chased and “it” must keep on the outside of the circle except when jumping in front of player in inside circle. Player when tagged becomes “it” and must chase the one who tagged him. (2) Bull in the ring. No equipment needed. Formation: Group forms in a circle holding hands. One man who is termed the “bull” is placed in the center. If there are more than twenty men in the ring have two “bulls”. The “bull” tries to break out by charging the ring so the clasped hands are forced apart. If the “bull” gets out the players try to catch him. Player successful in catching the “bull” becomes “bull” and game continues. (3) Milling the man. No equipment needed. Formation: Groups of about fifteen men form small circle sitting close together facing in. One man is “it” in circle. With arms to sides, he stiffens his body and simulates a dead man falling; men in circle pre- vent his falling to ground, pushing him back and forth. If he falls, the man responsible becomes “it.” Body must be kept rigid to get best results. (4) Circle tag. Formation: Draw a circle about 4 feet in diameter on the ground. Players form a ring facing in about circle with arms about shoulders. At signal, the players attempt to draw other players into circle. Any player who steps into circle withdraws from game. Game continues until only a few men are left. (5) Master of the ring (15 to 30 players). Establish a circle 12 feet in diameter. Place all of the group inside the circle. Have each player fold his arms across his breast. At signal, each player attempts to push the others out of the circle. Any player touching the ground outside of the circle, falling to the ground, or unfolding his arms is eliminated and withdraws from the contest. The elimination continues until but one player remains; this player is the winner. b. Games requiring equipment. (1) Swat to right. Equipment needed: One or more soft swatters. Formation: Circle, facing in, shoulder to shoulder, hands behind back. One man, carrying swatter, runs around outside of circle and places the swatter in someone's hand. The man receiving it immediately hits the man at his right. The man who is hit runs around the circle until he is back to his starting position. The player with the swatter follows runner and swats him until he is in position. The player with the swatter then runs on and places the swatter in some other player's hand. The game can be varied by the use of two or more swatters simultaneously. (2) Mount ball. Equipment needed. Any ball similar to a basketball. Formation: Double circle, facing in; players of inside circle 4 feet apart, outside circle covering off inside circle. Outside circle are “riders", inside circle are “horses.” Riders mount on hips of horses. Horses must hold riders firmly. Riders pass medicine ball about; horses PHYSICAL TRAINING 313 endeavor to make riders drop ball. Horses must stay in place (shaking, sidestepping, wriggling, etc., are methods which may be used to make riders drop ball). Horses be. come riders and all riders become horses whenever any rider drops the ball. Heavy men should be paired together in this game. 56. Miscellaneous Games. a. Games which do not require equipment. (1) Marching tag. Two base lines 50 feet apart. The group is broken up into two units. These units form in line behind their base line facing each other. Unit No. 1 marches forward in this formation and continues so to march until a whistle is blown. The whistle is the signal for unit No. 1 to break ranks and run back to their base line before the men forming unit No. 2 can tag them. No. 2 men must stand at attention until the whistle is blown. Every man tagged before crossing his base line must line up with unit No. 2. Unit No. 2 then marches forward until a whistle is blown, and is chased back behind its base line by unit No. 1. The line having the largest number of players after an equal number of trials wins the game. Nore. The officer in charge should judge distances carefully, and should gradually permit the marching line to approach closer and closer to the tagging line before blowing the whistle. The marching distances should be as nearly as possible the same for both teams. A good modification of the game is to have the tagging line stand with their backs toward the marching line, thereby necessitating a quick turn around. (2) Human tug-of-war. Formation: Column of files facing each other. Players stand close together, arms placed about waists of men in front (grasping left wrist with right hand is the strongest grip). Leading man of each team grasps opponent about neck and shoulders. Team breaking first or having one or more men pulled over the line separating the two teams after 30 seconds is the loser. (3) Circle race. Formation: Players distributed around a track equally distant apart (10 or 30 feet, varying with the number playing). At signal, each player runs forward trying to pass on the outside of the runner next in front of him, tagging as he passes. Any player tagged in this way drops out of the race. The tagger runs forward to tag the man next to his front, etc. Race continues until all are out but one. (4) Follow the leader. Formation: Column of files. Place someone who is more or less athletic in the lead. He starts off at a dog trot, the men following. The leader undertakes any reasonable hazard he can find, such as jumping ditches, vaulting fences, clambering over tree limbs, etc. Men who fail to do anything that the leader sets drop out. If the leader fails on anything he attempts, he is forced to withdraw. Only one attempt is allowed at a hazard. Game continues until all are out but one. The officer in charge should change leaders occasionally. (5) Paul Revere. Team strings out in column across field, 5 yards between men. One rider stands at the rear of the column. At the signal, the rider mounts astride the hips of the last man, who carries him forward to the player immediately in front of him. The rider is here transferred to the back of the second man. Transfer must take place without permitting the rider to touch the ground. Failure to do this disqualifies. Player at head of column carries the rider forward to a given point. b. Games requiring equipment. (1) Caterpillar race. Equipment needed: As many (tent) poles 12 feet long and 1% inches thick as there are squads in the company. Each squad will straddle the pole and grasp it with both hands, No. 1 of each squad on start- ing mark. At starting signal, each squad will run to finish line which should be about 75 yards away. Any man letting go of pole with either hand disqualifies his squad. (2) Rope tug-of-war. Equipment needed: One 1%-inch rope (60 to 150 feet) varying in length with number competing. Formation: Competing platoons line up facing the center along the rope. A handkerchief or piece of adhesive tape should be securely wrapped around middle of rope. A well defined line should be marked parallel to starting line and 6 feet from it on either side. The rope should be laid on the ground with the middle tape on the starting line. All contestants stand along rope not nearer than 8 feet to center tape, with hands raised over their heads, thumbs locked. At starting signal, men pick up rope and pull. Team pulling middle of rope over its own 6-foot line wins. If neither team has pulled middle of rope over its 6-foot line at expira. tion of 2 minutes, the team having middle of rope on its side of starting line wins. 314 PHYSICAL TRAINING No knots or loops may be made in the rope except that the anchor (end man) on either team may wrap rope around his body. Holes may not be dug in ground with feet or otherwise until after starting signal is given. Nore. In competitive meets, team winning two out of three pulls wins the match. (3) Medicine ball gap throw. Equipment needed: Medicine ball and two ropes. Formation: Two ropes are placed parallel about 20 feet apart. Men are arranged in column facing the parallel ropes, with the leading man of the column a short distance from the rope nearer the column. First player hurls ball across intervening gap. Style of throw should be stipulated before the beginning of the contest. All must throw alike. The other players follow until all have thrown. Gap is widened. Players throw again. Players failing to make a successful throw are eliminated. Elimination continues until winner is decided. Only one throw is allowed at each distance. (4) Cage ball. Equipment needed: Cage ball, two goals. Cage ball is a game for large groups. As many as 400 men can play at one time. It is not essential to have large groups for as few as 20 players on a side make a good match. Fifty to one hundred on a team make the best match, however. (a) The playing field is 140 feet long and 100 feet wide. The cages, one at either end of the field, are 10 feet above the ground, 30 feet long, and about 4 to 6 feet wide. These cages (or goals) are erected 10 feet inside the goal line. (b) To start the game, the ball is placed in the middle of the field and the two teams are lined up facing each other about 20 feet apart. The referee then explains the few important rules to each team. The two captains advance to the center of the field and take hold of the ball. When the referee blows the whistle and the game begins, the two captains struggle for possession of the ball and two teams rush for the ball The object of the game is to get the ball into the opponent's cage, by battling, punching, or throwing it. (c) Players are not allowed to kick or run with the ball, crowd or shove when the ball is on the ground, or touch the cage. (Penalty for breach of these rules: The ball is given to the offended team 30 feet from, and directly in front of, the opponent's cage. The penalized team may line up 10 feet in front of the ball. The referee's whistle continues the game from this position.) (d) When the ball goes out of bounds, play need not stop unless the referee thinks that it is too far away to make scoring possible. When the referee decides that the ball is too far away from the playing field, he brings it in to the side line and throws it into the air 20 feet inside the line. Four assistant umpires may stand on the boundary lines of the field and decide all plays when the ball goes out of the field proper. (e) One point is scored for each goal. The game lasts for one period of 30 minutes unless otherwise agreed upon. (5) Mass soccer football. (a) Soccer football, when played properly, according to the rules, requires much the same team work and passing as basketball except that the ball is kicked and advanced by the use of the feet, body and head, rather than by the hands as in the case of basketball. However, when the time for practice is limited, and when it is desired that large groups of men play, it is advisable to do away with all rules except the following: 1. No player except the goal tender should be allowed to pick up the ball, carry it, throw it, or hold it in his hands or arms. 2. No player should be allowed to kick, trip, hold, or rough another player at any time. (For a breach of these rules the offender is put out of the game and his team penalized by giving the ball to his opponents for a free kick at the point where the offense was committed.) (b) The best sized soccer field is about 60 yards wide and 100 yards long. The goal posts, erected in the ends of the field, are 24 feet apart and the cross bar 8 feet above the ground. The game can be played without goal posts, scoring in this case when ball goes over end lines. (e) Twenty-five or more men on each side make a good game. The players PHYSICAL TRAINING 315 on one side roll up their sleeves. For convenience these are named “whites,” while those with their sleeves down are named “browns,” or one side can take their shirts off and the other side leave them on. (d) The game is begun by the winner of the toss choosing the goal and kicking the ball from the ground from the middle of the field. After the kick-off, players may move anywhere on the field and are eligible to play the ball. After a score, the ball is kicked off by the losers from the center of the field. (e) To score a goal, where goals are erected, the ball must pass under the cross bar between the uprights. This counts five. If the ball goes over the end line outside the goal, it counts one. (f) When the ball goes out of bounds, that is, across the side lines, the first player recovering it may put it in play again by kicking it from the point where it went out. Player putting ball in play again from out of bounds is not permitted to kick it over goal line for a goal. Nore. From Ioo to 5oo men may participate in a game at one time by the simultaneous use of from four to eight balls (depending upon the number playing). Any ball which crosses a goal line is immediately dead and out of play. The game continues until all the balls are dead and out of play. The team scoring the largest aggregate number of points wins. There should be a referee for each ball. (6) Volley ball. Court: The playing surface is not more than 35 feet wide and 60 feet long. A net is stretched across the entire width of the court at the middle. The top of the net is 8 feet from the ground. Number of players: Team may consist of 20 or more players; 12 to a side makes a good number. The two teams line up on opposite sides of the court facing each other. A coin is tossed. The winner of the toss “serves” the ball. The object of the game is to volley the ball over the net to your opponents, so that it will hit the ground inside their court. If the side serving lands the ball safely within opponents' court; or if, after making a legitimate serve, its opponent fails to return the ball legitimately, one point is scored for the side serving. Only the team serving can score. If the team serving fails to land the ball in opponent's court, or if it fails legiti- mately to return the ball to the opponent's court, the side serving loses its serve and the other team serves. The player serving continues to serve until his team loses the serve. When his team again gets the serve, some other player will serve. Each player must take bis turn serving. The ball may be batted with one or both hands, but it must not touch the ground or go out of bounds. The ball may be played by any number of players before being batted over the net but no player shall play the ball twice in succession. A ball served into a net counts against the server. Any other ball may be played off the net. No player shall dribble the ball, hold it, catch it, or reach over the net to strike the ball. The first team to score 15 points is the winner. (7) Wrestle royal. Divide the group into two teams of equal numbers. Place the two teams in separate lines 15 feet apart, facing each other. Mark one team plainly, so both can be readily distinguished. At signal, both teams move forward. The players of each team attempt to throw their opponents so they (opponents) touch the ground with some part of the body other than their feet. Any player touching the ground in this way, from any cause whatsoever (accident, compulsion, or free will) is eliminated and withdraws from the field. Any number of players from one team may wrestle against any number of the opposing team; in other words, two, three, or more, may attack one. A player may throw any number of other players. If a player in going down drags an opponent with him both are eliminated. Once a player is down though, he should stop wrestling. The wrestling continues until all of one team have been thrown; the other team is the winner. (8) Military events. There are many purely military events which may be included in this part of the training program. Such events include “ent pitching contests, clothing (undressing and dressing) races, equipment races, grenade throwing, and gun drills. CHAPTER IV RIFLE EXERCISES 57. General. The object of these exercises, which may also be performed with wands or bar bells, is the development of the muscles of the arms, shoulders, and upper back, and, by accustoming the men to the weight of the rifle, to develop that “handiness” so es- sential to its successful use. When these exercises are combined with movements of other parts of the body they serve as a splendid, though rather strenuous, method for all- round development. As the weight of the piece is considerable, instructors are cautioned to be reasonable in their demands. Far better results are obtained if these exercises are performed at commands than when they are grouped and performed for spectacular purposes. 58. Starting Position. All the exercises start from the starting position, which is the low extended arm horizontal position of the rifle in front of the body; the right hand grasps the small of the stock and the left hand the barrel; the knuckles are turned to the front and the distance between the hands is slightly greater than the width of the shoulders. (Plate 66.) a. This position is assumed at the command 1. Starting, 2. POSITION. At the com- mand POSITION, the piece is brought to the port and lowered snappily to the front horizontal. Plate 66. Plate 67. Plate 68. b. To recover the position of order, command: 1. Order, 2. ARMS. The piece is first brought to the port and then ordered. * 59. Arm Exercises. a. Assume the starting position (Plate 66); all exercises are in two counts. The movement begins at the command EXERCISE, and is discontinued at HALT. (1) Raise piece to front extended arm horizontal. (2) Raise piece to high overhead, extended arm horizontal. (3) Raise piece to side horizontal, right or left. (Plate 67.) (4) Raise piece to front perpendicular, right or left hand up. (Plate 68.) (5) Raise piece to front bent arm horizontal, waist high. (6) Raise piece to front bent arm horizontal, shoulder high. (Plate 69.) (7) Raise piece to rear bent arm horizontal, on shoulders. (Plate 70.) (8) Raise piece to front bent arm horizontal, shoulder high, arms crossed, left over right or vice versa. (9) Raise piece to low side perpendicular, right or left, left or right hand up. (Plate 71.) (10) Raise piece to high side perpendicular, right or left. (Plate 72.) b. From front bent arm horizontal, shoulder high: (1) Thrust piece forward, upward, downward or sideward, right or left. (2) Thrust piece upward from rear, bent arm horizontal. 316 PHYSICAL TRAINING 317 c. From high extended arm horizontal: Circle piece from right to left, or from left to right. Describe complete circle parallel with the front of the body. 60. Arm Combinations. The following exercises consist of four movements, the third carrying the piece back to the first position, and the fourth to the starting position; in other words, the piece is carried back in reverse order at three and four. a. Raise piece to high extended arm horizontal; flex to the bent arm horizontal in front of shoulders and return in reverse order. b. Same as above except that the piece is brought to the shoulders in rear of head. c. Raise piece as in a above, lower to right horizontal, and return in reverse order. d. Same left. e. Raise piece to front bent arm horizontal, shoulder high; thrust piece upward, and return in reverse order. Plate 73. f. Same, thrusting piece forward or sideward right or left. g. Raise piece to front extended arm perpendicular, right hand up; reverse, bringing left hand up; reverse again and lower. 3. h. Raise piece to low side perpendicular, left hand up; change to high side perpen- dicular, right hand up; and return in reverse order. i. Same on the left. 3.18 PHYSICAL TRAINING j. Raise piece to front extended arm horizontal; cross and bend arms to front bent arm horizontal right over left; and return in reverse order. k. Raise piece to front bent arm horizontal, arms crossed, right over left; change by crossing left over right; reverse and down. 61. Arm, Leg, and Trunk Combinations. a. From the starting position: Each exercise in two counts. Plate 75. Plate 76. Plate 77. (1) Raise piece to front extended arm horizontal and bend knees quarter, half, or full. (2) Raise piece to high extended arm horizontal and raise on toes. (3) Raise piece as in (2) above and bend trunk forward. (4) Raise piece to rear bent arm horizontal on shoulders and bend trunk forward. (5) Raise piece to front perpendicular, left hand up, and bend trunk sideward right (Plate 73.) (6) Same to the left, right hand up. (7) Raise piece to high side perpendicular and bend trunk sideward left. (8) Same, piece on the left, bending trunk to the right. \- /*- \ º- * Plate 78. Plate 79. Plate 80. b. From front bent arm horizontal, shoulder high— (1) Thrust piece forward or upward and bend knees, quarter, half, or full, (2) Raise piece forward and upward and bend trunk forward. (3) Thrust piece sideward right and bend trunk sideward left. (4) Same reversed. PHYSICAL TRAINING 319 (5) Thrust piece forward and twist body to the left or right. (6) Thrust piece upward and bend trunk backward. (7) Thrust piece upward and hop to side straddle. (8) Thrust piece forward or upward and lunge forward right or left. (9) Thrust piece upward or forward and lunge obliquely forward right or left. (10) Thurst piece sideward left and lunge sideward right or left. (11) Thrust piece upward and lunge backward. (12) Thrust piece downward; lunge forward, and bend body forward. (Plate 74.) (13) Thrust piece upward; lunge backward and bend trunk backward. (Plate 75.) (14) Thrust piece side right and lunge and bend trunk sideward left. (Plate 76.) 62. Rifle Drill Combination. a. This combination is composed of three groups, each group containing four exercises, and together they form a combination which can be adapted to music. Plate 81. Plate 82. b. Each exercise is composed of four movements and should be executed four times, twice to the right and twice to the left, alternately. The third position always corresponds to the first, and the fourth, to the starting position. c. When performed to music employ “two-four” time, allowing two beats to every movement, or four measures to an exercise, the action occurring on the first beat with a pause in position during the second beat. If this is done and the tempo is made to suit the movements, it will be possible to execute the exercises with precision and vigor, and slurring a movement for the sake of keeping time will be eliminated. Every group should be preceded by an introduction of four measures. d. All exercises begin and end with the first or starting position. (Plate 66.) (1) First group. ; (a) First exercise. Counts. 1-2. Raise piece to bent arm front horizontal, shoulder high, and stride forward right. (Plate 77.) 3–4. Face to the left on both heels and extend piece upward. (Plate 78.) 5-6. Resume first position. 7-8. Resume starting position. Repeat left, right, left. (b) Second exercise. Counts. 1-2. Raise piece to extended high horizontal and stride sideward right. (Plate 79.) 3–4. Bend right knee and lower piece to left horizontal. (Plate 80.) 5-6. Resume first position. 7-8. Resume starting position. Repeat left, right, left. 320 PHYSICAL TRAINING (c) Third exercise. Counts. 1-2. Raise piece to high side perpendicular on the left, left hand up, and stride backward right. (Plate 81.) 3-4. Face about on heels and swing piece down and up to high side perpendicular on the right. (Plate 82.) 5-6. Resume first position. 7-8. Resume starting position. Repeat left, right, left. Plate 84. Plate 85. Plate 86. (d) Fourth exercise. Counts. 1-2. Raise piece to extended high horizontal, and stride obliquely forward right. (Plate 83.) 3-4. Face about on heels and lower piece to horizontal on shoulders. (Plate 84.) 5-6. Resume first position. 7-8. Resume starting position. Repeat left, right, left. (2) Second group. Plate 88. Plate 89. (a) First exercise. Counts. 1-2. Lower piece to front extended horizontal and bend trunk forward. (Plate 85.) 3-4. Lunge obliquely forward right and raise piece to right oblique, left hand at shoulder. (Plate 86.) * 5-6. Resume first position. 7-8. Resume starting position. Repeat left, right, left. PHYSICAL TRAINING 321 (b) Second exercise. Counts. 1-2. Raise piece to a high perpendicular on the left, left hand up, and bend trunk sideward right. (Plate 87.) 3-4. Lunge sideward right and swing piece down and up to right, high perpendicular, right hand up. (Plate 88.) * 5-6. Resume first position. 7-8. Resume starting position. Repeat left, right, left. (c) Third exercise. Counts. 1-2. Raise piece to high extended arm horizontal and bend trunk backward. (Plate 89.) 3-4. Lunge forward right, and swing piece to side horizontal, left hand to the rear. (Plate 90.) Plate 93. Plate 94. 5-6. Resume first position. 7-8. Resume starting position. Repeat left, right, left. (d) Fourth exercise. Counts. 1-2. Raise piece to right high perpendicular and side step position left. (Plate 91.) t 3-4. Lunge sideward left and swing piece to left high perpendicular. (Plate 92.) 5-6. Resume first position. 7-8. Resume starting position. Repeat left, right, left. (3) Third group (a) First exercise. Counts. 1-2. Raise piece to front bent horizontal, arms crossed, left over right; lunge sideward right and bend trunk sideward right. (Plate 93.) 34. Extend right knee and bend trunk to the left, bending left knee and recrossing arms, right over left. (Plate 94.) FA1 (1) 322 PHYSICAL TRAINING 5-6. Resume first position. 7-8. Resume starting position. Repeat left, right, left. (b) Second exercise. Counts. 1-2. Raise piece to bent arm horizontal; face right and lunge forward right and bend trunk forward. (Plate 95.) 3-4. Raise trunk and turn to the left on both heels and extend piece overhead. (Plate 96. 3. Resume first position. 7-8. Resume starting position. Repeat left, right, left. Plate 98. g Plate 100. (c) Third exercise. Counts. 1-2. Raise piece to high horizontal; lunge forward right. (Plate 97.) 3–4. Bend trunk forward and lower piece to low front horizontal. (Plate 98.) 5-6. Resume first position. 7-8. Resume starting position. Repeat left, right, left. (d) Fourth exercise. Counts. 1-2. Raise piece to high extended horizontal and hop to side straddle position. (Plate 99.) 3-4. Bend trunk forward and swing piece to extended low horizontal, left hand he tween legs, right hand forward. (Plate 100.) 5-6. Resume first position. 7-8 Resume starting position. Repeat left, right. left. DISMOUNTED DRILL CONTENTS * Paragraphs Chapter I. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-13 Chapter II. The Soldier without Arms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-32 Chapter III. The Squad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-47 Chapter IV. The Platoon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48–62 Chapter V. The Battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63-75 Chapter VI. Formations of the Battalion and Regiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76-89 Chapter VII. Formation for Physical Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 (Paragraph numbers shown thus: (1) refer to paragraphs in FM 22-5, Infantry Drill Regulations. Those shown thus: (1) (italics) refer to FM 6-5, Field Artillery Organi- zation and Drill. Only so much of FM 22-5 as pertains to dismounted drill for Field Artillery is quoted. Where notations, not in these texts, are made for the purpose of clarification, they are in smaller type.) CHAPTER I GENERAL 1. Scope. a. The drill prescribed herein is designed for general use and may be adopted to any type of unit; therefore some of the explanation is of a general nature which gives sufficient latitude for adoption to specific units. Interpretation should be based on these general provisions, and all should learn to use this manual as a guide to a common-sense solution of minor points which are not specifically covered in the text. Much discussion over trifles or failure to make appropriate adaptation indicates a failure to grasp the spirit of the regulations. Higher commanders should encourage subordinates to make minor adjustments without calling on higher authority for in- terpretation. Necessary adaptation should be simple and should not complicate the drill. Stress should be placed on precision in marching in step with proper alinement. Nothing inspires the military spirit more than to see or to be a part of a compact group moving in unison, confidently, and to a measured cadence. Complicated procedure destroys this effect. (1) b. Dismounted drill is prescribed in FM 22-5. All field artillery dismounted forma- tions and movements conform, in general, to FM 22-5. (151) c. Basic strengths of units are governed by appropriate Tables of Organization. The diagrams of organizations shown in the figures herein are based specifically on approved Tables of Organization. They may be adapted to any type of unit, to changes in Tables of Organization, and to the maneuver space available. (1) 2. Purposes of Drill. The purposes of drill are to: a. Erzable a commander to move his command from one place to another in an orderly manner, and to provide simple formations from which dispositions for combat may readily be assumed. b. Aid in disciplinary training by instilling the habits of precision and response to the leader's orders. " . c. Provide a means, through ceremonies, of enhancing the morale of troops, develop- ing the spirit of cohesion, and giving interesting spectacles to the public. of Give junior officers and noncommissioned officers practice in commanding troops. 3. Definitions a. Alinement. A straight line upon which several elements are formed or are to be formed; or the dressing of several elements upon a straight line. b. Base. The element on which a movement is regulated. c. Center. The middle point or element of a command. d. Column. A formation in which the elements are placed one behind another. 323 324 DISMOUNTED DRILL e. Depth. The space from head to rear of any formation or of a position, including the leading and rear elements. The depth of a man is assumed to be 12 inches. f. Distance. Space between elements in the direction of depth. Distance is measured, with respect to dismounted men, from the back of the man in front to the breast of the man in rear; mounted men and animals, from the croup of the animal in front to the head of the animal in rear; vehicles, from the rear part of the vehicle in front to the front part of the vehicle or head of animal hitched thereto (as the case may be) 1I]. rear. Distance between troops in formation, whether of men, animals, or vehicles, is measured from the rear rank of the unit in front to the front rank of the unit in rear. Platoon commanders, guides, and others whose position in a formation is at 40 inches distance from a rank are themselves considered as a rank. Otherwise the commander of any unit and those accompanying him are not considered in measuring distance between units. The standard and guard are not considered in measuring distance between subdivisions of a unit with which they are posted. The distance between ranks of dismounted men is 40 inches in both line and column. The distance between ranks of mounted men in close order is 45 inches (one and one-half paces). g. Double time. Cadence at the rate of 180 steps per minute. h. Element. A squad, section, platoon, battery, or larger unit, forming a part of a still larger unit. i. File. A column of men one behind the other. j. Flank. The right or left of a command in line or in column, or the element on the right or left of the line. k. Formation. Arrangement of the elements of a command. The placing of all fractions in their order in line, in column, or for battle. l. Front. The space occupied by an element measured from one flank to the opposite flank. The front of a man is assumed to be 22 inches. m. Guide. An officer, noncommissioned officer, or private upon whom the command (or elements thereof) regulates its march. m. Head. The leading element of a column. o. Interval. Space between individuals or elements of the same line. Interval is measured, with respect to dismounted men, from the shoulder or elbow; mounted men from the knee; animals from the shoulder; vehicles from the hub of the wheel or the track. Between troops in formation, it is measured from the left flank of the unit on the right to the right flank of the unit on the left. The commander of any unit, or of any element thereof, and those accompanying him are not considered in measuring interval between units. The standard and guard are not considered in measuring interval between subdivisions of a unit with which they are posted. The normal interval is one arm's length; the close interval is 4 inches. The interval between mounted men is 6 inches. p. Left. The left extremity or element of a body of troops. q. Line. A formation in which the different elements are abreast of each other. r. Mass formation. The formation of a battery or any larger unit in which the squads in column are abreast of one another. s. Pace. A step of 30 inches; the length of the full step in quick time. t. Piece. The rifle or the automatic rifle. u. Quick time. Cadence at the rate of 120 steps per minute. v. Rank. A line of men, placed side by side. w. Right. The right extremity or element of a body of troops. z. Step. The distance measured from heel to heel between the feet of a man walking. The half step and back step are 15 inches. The right step and left step are 12 inches. The steps in quick and double time are 30 and 36 inches, respectively. (3) 4. Precision in Drill. In order best to accomplish its mission, drill should be fre- quent and of short duration. Smartness and precision should be required in the execution of every detail. (4) 5. Use of Right and Left. The explanation of a movement in the text that may be executed toward either flank is generally given for execution toward but one flank. To adapt such a description to execution of the movement toward the opposite flank, it * DISMOUNTED DRILL 325 is necessary only to substitute the word “left” for “right” or “right” for “left” as the case requires. (5) 6. Double Time. a. Any movement not especially excepted may be executed in double time. b. If a unit is at a halt or marching in quick time, and it is desired that a movement be executed in double time, the command Double time precedes the command of execution. (6) 7. To Revoke a Command. To revoke a command or to begin anew a movement improperly begun from a halt, the command As you were, is given, at which the movement ceases and the former position is resumed. (7) 8. General Rules for the Guide. a. Unless otherwise announced, the guide of a platoon or subdivision of a battery in column or line is right. b. To march with the guide other than as prescribed above, or to change the guide, the command Guide right (left, or center) is given. The leading man in each file is responsible for the interval. The guide is responsible for the direction and cadence of march. - c. The announcement of the guide, when made in connection with a movement, follows the command of execution for the movement. d. In column of subdivisions, the guide of the leading subdivision is charged with the step and direction; the guides in the rear preserve the trace, step, and distance. (8) 9. Partial Changes of Direction. a. Partial changes of direction may be executed by interpolating in the preparatory command the word as “half” as Column half right (left), so as to change direction 45°. b. Slight changes in direction are affected by the command Incline to the right (left). The guide or guiding element moves in the indicated direction and the remainder of the command conforms. (9) 10. Numbering of Units. Squads, sections, and platoons are numbered consecutively from right to left and from front to rear throughout the battery and thereafter retain their permanent designation. (10) 11. Posts of Officers, Noncommissioned Officers, Guidons, and Special Units. a. The posts of officers, noncommissioned officers, guidons, and special units are shown in the plates or explained in the text. b. When changes of formation involve changes of posts, the new post is taken by the most direct route, except where otherwise prescribed, as soon as practicable, after the command of execution for the movement; officers and noncommissioned officers, who have prescribed duties in connection with the movement ordered, take their new posts when such duties are completed. In executing any movements or facings in alin- ing units, or in moving from one post to another, officers and noncommissioned officers maintain a military bearing and move with precision. c. When acting as instructors, officers and noncommissioned officers go wherever their presence is necessary. They rectify mistakes and insure steadiness and promptness in the ranks. d. In subsequent movements after the initial formation, guidons and special units maintain their relative positions with respect to the flank or end of the command on which they were originally posted. (11) e. In all formations and movements, a noncommissioned officer commanding a sec- tion, platoon, or battery takes the same post as prescribed for an officer in command. (11) 12. Commands. a. Commands are employed in close-order drill at attention. b. In this manual a command is the direction of the commander expressed orally and in prescribed phraseology. t c. Where it is not mentioned who gives the prescribed commands, they will be given by the commander of the unit. d. There are two kinds of commands. (1) The preparatory command such as Forward, which indicates the movement that is to be executed. 326 DISMOUNTED DRILL (2) The command of execution, such as MARCH or HALT, which causes the ČXèCult1On. e. Preparatory commands are distinguished in this manual by lightface italic and those of execution by LIGHTFACE ITALIC CAPITALS. f. The preparatory command is given at such interval of time before the command of execution as to admit a proper understanding and to permit the giving of necessary commands by subordinate leaders; the command of execution is given at the instant the movement is to commence. e g. The tone of the command should be animated, distinct, and of a loudness propor- tioned to the number of men for whom it is intended. Indifference in giving com- mands must be avoided, as this leads to laxity in execution. Commands must be given with spirit. h. When giving commands to troops, the commander faces them. When the section or platoon in close-order drill or in ceremonies is part of a larger unit, the leader turns his head toward the unit to give commands but does not face about. i. Officers and men fix their attention at the first word of command. j. If all men in the unit are to execute the same movement simultaneously, the sub- ordinate leaders do not repeat commands; otherwise they repeat the command or give the proper new command for the movement of their own unit. k. If at a halt, the commands for movements involving marching, such as 1. Column right, 2. MARCH are not prefaced by the command Forward. (12) 13. Instruction by the Numbers. All movements for the purpose of instruction may be divided into motions and executed in detail. The command of execution determines the prompt execution of the first motion. The other motions, depending on the number, are executed at the commands TWO, THREE, FOUR. To execute the movement in detail, the instructor first cautions, “By the numbers.” All movements are then executed in detail, one motion for each count until he cautions, “Without the numbers.” (13) CHAPTER II THE SOLDIER WITHOUT ARMS General 14. Duties of Instructor. The instructor explains briefly each movement, first exe- cuting it himself. He requires the recruits to take the proper positions unassisted and touches them only for the purpose of correction when they are unable to correct them- selves. He avoids keeping the recruits too long at any position or movement. Each position or movement should be understood before passing to another. The instructor exacts by degrees the desired precision and uniformity. (14) 15. Grouping Recruits. a. Recruits are separated into small groups consistent with the available number of trained instructors in order to facilitate individual instruction. Each group is formed as a squad. (See par. 34). b. As instruction progresses, the recruits are grouped according to proficiency. Those who show a lack of aptitude and quickness are separated from the others and placed under the most experienced drill masters. Care should be taken that men who are naturally inapt are not ridiculed or treated harshly; an officer should carefully superin- tend the instruction of such men to insure that they are given firm, but quiet and con- siderate handling. (15) - Positions 16. Position of the Soldier, or of Attention. (Plate 1.) a. Heels on the same line and as near each other as the conformation of the man permits. b. Feet turned out equally and forming an angle of 45°. c. Knees straight without stiffness. d. Hips level and drawn back slightly; body erect and resting equally on hips, chest lifted and arched; shoulders square and falling equally. DISMOUNTED DRILL 327 e. Arms hanging straight down without stiffness so that the thumbs are along the seams of the trousers; back of the hands out; fingers held naturally. f. Head erect and squarely to the front; chin drawn in so that the axis of the head and neck is vertical; eyes straight to the front. g. Weight of the body resting equally on the heels and the balls of the feet. h. In assuming the position of the soldier, or of attention, the heels are brought to- gether smartly and audibly. (16) 17. Rests. Being at a halt, the commands are: FALL OUT; REST; AT EASE; and 1. Parade, 2. Rest. Plate 1. Position of the Soldier, or of ATTENTION. a. At the command Fall out, the men leave the ranks but are required to remain in the immediate vicinity. The men resume their former places at attention at the com- mand Fall in. On the march, men will fall in At ease unless they were at attention when the command Fall out was given. b. At the command Rest, one foot is kept in place. Silence and immobility are not required. c. At the command At ease, the right foot is kept in place. Silence but not immo- bility is required. d. At the command of execution, REST, of 1. Parade, 2. REST, move the left foot smartly 12 inches to the left of the right foot, keeping the legs straight so that the weight of the body rests equally on both feet. At the same time, clasp the hands behind the back, palms to the rear, thumb and fingers of the right hand clasping the left thumb without constraint; preserve silence and immobility. e. Being at any of the rests except Fall out, to resume the position of attention, the commands are: 1. Squad, 2. ATTENTION. At the command Attention take the posi- tion of the soldier as prescribed in paragraph 16. (17) 18. Eyes Right or Left. The commands are: 1. Eyes, 2. RIGHT (LEFT), 3. Ready, 4. FRONT. At the command Right, each man turns his head and eyes to the right. At the command Front, the head and eyes are turned to the front. (18) 19. Facings. All facings are executed from the halt and in the cadence of quick time. a. To the flank. (1) The commands are: 1. Right (left), 2. FACE. At the command Face, slightly raise the left heel and the right toe; face to the right, turning on the right heel, assisted by a slight pressure on the ball of the left foot. Hold the left leg straight without stiffness. (TWO) Place the left foot beside the right. (2) Execute Left face on the left heel in a corresponding manner. b. To the rear. The commands are: 1. About, 2. FACE. At the command Face, carry the toe of the right foot a half-foot length to the rear and slightly to the left of the left heel without changing the position of the left foot; weight of the body mainly on the heel of the left foot; right leg straight without stiffness. (TWO) Face to the rear, turning to the right on the left heel and on the ball of the right foot; place the right heel beside the left. (19) 328 DISMOUNTED DRILL 20. Salute With the Hand. (Plate 2.) a. The commands are: 1. Hand, 2. SALUTE. At the command Salute, raise the right hand smartly until the tip of the forefinger touches the lower part of the headdress or forehead above and slightly to the right of the right eye, thumb and fingers extended and joined, palm to the left, upper arm horizontal, forearm inclined at 45°, hand and wrist straight; at the same time turn the head and eyes toward the person saluted. (TWO) Drop the arm to its normal posi- tion by the side in one motion, at the same time turning the head and eyes to the front. b. Execute the first position of the hand salute when six paces from the person saluted, or at the nearest point of approach, if more than six paces. Hold the first position until the person saluted has passed or the salute is returned. Then execute the second movement of the hand salute. (20) Tel 21. General. a. All steps and marchings executed from the halt, except right step, begin with the left foot. b. The instructor indicates the proper cadence when necessary by calling “One,” “Two,” “Three,” “Four,” as the left and right foot respectively strike the ground. (21) 22. Quick Time. Being at a halt, to march forward in quick time, the commands are: 1. Forward, 2. MARCH. At the command Forward, shift the weight of the body to the right leg without perceptible movement. At the command March, step off smartly with the left foot and continue the march with 30-inch steps taken straight forward without stiffness or exaggeration of movements. Swing the arms easily in their natural arcs, 6 inches to the front and 3 inches to the rear of the body. (22) 23. Double Time. a. Being at a halt or in march in quick time, to march in double time the commands are: 1. Double time, 2. MARCH. (1) If at a halt, at the command Double time, shift the weight of the body to the right leg without perceptible movement. At the command March, raise the forearms, fingers closed, knuckles out, to a horizontal position along the waistline, take up an easy run with the step and cadence of double time, allowing a natural swinging motion to the arms. & (2) If marching in quick time, at the command March, given as either foot strikes the ground, take one more step in quick time and then step off in double time. b. To resume the quick time from double time the commands are: 1. Quick time, 2. MARCH. At the command March, given as either foot strikes the ground, advance and plant the other foot in double time; resume the quick time, dropping the hands by the sides. (23) 24. To Halt. a. To halt when marching in quick time, the commands are: 1. Squad, 2. HALT. At the command Halt, given as either foot strikes the ground, execute the halt in two counts by advancing and planting the other foot and then bringing up the foot in rear. b. To halt when marching in double time, the commands are: 1. Squad, 2. HALT. DISMOUNTED DRILL 329 At the command Halt, given as either foot strikes the ground, advance and plant the other foot as in double time, then halt in two counts as in quick time. c. To halt from side step the commands are: 1. Squad, 2. HALT. At the command Halt, given as the heels are together, plant the foot next in cadence and come to the halt when the heels are next brought together. (24) 25. To Mark Time. The commands are: 1. Mark time, 2. MARCH. a. Being in march, at the command March, given as either foot strikes the ground, advance and plant the other foot; bring up the foot in rear, placing it so that both heels are on line, and continue the cadence by alternately raising and planting each foot. The feet are raised 2 inches from the ground. b. Being at a halt, at the command March, raise and plant first the left foot, then the right as prescribed above. c. Mark time may be executed in either quick time or double time. d. The halt is executed from mark time as from quick time or double time by taking 2-inch vertical in place of 30-inch horizontal steps. (25) 26. Half Step. a. The commands are: 1. Half step, 2. MARCH. At the command March, take steps of 15 inches in quick time and 18 inches in double time in the same manner as prescribed in paragraphs 22 and 23. b. Forward, Half step, Halt, and Mark time may be executed one from the other in quick or double time. c. To resume the full step from helf step or mark time the commands are: 1. Forward, 2. MARCH. (26) 27. Side Step. a. Being at a halt or marking time the commands are: 1. Right (left) step, 2. MARCH. At the command March, carry the right foot 12 inches to the right; place the left foot beside the right, left knee straight. Continue in the cadence of quick time. b. The side step is executed in quick time from a halt and for short distances only. (27) 28. Back Step. a. Being at a halt or marking time the commands are: 1. Backward, 2. MARCH. At the command March, take steps of 15 inches straight to the rear. b. The back step is executed in quick time, from a halt and for short distances only. (28) +. 29. To Face in Marching. The facings in marching are an important part of move- ments such as, Column right, Close, Take interval, Extend, etc. a. To face to the right in marching and advance from a halt, at the command of execution of the movement, turn to the right on the ball of the right foot and at the same time step off in the new direction with the left foot with a half step, or in double time, as the case may be. b. To face to the right in marching and advance, being in march, at the command of execution, given as the right foot strikes the ground, advance and plant the left foot, then face to the right in marching and step off in the new direction with the right foot with a half step, full step, or in double time as the case may be. c. To face to the rear in marching, being in march, the commands are: 1. To the rear, 2. MARCH. At the command March, given as the right foot strikes the ground, ad- vance and plant the left foot; turn to the right about on the balls of both feet and im- mediately step off with the left foot. (29) 30. To March by the Flank. Being in march the commands are: 1. By the right (left) flank, 2. MARCH. At the command March, given as the right foot strikes the ground, advance and plant the left foot, then face to the right in marching and step off in the new direction with the right foot. (30) 31. To Change Step. The commands are: 1. Change step, 2. MARCH. a. Being in march in quick time, at the command March, given as the right foot strikes the ground, advance and plant the left foot; plant the toe of the right foot near the heel of the left and step off with the left foot. b. Execute the change on the right foot similarly, the command March being given as the left foot strikes the ground. (31) 32. To March at Other Than at Attention. The commands are: 1. Route step, 2. MARCH; or 1. At ease, 2. MARCH. 330 DISMOUNTED DRILL a. 1. Route step, 2. MARCH. At the command March, men are not required to march at attention, in cadence, or to maintain silence. b. 1. At ease, 2. MARCH. At the command March, men are not required to march at attention or at cadence but they will maintain silence. (32) CHAPTER III THE SQUAD 33. General. a. The squad is a group of soldiers organized primarily as a combat team. It consists of one squad leader and other personnel as authorized by appropriate Tables of Organization. When the squad leader is absent, he is replaced by the second in command. If the second in command is also absent, the next senior member of the squad acts as leader. Plate 4. 1. At Close Interval, 2. FALL IN. b. As far as practicable, the squad is kept intact. The normal formation of the squad is a single rank or single file. This permits variation in the number of men composing the squad. The squad in line marches to the left or to the front only for minor changes of position. (114) 34. To Form the Squad. a. The command is: FALL IN. At the command Fall in, the squad forms in the line as shown in Plate 5. On falling in, each man except the DISMOUNTED DRILL 331 one on the left extends his left arm laterally at shoulder height, palm of the hand down, fingers extended and joined. Each man, except the one on the right, turns his head and eyes to the right and places himself in line so that his right shoulder touches lightly the tips of the fingers of the man on his right. As soon as the proper intervals have been obtained, each man drops his arm smartly to his side and turns his head to the front. (See Plate 3.) […] [I] [I] [I] [...] [I] . [...] [T] [T] [T] [T] [2] SQUAD IN LINE INTERVALS BETWEEN MEN: "NORMAL" ARM'S LENGTH "CLOSE" 4 in CHES souad in column DISTANCE BETWEEN MEN 40 INCHES LZ souad leader Plate 5. The Squad. (For the various types of squads, see Plates 9 and 10) b. To form at close intervals, the commands are: 1. At close interval, 2. FALL IN. At the command Fall in, the men fall in as in a above, except that close intervals are obtained by placing the left hands on the hips as shown in Plate 4. In this position the heel of the palm of the hand rests on the hip, the fingers and thumb are extended and joined, and the elbow is in the plane of the body. c. The squad falls in on the squad leader. If the squad is formed under arms, pistols are at once inspected. (115) 35. Previous Instructions Applicable. The squad executes the positions and move. 332 DISMOUNTED DRILL ments as prescribed in Chapters I and II, all men executing the movement simul- taneously. (116) . 36. To Dismiss the Squad. The commands are: 1. Inspection, 2. PISTOL, 3. Return, 4. PISTOL, 5. DISMISSED. 37. To Count Off. a. The command is: COUNT OFF. At the command Count off, each man of the squad, except the one on the right flank, turns his head and eyes to the right. The right flank man calls out, “One.” Each man in successions calls out, “Two,” “Three,” etc., turning his head and eyes to the front as he gives his number. b. This command may be given whenever it is desired that the men know their relative position in the squad. (118) - 38. To Aline the Squad. a. If in line, the commands are: 1. Dress right (left), 2. DRESS, 3. Ready, 4. FRONT. At the command Dress, each man except the one on the left extends his left arm (or if at close interval, places his left hand upon his hip), and all aline themselves to the right. The instructor places himself on the right flank one pace from and in prolongation of the line and facing down the line. From this position he verifies the alinement of the men, ordering individual men to move forward or back as is necessary. Having checked the alinement, he faces to the right in march- ing and moves three paces forward, halts, faces to the left and commands: 1. Ready, 2. FRONT. At the command Front, arms are dropped quietly and smartly to the side and heads turned to the front. b. If in column the command is: COVER. At the command Cover, men cover from front to rear with 40 inches distance between men. (119) 39. Being in Line at Normal Interval, to Obtain Close Interval. The commands are: 1. Close, 2. MARCH. At the command March, all men except the right flank man face to the right in marching and form at close interval, as prescribed in paragraph 34 b. (120) 40. Being in Line at Close Interval, to Extend to Normal Interval. The commands are: 1. Extend, 2. MARCH. At the command March, all men except the right flank man face to the left in marching and form at normal interval as prescribed in paragraph 34 a. (121) 41. Being in Line, to March to the Flank. The commands are: 1. Right (left), 2. FACE, 3. Forward, 4. MARCH. The movements are executed as explained in paragraphs 19 a and 22, all men stepping off simultaneously. (122) 42. To March to the Oblique. a. For the instruction of recruits, the squad being in column or correctly alined, the instructor causes each man to face half right (left), points out his position, and explains that it is to be maintained in the oblique march. b. The squad being in any formation, the commands are: 1. Right (left) oblique, 2. MARCH. At the command March, given as the right foot strikes the ground, each individual advances and plants the left foot, faces half right in marching and steps off in a direction of 45° to the right of his original front. He preserves his relative posi- tion, keeping his shoulders parallel to those of the guide (man on right front of line or column), and so regulates his step that the ranks remain parallel to their original front. z: c. The command Halt is given on the left foot when halting from the right oblique and on the right foot when halting from left oblique. At the command Halt, given as the left foot strikes the ground, each individual advances and plants the right foot, turns to the front on the ball of the right foot, and places the left foot by the side of the right foot. d. To resume the original direction, the commands are: 1. Forward, 2. MARCH. At the command March, each individual faces half left in marching and then moves straight to the front. e. If at Half step or Mark time while obliquing, the Full step is resumed by the com- mand: 1. Oblique, 2. MARCH. f. To give volume to the command the word “oblique” is pronounced to rhyme with “strike.” (123) 43. To March Toward a Flank While in March. a. The commands are: 1. By the right (left) flank, 2. MARCH. At the command March, each individual executes the movement as prescribed in paragraph 30. (124) - - - DISMOUNTED DRILL 333 b. This movement is used when a quick movement to the right or left for a short distance is required. Normally the unit is halted, faced in the desired direction, and started forward again by the commands: 1. Forward, 2. MARCH. 44. Being in Column, to Change Direction. The commands are: 1. Column right (left) (half right) (half left), 2. MARCH. At the command March, the leading man executes the movement as prescribed in paragraph 29 a and b. The other men in the column execute the same movement successively and on the same ground as the leading man. (125) 45. Being in Line, to Take Interval and Assemble. a. To take interval, the com- mands are: 1. Take interval to the left (right), 2. MARCH. At the command March, the right flank man stands fast and extends his left arm at shoulder height, palms of the hand down, fingers extended and joined until the man on his left obtains the proper interval, then he drops his arm. Other men face to the left in marching and step out until they have an interval of two arms' length from the man on their right. Each man, except the one on the left who raises his right arm only, extends both arms laterally at shoulder height. Each man, except the right flank man, then turns his head and eyes to the right and places himself in line so that the finger tips of his right hand touch lightly the finger tips of the left hand of the man on his right. As soon as each 'man alines himself at two arms’ length intervals from the man on his right, he drops his right arm to the side and turns his head and eyes to the front. He drops his left arm to the side when the man on his left has obtained his proper interval. b. To assemble, the commands are: 1. Assemble to the right (left), 2. MARCH. At the command March, the right flank man stands fast. All other men face to the right in marching and form at normal intervals as in paragraph 34 a. (126) 46. Column of Twos. When marching small groups, not at drill, the group may be marched in column of twos by forming it in two ranks and giving the command: 1. Right (left), 2. FACE. (129) 47. To Form Column of Twos From Single File and Reform. a. The squad being in column, at a halt, to form column of twos, the commands are: 1. Form column of twos, 2. MARCH. At the command March, the leading man stands fast; the second man in the squad moves by the oblique until he is to the left of and abreast of the corporal with normal interval, and halts; the third man moves forward until behind the corporal with normal distance and halts; the fourth man moves by the oblique . he is to the left of and abreast of the third man with normal interval, and halts; all Ci SO On. b. The squad being in column of twos, in marching, to re-form single file, the squad is first halted. The commands are: 1. Form single file from the right, 2. MARCH. At the command March, the leading man of the right colum moves forward, the leading man of the left column steps off to the right oblique, then executes, Left oblique so as to follow the right file at normal distance. Remaining twos follow successively in like manner. (130) CHAPTER IV THE PLATOON 48. Formations of More Than One Squad. a. The squads form in line, one behind the other, with 40 inches distance between ranks. b. Squads are usually arranged to produce a three- or four-rank formation so that by facing to the right the unit will march in column of threes or column of fours depending on the number of squads. º c. A two-squad unit forms in two ranks and marches in column of twos. d. A three-squad unit forms in three ranks and marches in column of threes. e. A four-squad unit forms in four ranks and marches in column of fours. f. A platoon composed of two sections of two squads each, forms in four ranks and marches in column of fours. - 334 DISMOUNTED DRILL g. Movements are described herein for Column of threes or fours and may be executed by either formation. h. When in line, the platoon is alined as prescribed for the squad in paragraph 38. The alinement of each rank is verified by the platoon leader. i. The platoon being in line takes interval and assembles as prescribed for the squad in paragraph 45. This movement may be ordered after ranks are opened for the display of field equipment or for other special purpose. It is utilized in forming for physical training. X N : * tiºn ºn a ! ! § # § > 3. . ci a #3 ū ‘º gº - mº <– 4 O | NCHES as T = = H → . . [L] [E] [I] [5d 5. - T- † : ARMS LENGTH <ſ to 'd : . § –H-E ; § # Thºſt Ms. Sº ### É # E F * ## - L| |Ms. C Ngä # ° E E E E: #: ; > 'º...º. — - # [T] [T] [VE], [A] ºf 3 § – H ā; # #3 = < –—ll Uſ) GD : - . +e-à-E. E. E. Bº Hâ D dj 3 º F: Gº: CD & 3 Cº) Q - E. [I] [I] [V] [A] ; ; ; ; •- e. . OF; ~ | | | É = 3 g g 5 s 3 * T] [T] [2] [C] §§ * j := 3 ää LTJ LTJ Ms. Clk g : Āš ; # F# 5 || 4. à X-3 # |-- |-- t &ºmº ro 92 © # SE SE CH Bº 5 # = Tol [a] [E] [E] #R. # or = 5 ° alſ aſ alº] alº ă ă ă ă s s $ s alse alsº acid alCfd º ## , a. §[E] §[E] }|E| }|E <( <ſ < <ſ 2 ... g's v Úl v. J S-) S-) 3 3 3 3 Ö < *; a (ſ) O g "CH"[H]"[H]"[H] = 3; -: -F “F à g : . Q| |G|V| |\L) +e ##" ń. HDöVW 3O NOILT)38|O CfE CHF (CfF j. The platoon is ordinarily formed for physical training from column of threes or fours. The extension to the left is executed on the right squad of the column which stands fast. The even numbered men in all squads are designated to uncover. (131) (see Par. 90) 49. Composition and Formation of the Platoon. For purposes of drill and ceremonies, a three-squad or four-squad formation should be arranged for each platoon and the size of the squads equalized. (132) 50. Position of Individuals. a. The platoon leader takes position six paces in front of the center of his platoon when in line. In march formation (column of threes or fours), he marches at the head of his platoon as shown in Plate 6. DISMOUNTED DRILL 335 b. The platoon guide (a sergeant or other specially designated noncommissioned officer) is posted on the right of the right flank man of the front rank when in line. In column, he takes post in front of the right flank man. He is responsible for main- taining the proper direction and cadence of march of the platoon. c. Other noncommissioned officers (such as mess and supply sergeants, clerks, etc.) and privates (such as cooks, etc.), when attached to the platoon, fall in on the left when in line (or in rear when squads are in column) and march as part of regularly organized squads. (133) 51. To Form the Platoon. a. The command is: FALL IN. At the comand Fall in, the first squad forms in line, as prescribed in paragraph 34 a, its center opposite and three paces from the senior noncommissioned officer of the subdivision. The other squads form in rear of the first squad and in the same manner, with 40 inches distance between ranks. Members of the rear squads extend their arms to obtain their approx- imate intervals but cover the corresponding members in the first squad. b. To form with close interval, the commands are: 1. At close interval, 2. FALL IN. At the command Fall in, the movement is executed as prescribed in a above except that squads form at close interval (par. 34 b). (134) 52. To Dismiss the Platoon. The commands are: 1. Inspection, 2. PISTOL, 3. Return, 4. PISTOL, 5. DISMISSED. (135) 53. To March the Platoon. a. The normal formation for marching is in column of threes (or fours) with squad columns abreast, squad leaders at the head of their squads. b. The platoon in line marches to the left or to the front only for minor changes of position. c. The platoon being in line to march to the right, the commands are: 1. Right, 2. FACE, 3. Forward, 4. MARCH. This marches the platoon in column of threes (or fours) to the right. (136) - 54. Guide in Marching. Except when otherwise directed, men in ranks keep the proper distance and interval and aline themselves on the men toward the flank on which the guide is marching. When it is desired to guide toward the left, the com- mand is: GUIDE LEFT. The guide and the platoon leader then change their relative positions. (137) 55. Being in Column of Threes (or Fours) at Normal Interval Between Squads, to March (or Form) at Close Interval. a. The commands are: 1. Close, 2. MARCH. At the command March, the squads close to the center by obliquing until the interval between the men is 4 inches. The center squad (or squads) take up the half step until the dress has been regained. The distance, 40 inches, remains unchanged. b. If this movement is executed from the halt, the squads close toward the center by executing Right or Left step until 4-inch intervals are reached. If in column of threes, the right and left squads Left and Right step two steps. If in column of fours, the right center and left center squads Left and Right step one step, the right and left squads Left and Right step three steps. (138) 56. Being in Column of Threes (or Fours), at Close Interval Between Squads, to March (or Form) at Normal Interval. a. The commands are: 1. Extend, 2. MARCH. At the command March, the squads open to the right and left from the center by obliquing until the interval between men is one arm's length. The center squad (or squads) will take up the half step until the dress has been regained. b. If this movement is executed at the halt, the squads execute Right or Left step until they have secured the proper interval by reversing the procedure outlined in paragraph 55 b. (139) - 57. Being in Column of Threes (or Fours), to Change Direction. The commands are: 1. Column right (left), 2. MARCH. The right flank man of the leading rank (the guide and platoon leader excepted) is the pivot of this movement. At the command March, given as the right foot strikes the ground, the right flank man of the leading rank faces to the right in marching as prescribed in paragraph 29 a and b, and takes up the half step until the other men of his rank are abreast of him, then he resumes the full step. The other men of the leading rank oblique to the right in marching without changing interval, 336 DISMOUNTED DRILL place themselves abreast of the pivot man and conform to his step. The ranks in rear of the leading rank execute the movement on the same ground, and in the same manner, as the leading rank. (140) . . 58. Being in Column of Threes (or Fours), to Form Line to the Front. The com- mands are: 1. Column right, 2. MARCH, 3. Platoon, 4. HALT, 5. Left, 6. FACE. Column right is executed as prescribed in paragraph 57. The command Halt is given after the change of direction is completed. (141) 59. Being in Any Formation in March, to March Towards a Flank. The commands are: 1. By the right (left) flank, 2. MARCH. This movement is executed as prescribed for the squad in paragraph 43. If the platoon is in column at close (4-inch) intervals, the squads in rear of the squad which becomes the leading squad take up the half-step until they each reach 40 inches distance from the squad ahead. This movement is used only for short distances. (142) 60. Being in Line, to Open and Close Ranks. a. To open ranks the commands are: 1. Open ranks, 2. MARCH, 3. Ready, 4. FRONT. At the command March, the front rank takes three steps forward, halts, and executes Dress right. The second rank takes two steps forward, halts, and executes Dress right. The third rank takes one step for- ward, halts, and executes Dress right. The fourth rank, if any, executes Dress right. The platoon leader places himself on the flank of the platoon toward which the dress is to be made, one pace from and in prolongation of the front rank and facing down the line. From this position he alines the front rank. The second and third ranks are alined in the same manner. In moving from one rank to another, the platoon leader faces to the left in marching. After verifying the alinement of the rear rank, he faces to the right in marching, moves three paces beyond the front rank, halts, faces to the left and commands: 1. Ready, 2. FRONT. b. To close ranks, the commands are: 1. Close ranks, 2. MARCH. At the command March, the front rank stands fast; the second rank takes one step forward and halts; the third rank takes two steps forward and halts; and the fourth rank, if any, takes three steps forward and halts. Each man covers his file leader. (144) 61. To Form for Shelter Tents. The platoon being in line the commands are: 1. Form for shelter tents to the left (right), 2. MARCH, 3. Dress right (left), 4. DRESS, 5. Ready, 6. FRONT, 7. COUNT OFF. a. At the command Form for shelter tents to the left (right), the second in command moves to a position on the right of the guide who is on the right of the right man of the front rank. The messenger takes position on the left of the left man of the rear rank. b. At the command March, all squads except the front squad face to the left in marching and step off. Squad leaders by giving the appropriate commands: 1. By the right (left) flank, 2. MARCH, and 1. Squad, 2. HALT, move their squads into line abreast of the squad (s) already on line. c. At the commands, 3. Dress right (left), 4. DRESS, 5. Ready, 6. FRONT, and 7. COUNT OFF, given by the platoon leader, the entire rank executes these movements as prescribed in paragraphs 37 and 38. d. On direction of the platoon leader, the odd numbers indicate the position of the front tent pole by marking the place with their left heels. Odd and even numbers (Nos. 1 and 2; Nos. 3 and 4; etc.) pitch tents together. e. To assemble, the platoon is faced to the right and re-formed from single file into column of threes (or fours) to the right (left) as prescribed in paragraph 62 c (2). (145) 62. Column of Twos and Single File and Reform. The platoon may be marched in column of twos or single file by the procedure given below. This is not a precise movement. It is practiced in drill so that when necessary the movement may be º smoothly and without delay. The change of column is always made from a halt. a. (1) The platoon being in column of threes, at a halt, to form column of twos, the commands are: 1. Column of twos from the right (left), 2. MARCH. At the com. mand March, the right two squads march forward; the left squad forms column of , twos as prescribed for the squad and then executes Column half right and Column half left so as to follow in column the leading squads. Forty-inch distances are maintained. DISMOUNTED DRILL 337 (2) The platoon being in column of twos, at a halt, to re-form in column of threes, the commands are: 1. Column of threes to the left (right), 2. MARCH. At the com- mand March, the leading two squads stand fast. The rear squad forms single file from the right as prescribed in paragraph 47 b and moves to its normal place beside the leading squads by executing Column half left, then Column half right. It is halted when its leading file is on line with the leading rank of the platoon. AS’ (a. §§ r-- r -º | * = à < &- r -- Cy r-, © •º gº. -- ~- > © | {l}} {..} : {I} {I} [...] §[…] --9 -- U) ; {I}#: ‘s [...] [...] []#D É º © i ::::::: É tº tº Eºra é | -- & º •ºm º º º O B r- © --> - > | * --> O f: {:} EFD g | as sº ºn tº | .*, *, # E.; E E E 6 *- - -] * ~ * | | Cºmi - © | r1 + r ** {{} {}] D D F | º- ºr” 3 t tººl <^2 \ }; {t} {t} [] G | *.*, 2* 5. `; -- ZTNº. 33 º ‘s !- [T] T f r 2 < *, la- 5 i u ! © * { { tº # # / [H3(H & * \ | * = º; º EëD 5. # \t tº tº #3 ; : H → ă IC r la- Q B —l º —J Z # D C C D 5 s ; : EğE & B $ B Z [1%[] ... 3 [] [] [] [] . 8 : > CO - 24 B Uſ) GD L. [] [I] [T] § E3D # Gy ſº [] [T] [T] [T] E:L […] [T] [] [T] [];D O [] [I] [I] [T] D#D [I] [T] [I] [T] [T] [T] [I] [] [I] [T] D C D D [T] [T] [] b. (1) The platoon being in column of fours, at a halt, to form column of twos, the commands are: 1. Column of twos from the right (left), 2. MARCH. At the command March, the right two squads march forward; the left two squads initially stand fast, then follow the leading two squads by executing Column half right and Column half left. Forty-inch distances are maintained. º 338 DISMOUNTED DRILL (2) The platoon being in column of twos, at a halt, to re-form in column of fours, the commands are: 1. Column of fours to the left (right), 2. MARCH. At the com- mand March, the leading two squads stand fast. The two rear squads move to their normal places by executing Column half left then Column half right and are halted when the leading files are on line with the leading rank of the platoon. c. (1) The platoon being in column of three (or fours), at a halt, to form single file, the commands are: 1. Column of files from the right (left), 2. MARCH. At the com- -mand March, the right squad of the platoon moves forward. The other squads stand fast initially and then successively follow the leading squad by executing Column half right and Column half left. Distances of 40 inches are maintained. (2) The platoon being in single file, at a halt, to re-form in column of threes (or fours), the commands are: 1. Column of threes (or fours) to the left (right), 2. MARCH. At the command March, the leading squad stands fast. The other squads move to their normal places by executing Column half left, then, at the proper time, Column half right and are halted when the leading file is on line with the leading rank of the platoon. d. Whenever commands are given involving movements of squads in which one squad stands fast, takes up the march, continues the march, or changes formation, the squad leader gives the appropriate commands. (146) CHAPTER V THE BATTERY 63. General. a. The battery consists of a battery headquarters and two or more platoons. (For detailed organization of the battery see Plates 9 and 10). (147) b. For close-order drill and ceremonies, the first sergeant equalizes the strengths of the subdivisions (platoons). Sufficient personnel should be shifted to the fifth and main- tenance sections to form a third rank, or if it is desired to form two platoons only, these sections should be broken up and the personnel attached to battery headquarters or the gun sections. (152 a) (See Plates 11 and 12). - c. The first sergeant then designates a platoon guide for each of the platoons. No platoon sergeant or second in command is designated. As soon as the platoon guides have taken their posts the first sergeant makes his report to the battery commander. (152 a) 64. Post of the First Sergeant. a. The first sergeant takes post as follows for drills. and ceremonies: (1) With the battery in line. At normal distance in rear of the squad leader of the rear squad of the left center (or center) platoon. (2) With the battery in column of platoons. At normal distance in rear of the left squad of the rear platoon for drills and ceremonies. For march formations, his position is as shown in Plate 12. (3) With the battery in mass formation. At normal distance in rear of the left . (or left center) platoon. b. The first sergeant takes post in march formation at normal distance behind the battery commander. c. The guidon bearer takes post as follows for drills and ceremonies: (1) With the battery in line or in mass formation. One pace to the rear and three paces to the left of the battery commander. (2) With the battery in column of threes or fours. As shown in Plate 19. 65. Rules for Battery Drill. a. The platoon, rather than the battery, is the basic close-order drill unit. Only such formations are prescribed for the battery as are neces- sary for marches, drills, and ceremonies. b. Platoon leaders repeat such preparatory commands as are to be immediately ex- ecuted by their platoons, such as Forward, and the men execute the movement if it applies to their platoons at the command of execution, such as MARCH and HALT, DISMOUNTED DRILL 339 given by the battery commander. In movements executed in Route step and At ease, the platoon leaders repeat the command of execution if necessary. Platoon leaders do not repeat the battery commander's commands in having the battery fall out, or those com- mands which are not essential to the execution of a movement by their platoons. In giving commands or cautions, platoon leaders may prefix the numbers of the platoons, as: First platoon, halt; or Second platoon, forward. c. Whenever commands are given involving movements of the battery in which one platoon stands fast or continues the march, its platoon leader commands: Stand fast, or cautions, Continue the march, as the case may be. d. The battery does not march forward when in line except for minor changes in position. (148) 66. To Form the Battery. a. The first sergeant takes post nine paces in front of the point where the center of the battery is to be, faces that point and commands: FALL IN. (149) (152) b. The 75-mm truck-drawn battery. (See Plate 9). (1) At the command Fall in, the battery forms in three subdivisions from right to left as follows: battery head- quarters, gun sections, and the fifth and maintenance sections. Each of these sub- divisions is considered a platoon. The battery headquarters falls in in four ranks, each rank arranged in the order prescribed by the battery commander. The gun sec- tions fall in in numerical order from front to rear, each rank consisting of a gun section arranged in order from right to left: chief of section, gunner, cannoneers in numerical order, drivers (chauffeurs), automatic rifleman, and bugler (1st section). The fifth and maintenance sections fall in on the left, the fifth section in the front rank, maintenance section in the rear rank. The men in each section are arranged in the order prescribed by the battery commander. (2) The battery headquarters is commanded by the reconnaissance officer, the gun sections by the executive, and the fifth and maintenance sections by the assistant execu- tive. The battery has no second in command. (152 a) c. 75-mm horse-drawn gun battery. (Plate 10). The provisions of b above apply with the following exceptions: (1) Four platoons of four ranks each are formed as follows: battery headquarters, first platoon, second platoon, and third platoon. (2) The first platoon consists of the first and second gun sections; the second platoon, of the third and fourth gun sections. Each section falls in in two ranks, the chief of section and the gun squad in the front rank, the drivers, automatic riflemen, and bugler (1st section) in the rear rank. In the third platoon, the fifth section and the main- tenance section each fall in in two ranks in the order prescribed by the battery com- mander. (3) The battery headquarters is commanded by the reconnaissance officer, the first platoon by the executive, the second platoon by the assistant executive, and the fifth and maintenance sections by a noncommissioned officer designated by the battery com- mander. (152 b) d. Other batteries. All other batteries and detachments form dismounted in accord- ance with the principles described in b and c above. (152 c) (1) At the command REPORT, given by the first sergeant the senior noncom- missioned officers of the various subdivisions, in the following order: battery head- quarters, first section, second section, third section, fourth section, fifth section, and maintenance section, salute and report, “All present,” or “Private (–) absent.” Reports are not made within platoons or by platoons. (149) (2) The first sergeant then faces the battery commander, salutes, and reports, “Sir, all present or accounted for,” or “Sir, – men absent,” and without command faces about and moves by the most direct route to the position shown in Plate 9. (150a) If the battery is armed with the pistol the command 1. Inspection, 2. PISTOL, 3. Return, 4. PISTOL, may be given. § e. If the platoons cannot be formed in regularly organized squads, the first sergeant calls the roll. Each man, as his name is called, answers “Here.” The first sergeant then divides the platoons into squads and reports as described above. (149e) 340 DISMOUNTED DRILL g Officers comman make a report m after the first sergeant has reported. are required to salute and port of the first sergeant. alute until it is returned. (149) f. The battery commander places himself 12 paces in front of the center of and facing battery, all who g. In forming the tain the position of s the battery in time to receive the re platoons take their posts immediately ºÁJ94488 I un 9 uAeľOI-ſon）, uuuu-gº, ºuſ. I, ’6 9481） I nuoeõjas J.Jons SSAuðunumsuĮIolupų2êu, onny Wy ^|Jºpjo eſqoms OSJæOų sesuoHHnuobvy ôvy mnooS osJauung)Q|-|OOļuJeųo Jon ojado pupoqųon ſwas qSJeaļJOG puo’e6o}jnouuoo'uontunuuuuv oº/ JēIppoS pOSolupų2êu JeļuD WOuDuJe|Jyu o nwy （wy Jago6OWA 60MW|oufi, S S>|ja|O >||Osjøeuouuoo onæ2|| Joyouedo 31 jou daļēļ.Luovuļou6ſs ºg Jæ5Uosse/N SWN>ſooo » Oļowoduoj)[2] ÁIddnç dnsolupųoauj ļouauð9WNune}} noqO JO\u0e6/esD> P > }> —ſ •- - - O O 8 O O O O 2. Z Z Z Plate 16. Battery in Extended Mass Formation. (Note. In the 75-mm Truck-Drawn Gun Battery there are only three platoons.) BAI (ALION COMMANDER and Staff 22 PACES $4ALTED OR MARCH ING an iso and Mo tº rv 12 PACES *ALTED OR MARCHING GU% GA TERY” 12 PACES | É walrto on Manching # $7ANOARO 60ſº BATTLRY * 12 PACES *ALTEO Oſt MARCHING y - Çuſs CATTERY Stºw Aſºo AM GTY Lºſ 12 PACE3 \ MA-7ED OR ºnal immº Plate 17. 75-mm Battalion in Column. Note. In medium battalions there is an additional antitank battery of 75-mm guns. DISMOUNTED DRILL 347 c. The assembly of units in mass formation is directed by the battalion commander. Each battery commander moves his battery to its place in the most convenient manner. d. To assume any formation, the battalion or regimental commander indicates the character of the formation desired, the point where the right (left) of the battalion or regiment is to be, and the direction in which the line or column is to face. º e. Upon completion of the movement ordered by the battalion commander, batteries may be given At ease until another movement is ordered. In ceremonies, units re- main at attention until ordered to stand at ease by the next higher commander. f. After a battalion is halted, its subdivisions make no movement to correct alinement or position unless so directed by the battalion commander. g. When a unit is presented to its commander or to a reviewing officer, the officer who presents it faces his unit in giving the commands 1. Present, 2. ARMS. When all elements of his unit are at Present arms, he faces to the front and salutes with the Hand salute. His staff salutes and terminates the salute with him. His guidon or flag bearer (if any) executes and terminates Present guidon with his salute. É 24 PACES Pt Pt pi Pł Pt 12 PACES | SERV AMo | | | - (5 | | w AM 87 Y GUM 8 f Y . gun ºn Y | | quº ºr wº an HQ ANO HQ B Bahia | | | 6 PACCS 6 PACES & PACIS 6 PACES 12 PACES É CAyrat-foºd croſºfºam fºr AMO STAff BArtsRY comman of Rs. STANDARO GU100N3 Plate 18. 75-mm Battalion in Line with Batteries in Line. h. Formations should be such that the squad columns are all either perpendicular to or parallel to the front. (211) 77. Commands and Orders. The commands or orders of the battalion or regimental commander are given orally, by bugle, by signal, or by means of staff officers or orderlies who communicate the desired directions. (212) 78. Staff. a. The staff of a commander forms in his rear in one rank at a distance of one and one-half paces, the second officer in line immediately in rear of the com- mander. Enlisted personnel form one and one-half paces in rear of the commissioned staff. If only one officer is present, he is posted one pace to the right and one and one- half paces to the rear of the commander. Staff officers are arranged from right to left generally in order of rank, the senior on the right, but the commander may cause them to be arranged in any order desired by him. Enlisted personnel forming with the staff are posted in the same order from right to left as the officers of the staff, except that the bearer of a general officer's flag is on the right. b. When necessary to reduce the front of the staff, as in marching, it forms a column of threes under the direction of the senior staff officer and follows the commander. (213) The Battalion 79. Formations. Formations for the battalion are shown in Plates 17 to 21, inclusive. a. The band, when attached to the battalion, is posted by the adjutant as indicated in Plates 20 and 21. b. Attached units take position as directed by the battalion commander and conform to the formation and movements of the units of the battalion. c. In whatever direction the battalion faces, the batteries are designated numerically from right to left in line and from head to rear in column; that is, first battery, second battery, third battery. d. The terms “right” and “left” apply to actual right and left as the troops face. 348 DISMOUNTED DRILL e. The designation “center battery” indicates the right center or the actual center battery, according to whether the number of batteries is even or odd. f. The battalion commander supervises the formation from such position as will best enable him to correct alinements, intervals, and distances. With his staff (less the adjutant) he takes post in time to receive the report. Pi Fi Piº Pi ºf H H → 5 AND BN HQ A Hº- 6 —- GUN *— 6 —- GUN 4–6 -- 99" |- 6 -- AND —s-— 12 —- BAND M BT Y BTY BT Y BTY HQ BT Y É BATTALION COMMANDER ANO SY AFF i BATTERY COMMANDERS 5 STANDARD GUN BATTERIES MAY FORM W T H 3 T O 6 PACES in TERVAL BETwº EN PLATOONS TO MAKE THE P GUI DONS MASS APPEAR LARGER, Plate 19. 75-mm Battalion in Line with Batteries in Mass Formation. ºf Pi Bi Pi Pi PACES 6 PACES E f y : 4 IN uſ Cl : > : > Čaš ##! 25 2 uſ £o; OC ºr - cC CD H. o: 2 < j <= CO « ſo 5*g (ſ) rº ſo > -E < 4 IN 4 || N 4 || N 4 IN BN COMMANDER AND STAFF STANDARD, IF PRESENT GU DON i BATTERY COMMANDERS Plate 20. 75-mm Battalion in Mass Formation. DISMOUNTED DRILL 349 g. Any formation or combination of formations may be employed to meet existing conditions of space or purpose. (214) 80. To Form in Line With Batteries in Line (For Ceremonies.) a. The adjutant indicates the line on which the battalion is to form with two flags, one on each flank. The adjutant takes post on the right of the line and facing down the line. b. When the band is present, the adjutant causes Adjutant's call to be sounded. c. Batteries are marched from the left flank in column of threes (or fours) to their positions in line, the line of march being sufficiently off the line on which the battalion is to form to permit the expeditious alinement of guides of the right battery by the adjutant. As each battery arrives at its position, it is halted (taking care to halt in rear of the position it is to occupy), faced to the front, and the battery commander orders, Guides on the line. At this command, the guide of each platoon moves to his position REC, 1 NA ENT A L COMMAN DE ANO ST A FF | 2 PACES REG | M. ENT A L. - COM M ANDER A NO 5TAFF BAND * 2 PAC E 6 B AM O 24 PACES w REG | MENTAL 24 PACES HEADQUARTERS 8 TY RECT'L HQ, BTY 36 PAC ES – 36 PAC (ES BATTALION BATTALION A se paces—[] stan OARos 2e Paces- [T] standaros W BATTALI ON BATTALION Yr- Plate 21. 75-mm Regiment in Column Plate 22. 75-mm Regiment in Column With Battalions in Column of with Battalions in Mass Formation. Threes or Fours. on the line indicated by the flags and faces the adjutant. The adjutant will aline the guides of the right battery accurately; the guides of other batteries will cover accurately the guides already on the line, the guides indicating the right of their respective platoons. As soon as the guides have established themselves on the line, the battery is alined as prescribed in paragraph 70. The right man of the front rank places himself so that his chest touches the guide. d. When all units have reached their positions on the line, the band stops playing and the adjutant moves by the most direct route to a position midway between the battalion and the battalion commander and faces the battalion. e. When all units are dressed, the adjutant commands: 1. Guides, 2. POST. At this command, the guides move to their normal position in ranks. (215) 81. To Form in Line With Batteries in Mass Formation (for Ceremonies) (Plate 20). The procedure is the same as in forming in line except that— a. Batteries are marched from either flank in mass formation to their position in line, the line of march being well in rear of the line on which the battalion is to form. 350 DISMOUNTED DRILL When opposite its place in line, each battery executes Left (right) turn. As soon as this column movement has been initiated, the battery commander orders, Guide of right platoon on the line. At this command, the guide of the right platoon moves out at the double time to the line indicated by the flags, halts, comes to the order arms, and faces the adjutant. The guide indicates the right of the battery. b. At the command 1. Guides, 2. POST, the guides move to their normal positions. (216) 82. To Dismiss the Battalion. The battalion commander commands: DISMISS YOUR BATTERIES. a. Each battery commander salutes the battalion commander and marches his battery to the place of dismissal and dismisses it as prescribed in paragraph 69. b. The battalion commander then dismisses the staff, including enlisted personnel. (217) The Regiment 83. In Column With Battalions in Column of Threes or Fours (Plate 21). For marches, vehicles are grouped and follow the regiment or move as a separate detachment at normal motor speed. (218) * 5 * I 2 -º • 12- ºr 12 REGT 8ANO" ºf O. 3T Y d REG M E NT AL COMMANDER AND STArºr & É earrauſon commandess AND STAFF i BATTERY commanoe R or REGT. L. HO CO AND service co [5 STAN DAR D Plate 23. The 75-mm Regiment in Line with Battalions in Mass Formation. 84. In Column With Battalions in Mass Formation. See Plate 22. (219) 85. In Line of Battalions. The battalions may be— a. In mass formation (Plate 23). b. In line of battery masses (Plate 24). (220) 86. To Form the Regiment. a. The regimental commander prescribes the forma- tion, whether it will be with or without vehicles, the place where the regiment is to form, the direction in which the regiment will face, the hour of forming, location of head of column (or right of the line), and the order in column or line of the head- quarters, band, battalions, special and attached units, and trains. b. The regimental commander gives his orders, either orally or in writing. They may be given directly to the officers concerned or may be communicated to them through his staff. DISMOUNTED DRILL 351 c. Before forming the regiment, the regimental commander may cause the positions which are to be taken by the larger elements to be indicated by markers. d. Battalion commanders and commanders of special and attached units move their commands to the place of formation and dispose them as ordered. e. Upon arrival at their designated places in the prescribed formation, battalion and special unit commanders report the fact to the regimental commander; if units are com- bined, the commander thereof reports the arrival of the combined units at their designated place. f. Battalions and special units are given Rest upon arrival at their designated places. g. For ceremonies, the procedure as described for the formation of a battalion is followed except that battalion adjutants take post on the line on which the regiment is to form at Adjutant's call. Battalion adjutants face down the line from position six paces from the point where the right flank of each battalion will rest. When all units of their battalions are on line they move to their posts by the most direct routes. (222) É É * * # $ 8 | 8 8 ATTALION BATTAL 10 N $ 2 6 6 [...] 5 6 6 6 [T] 2 $ 2 [T] 6 On 12 BN 2 BANO r HO REGT : Sry. REGIMENT Au COMMANDER AND STAFF BATTALION COMMANDER AND STAFF 9ATTERY COMMANDER OF REGT'L Ho BTY AND SERVICE BTY 5TANDARDS Plate 24. The 75-mm Regiment in Line with Batteries in Mass Formation. 87. To March. a. The regiment being in any formation, the regimental commander prescribes the formation in which the regiment will march and the route to be followed and puts the command in motion by prescribing the hour, by giving the commands, 1. Forward, 2. MARCH, by bugle, or by signal. b. To march in route column, the regiment is not usually formed and put into march as a unit. Battalion commanders and special and attached unit commanders are in- formed in orders of the destination, route, hour of starting, initial point, order of march, and, if necessary, the distance between elements. They are held responsible ; having their commands take their places in the column at the prescribed times and places. c. The regiment may be formed for march in route column with the foot elements of the different types of platoons and batteries in columns of threes or fours in accord. ance with the formations indicated in Plate 10... If requirements of road space, air defense, or other considerations render it desirable, the foot elements of all platoons and batteries within the regiment may be formed in column of threes, in column of 352 DISMOUNTED DRILL twos on one side of the road, or in column of twos with single files on each side of the road. (223) 88. To Halt. To halt the regiment, the regimental commander may either prescribe the hour when the column will be halted or he may give the command or signal Halt. (224) Plate 25. Formation for Physical Training. Plate 27. Formation for Physical Training. 89. To Dismiss the Regiment. To dismiss the regiment, the regimental commander orders the battalion and special and attached unit commanders to dismiss their organ- izations. The order may be given directly to the commanders concerned or it may be communicated to them through staff officers or messengers. (225) CHAPTER VII FORMATION FOR PHYSICAL TRAINING 90. Formation. The following formation is recommended for the setting-up exercises, it being the simplest and least complicated and more compact than any other. It requires less time and can be applied with equal facility and promptness to any unit, as it re- quires no more time to form a regiment than it does to form a squad. The unit to be drilled is formed in column of fours, facing the instructor, short men in front. a. Count fours. At the command COUNT FOURS each man of each rank except the man on the right flank turns his head and eyes to the right. The right flank man DISMOUNTED DRILL 353 calls out, “One”; the men to his left call out “Two,” “Three,” “Four,” respectively, turning their heads and eyes to the front as they give their numbers. b. 1. Extend to the left, 2. MARCH (Plate 25). At this command No. 1's stand fast, with arms extended sideward; Nos. 2, 3, and 4 turn to the left and, taking up the double time, run forward to the original left, No. 2's taking two paces, No. 3's taking four paces, and No. 4's taking six paces, all facing to the front after taking the re- quired distance, with arms extended sideward, the distance between the fingertips to be about 12 inches. c. 1. Arms, 2. DOWN. At this command the arms are lowered smartly to the sides. The front rank men are now covered by the men in the rear ranks and are too close to carry out the exercises. (Plate 26) sº d. 1. To provide ample space for all the instructor now commands: 1. From front to rear, 2. COUNT FOURS. The men in the front rank count “One”; those in the second rank “Two"; those in the third rank “Three,” etc., throughout the column. (2) The instructor then commands: 1. Even-numbered ranks to the right (left), 2. UNCOVER (Plate 27). At the command, Uncover, each man in an even numbered rank stride jumps sideward to the right, squarely in the middle of the interval. In doing this he swings his right leg sideward and jumps from his left foot and lights on his right foot, smartly bringing the left into position against the right. e. To assemble the command, the instructor commands: 1. Assemble, 2. MARCH. At the command March all return to their original position in column on the double. FA1 (1) CEREMONIES CONTENTS Paragraphs Chapter I. Reviews and Presentation of Decorations 1-10 Chapter II. Parades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-13 Chapter III. Escorts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-16 Chapter IV. Funerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-31 Chapter V. Inspections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-40 (Numbers following paragraphs shown thus: (226) refer to paragraph numbers in FM 22-5, Infantry Drill Regulations. Those shown thus: (27) are from FM 6-5, Organization and Drill. Where applicable, the term “Company” has been changed to “battery” and “color” to “Standard.” Explanations and amplifications of the text are in small type). CHAPTER I REVIEWS AND PRESENTATION OF DECORATIONS . Elements of a Review. A review consists of four parts: : Formation of troops. - . Presentation and honors. Inspection (passing around the troops). . March in review. (226) 2. Commander of Troops. The senior officer present in the ceremony is designated as commanding officer of troops. He is responsible for the formation, presentation, and march in review. A commander reviewing his own troops designates some other officer as commanding officer of troops. When the review is given for a visiting higher com- mander or civilian dignitary, the local commander designates a commanding officer of troops so that he may accompany and receive the review with the visitor. (227) E F Li fu E OF TROOP's F ; i MARKERS F----- -º- F------ se-º- … O PACES - W <- REVIEW NG OF F : C E R Plate 1. To Illustrate Paragraph 3. 3. Preparations. The line on which the troops are to form and along which they are to march is marked out or otherwise designated. The post of the reviewing officer is marked with a flag which will be placed opposite the center of the line of troops. (228) 4. Formations. a. Any of the formations prescribed for the battalion or regiment may be used. Such formation may be modified to meet the local situation. The formation used depends on the space available and the formation in which the units are to pass in review. When practicable, the formation selected should have all squad columns either perpendicular or parallel to the line on which the troops form. 355 356 CEREMONIES b. The following is a list of normal review formations (may be modified to meet local conditions): - Approximate frontage (1) For a battalion: (a) Battalion in line with batteries in mass formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IOO paces Batteries in extended or with mass formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 paces Troops pass in review in battery mass formation. (b) Battalion in line with batteries in line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 paces Troops pass in review in column of threes (or fours). (2) For a regiment: (a) Regiment in line with batteries in mass formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3IO paces Troops pass in review in battery mass formation. gº (b) Regiment in line with battalions in mass formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 paces Troops pass in review in battalion mass formation. (3) Two or more regiments: Regiment in line with each regiment in line of battalion masses. Troops pass in review in battalion mass formation. Note. The approximate frontages for Field Artillery units vary with the type of battalion and regi- ment. The frontages given above may be used as a rough guide. c. In reviews of a regiment or larger group, especially when troops pass in review in mass formation, special arrangements are made to provide for breaking up into march columns after troops have passed the reviewing officer. This may be done by assigning areas which do not block the line of march into which different units can move while still in mass formation. (229) BAND T ROOPS BANO T ROOPS ! ſº I T | <=- +. REVIEW NG OFF , CER REVIEW rv G OFFICER 5C UA O COLUMNS PERFEN DICULAR TO FRONT. SOUA D COLUM NS PARALLEL TO TO PAss JN REvi Ew UNirs ExECUTE column N FRONT. TO PASS ihº REVIEW R J C HT AND FOLLOW LIN E OF MARCH. UNITS EXECUTE RIGHT FAC. § AND FOLLOW Li N E OF MARCH4. Plate 2. To Illustrate Paragraph 4. 5. Formation for Review. a. Battalions and regiments are formed as prescribed. In reviews in which two or more arms are present the troops are arranged as directed by the commander of troops. The following order, from right to left in line, or from head to rear in column, may be used as a guide: infantry regiments and other units which contain foot troops; horse cavalry; horse-drawn artillery; pack artillery; truckdrawn ar- tillery; tractor-drawn artillery; light, medium, heavy; tanks and mechanized cavalry; motorized service units. In each category the units are arranged in order of the rank of their commanders. (230 and 27) i CEREMONIES 357 b. Each regiment may be formed in line with normal or closed intervals, in line of masses, or in such other formation as may be prescribed. When not formed in line with normal intervals (the usual review formation) the review is conducted according to the principles prescribed for the normal formation, each unit being placed in march in time to follow the preceding one at the proper distance. (28) c. Troops move to position in the most convenient manner. In large reviews, the commanding officer of troops prescribes the routes and time of arrival. If the frontage of units has been measured and marked, they may arrive in any convenient order and occupy their place in line. If this is not done, units must form successively from the right. The former method is preferable in large mixed commands. (230) d. At ceremonies, the pieces of horse-drawn artillery are in front unless the formation is in double section. (27) : e. Enlisted men mounted on chests fold their arms while at the halt and the walk; at the trot and the gallop they hold to the side rails or the straps. Those in motor vehicles fold their arms if seated, otherwise they hold on. (27) f. Horse-drawn artillery passes in review at a walk and at faster gaits when ordered. When passing at gaits other than the walk, no salutes are made except by the com- mander of the troops when he leaves the reviewing officer. (27) g. Officers in motor vehicles salute with the hand. (27) h. When commanders are mounted in motor vehicles, they dismount and take posts as prescribed or as directed from the time their units arrive on the line until the com- mand Pass in review. (230) i. In field artillery brigade (regimental) reviews, the brigade (regimental) com- mander and staff take post 30 yards in front of the line of regimental (battalion) com- manders when in line and 30 yards in front of the leading regimental (battalion) commander when in column. In passing in review, the brigade (regimental) commander takes post 30 yards in front of the leading regimental (battalion) commander when about 100 yards from the reviewing officer. (28) t-OCAt- REVIEWING CIVILIAN COMMANDER OFFICER [ ] [T] SY AFF OF LOCAL COMMAN DER STAFF OF REVIEWING OFFICER _A. er * L– L = [− ETE- FLAG OF FLAG OF l–OCAU- REVIEW NC COMMANOER OFFICER Plate 3. The Reviewing Party. i. (1) When all units are formed and alined, the troops are presented to the com- mander of troops by a designated staff officer. The commander of troops and his staff take position so as to be in front of the post of the reviewing officer, midway between the line of the next lower commanders in the formation and the post of the reviewing officer if not already in such position. (2) If the formation contains more than one regiment, the regimental commanders direct their regiments to present arms starting with the center (or right center) regiment and continuing simultaneously toward both flanks. If the formation consists of a single regiment the same principle is followed. Battalions execute Present arms, Order arms, or other movements of the manual at the commands of the battalion commanders. . If the formation consists of a single battalion, it presents arms at the command of the adjutant. (3) The commander of troops returns the salute of the staff officer who presented the command and directs him to take his post. He then brings the command to the 358 CEREMONIES order and gives Rest or At ease. The commander of troops and his staff then form so as to face the post of the reviewing officer. (230) . (4) Staff and orderlies salute only when the command is presented to the review- ing officer. At other times they stand at attention at Order arms. (230) 6. Reviewing Party. a. When the formation has been completed, the reviewing officer with his staff and orderlies moves to his position opposite the center of the line of troops to receive the review. b. The local commander (if not acting as commander of troops), distinguished civilians invited to accompany the reviewing officer, staffs, and enlisted personnel take positions facing the troops as shown in Plate 3 with one and one-half paces distance between ranks. When an organization is to be reviewed before an inspecting or other officer junior in rank to the local commander, the latter takes position on the left of the local commander. c. An officer from the local staff is designated to escort distinguished civilians and to indicate to them their proper places. If a civilian is to receive the review, he takes position on the right of the local commander and, if necessary, timely explanation of the ceremony is made to him. The reviewing party is mounted only when the commander of troops is likewise mounted. When the commander of troops is in a motor vehicle, the reviewing officer receives the review on foot. (231) 7. Presentation and Honors. a. As the reviewing officer moves to his position, the commander of troops brings his command to attention. Troops come to attention at the commands of their respective battalion commanders. b. When the reviewing officer is in position, the commander of troops faces his troops and directs Present arms, which is executed in the same manner prescribed in paragraph 5. When all units have come to Present arms, he turns about and salutes the reviewing officer. His staff and orderlies salute with him. c. The band (or a designated band near the center of the command, if more than one band is present) or field music then sounds the honors. When the honors are completed, the commander of troops terminates his salute (his staff conforming) and brings the troops to Order arms. If the formation consists of more than one battalion, he orders At ease. & d. When artillery is present in the review and when the commander of troops deems it practicable, a salute may be fired. The first gun is fired with the first note of the honors. The detachment firing the salute rejoins its unit after the salute is fired. The salute may be fired for those entitled to a gun salute in addition to the salute provided in AR 500-25 for visiting officials. Its use should be limited to special ceremonial occasions and when the presence of civilian spectators makes desirable an especially impressive ceremony. º e. When the grade of the reviewing officer entitles him to the honor, each regimental standard and color salutes with its command. f. The reviewing officer, his staff, and all military spectators salute at the first note of the music and retain the salute until music and gun salute are completed. g. Honors. The officials named in the table on the following page will be rendered salutes and honors as indicated. (232) 8. Inspection. a. The reviewing officer and his party move forward to the commander of troops. The two exchange salutes. Staffs do not salute. The commander of troops then conducts the reviewing party around the formation, beginning with the unit on the right of the line and passing in front of the line and then back around the rear of the formation. While passing around the troops, the reviewing officer may direct that his staff, flag, and orderlies remain at the post of the reviewing officer, or that only his personal staff and flag accompany him. The commander of troops and the local commander accompanying the reviewing officer while he passes around the troops and march on that side of the reviewing officer which is away from the troops. The staffs of the commander of troops, of the local commander (if present), and of the reviewing officer follow, each staff following its own commander in column of files. In passing around the troops, the staffs maintain the formation in which they commence their march. If the inspection is to be made in motor cars, the reviewing party enters CEREMONIES 359 © # g; 9; ; : Music Cross reference * # 5 3 §§ to AR 600-30 -; -j C p: President . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2I 4||National Anthem . . . . . 24, Ex-President . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2I 4|March . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2C. Chief magistrate or sovereign q of a jº country l 2I 4|National Anthem . . . . . 2b. mbers of a reigning roya * * * * * * * e s tº º s. º y º 2 I 4 || National Anthem . . . . . 2b. Vice-President foreign amb tº ºf I9 4|March . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2C. American or foreign ambas- sador . . . . . . ** * * * * * * * * * . 19 4 || National Anthem . . . . . 2e (1) (b). High commissioner or other diplomatic officer cqual or e . to an ambassador 19 4 || National Anthem . . . . . 2e (1) (b). High commissioner to the Commonwealth of the Phil- tº ippine Islands . . . . . . . . . . I9 4||National Anthem . . . . . 2e (1) (c). President º the É. lth of the Philippine i. * * * * * * is e º e º * -, I9 4||National Anthem ..... 2e (1) (c). Secretary of War . . . . . . . . . . I9 4|March . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2e (1) (a). Members of the Cabinet . I9 4|March . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2e (1) (a) President pro tempore of the Senate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I9 4|March . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2e (1) (d) Governor of a State . . . . . . I9 4 || March . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2c (1) (g) The Chief Justice . . . . . . . . . I9 4 || March . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2e (1) (c). General of the Armies . . . . . 19 4|General's March . . . . . 2d (1) and (2) (a). Assistant Secretary of War . 17 4|March . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2e (1) (i). Assistant Secretary of the tº Navy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 4|March . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2e (1) (j). Governors of Territories or foreign possessions within the limits of their respec- tive jurisdictions . . . . . . . . 17 4|March . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2e (1) (h). Speaker of the House of Representatives . . . . . . . . . 17 4|March . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2e (1) (e). A committee of Congress 17 4 || March . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2e (1) (f). Chief of Staff . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 4|General's March . . . . . . 2d (1) and (2) (a). Former Chief of Staff . . . . . . 17 4|General's March . . . . . . 2d (1) and (2) (a). General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 4|General's March . . . . . . 2d (1) and (2) (a). Vice-Governor of the Philip- pine Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 3 || March . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2e (2). American envoys or minis- ters and foreign envoys or r^*nisters accredited to the United States . . . . . . . . . . . 15 3 || March . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2c (2). Wieutenant general . . . . . . . . 15 3|General's March . . . . . . 2d (1) and (2) (b). Major general . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3 2 General's March . . . . . . 2d (1) and (2) (c). American ministers resident -- ---------------------- - - -- ------- -*-*. and ministers resident ac- credited to the United States * * * * * * * * * * a s a s I3 2 || March . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 (3). American charges d'affaires and charges d'affaires ac- credited to the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Y I 1 | March . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2e (4). Brigadier General . . . . . . . . . I I I General’s March . . . . . . 2d (1) and (2) (d). Consuls general accredited to the United States . . . . . . . . II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Consuls accredited to the United States . . . . . . . . . . 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vice-consuls of consular arrents accredited to the United States . . . . . . . . . . . 5 • * * * * * * * * * s is s is e < e g º e a 360 CEREMONIES cars which drive up to the post of the reviewing officer after completion of the honors. One seat in each car on the side away from the troops during the inspection is left vacant. The cars move to the post of the commander of troops. The commander of troops enters the car with the reviewing officer. A staff officer enters each of the other cars. Orderlies and flag remain at their posts. b. The reviewing officer makes such general inspection of the command as he may desire while passing around the troops. A detailed inspection is not a part of the cere- mony of review. c. The band of an organization plays while the reviewing officer is in front or rear of the organization. d. If the formation is standing at ease each battery or massed unit is brought to attention as the reviewing party approaches. - e. As the reviewing party approaches each front line battery or battalion (if the battalion is in mass formation), its commander gives the commands, 1. Eyes, 2. RIGHT. The men execute Eyes right and as soon as the reviewing officer comes into their line of vision they follow him with their eyes, turning the head, until the reviewing officer reaches their front when the head and eyes of each man, individually, remain fixed to the front. f. On arriving again at the right of the band after passing around the line, the commander of troops salutes the reviewing officer and halts (or dismounts from his car). The reviewing officer and the commander of troops with their staffs then return to their respective posts. (233) 9. To March in Review. a. When the reviewing party is again in place, the com- mander of troops commands: PASS IN REVIEW. At the command Pass in review, the band of the right unit changes direction, if necessary, and halts. b. When the band has halted, the commander of the unit next to the band gives the command to put the troops in march in the formation designed for the review. Troops pass in review in quick time only. (234) c. After the command Pass in review, and the band is in position, the battalion commander of the unit next to the band commands: 1. By the right flank, 2. MARCH. At the command March, if the units are formed in line at normal intervals, all units move out together, the band playing. If units are formed in line with reduced intervals, the movement is executed successively from the right. Without command from the battalion commander, the column changes direction at the points indicated so as to pass in review in column of batteries at full distances with guide to the right. If in a battalion review, the battalion commander takes his post 30 yards in front of the band immediately after the second change of direction. If in a regimental or brigade review, each battalion conforms to the movements of the leading battalion, its commander taking post 30 yards in front of the leading battery commander. When closed in mass, the above distances are suitably reduced. (28) d. The above is the normal method of passing in review, but each battalion may pass in column of batteries at closed intervals, in double section column or flank column, or in any suitable formation the reviewing officer may direct. For truck-drawn artillery, each battalion in line of section columns is an appropriate formation for passing in re- view. To effect this, the initial formation of each battalion is column of batteries in line of vehicles. (28) e. Other units move out in succession so as to follow at the prescribed distance. f. The band and each unit change direction at the points indicated without com- mand from the commander of troops. At each change of direction the commander of each mass formation (battery or battalion) in turn commands: 1. Left turn, 2. MARCH, 3. Forward, 4. MARCH. The third and fourth commands are given so that the unit steps off at full step when the change of direction is completed. g. Regimental commanders and battalion commanders move into position in the column at the head of their troops after the first change of direction. h. The commander of troops moves into position at the head of the column after the second change in direction. i. Each commander, when he arrives six paces from the front of the reviewing officer, CEREMONIES 361 salutes. He terminates the salute when his staff has passed six paces beyond the review- ing officer. His staff salutes, and terminates the salute with him. j. Each band executes Column left when it has passed the reviewing officer. It exe- cutes a second Column left and a third Column left so as to place the band in front of and facing the reviewing officer and at least 12 paces from the left flank of the marching troops. It continues to play until the regiment has passed. It then ceases playing and follows in rear of its regiment. The band of the following regiment com- mences to play as soon as the preceding band has ceased. In large commands, two bands may remain alongside of each other after they have turned out of column to alternate in playing the troops by. (234) - Such an arrangement is necessary to rest the musicians if the playing of march music is to be long continued. In large commands, bands may be massed and posted as directed by the commander of troops as another alternative. K. Each battery commander (or the senior battery commander if the battalion is in mass formation), when six paces from the front of the reviewing officer, without turn- ing his body, commands: 1. Eyes, 2. RIGHT; 3. Ready, 4. FRONT. He gives the command Right when he is six paces from the front of the reviewing officer, and the command Front when the rear of his unit has passed six paces beyond the reviewing officer. He brings his saber to the first position of Present saber at the command Eyes and to the second position at the command Right. He resumes the carry at the com- mand Front. In each battery or mass formation the men on the right do not execute Eyes right. l. When passing in review, at the commands 1. Eyes, 2. RIGHT, the following salute: (1) The officer who gives the command and his staff execute Present saber (or Hand salute if armed with pistol). Orderlies execute Hand salute. Guidon or flag bearers execute Present guidon. They all terminate the salute (or come to carry saber or guidon) with the commander. (2) In battalion mass formation at the commands 1. Eyes, 2. RIGHT, battery commanders and officers in the front rank of the mass execute Present saber (or Hand salute if armed with pistol). No others salute. (3) In a battery not part of a battalion mass formation, platoon leaders execute Present saber (or Hand salute if armed with pistol). (4) All terminate the salute at the command FRONT. Those with saber or guidon return to the carry. (5) The band leader and the drum major execute and terminate the salute at the points prescribed for other commanders. (6) If the reviewing officer is entitled to a standard salute, the regimental standard salutes when at six paces from his front and is raised when at six paces beyond him. m. Troops march in review with the guide toward the flank on which the reviewing officer is posted. n. After saluting the reviewing officer in passing in review, the commander of troops turns out of the column and takes post on the side of the reviewing officer toward the direction of march of the command, and returns saber. The members of his staff accompany him, take post on the corresponding side of the reviewing officer's staff, and return saber with him. When the rear element of his command has passed, the com- manding officer of the troops, without changing his position, salutes the reviewing officer with the hand salute. He and the members of his staff then rejoin the command. If the person reviewing the command is not mounted, the commanding officer and his staff, on turning out of the column after passing the reviewing officer, dismount preparatory to taking post. In such case the salute of the commanding officer, prior to rejoining his command, is made before remounting. If the commanding officer and his staff are in motor cars, the cars are parked on the side of the reviewing officer toward the direction of march and in rear of the lines occupied by the reviewing officer, the commanding / officer, and their staffs. (234) o. In horse-drawn units when sufficient space is available, the leading battery executes By the right flank after passing at least 100 yards beyond the reviewing officer and then proceeds by appropriate changes in direction to the ground originally occupied, in- 362 - CEREMONIES creasing the gait as necessary to prevent blocking batteries in rear. The other batteries execute the same movements successively on the same ground. When space is re- stricted, each battalion commander gives the necessary orders for the changes of direction after passing the reviewing officer. (28) p. All individuals at the reviewing stand salute the standard as it passes. When passing around the troops the reviewing officer and those accompanying him salute the standard when passing in front of it. q. The reviewing officer returns the salute of the commanding officer of the troops and the salutes of subordinate commanders down to include the battalion commanders. Those who accompany the reviewing officer do not salute. (234) r. For motorized and pack artillery, the review terminates when the rear element has passed the reviewing officer. In horse-drawn units, when the leading battalion arrives in column on the ground originally occupied, the battalion commander, if so directed, gives commands for passing in review at an increased gait; battalions following conform. The review for the combat train of a horse-drawn battalion terminates when it has passed the reviewing officer. It thereupon conducts itself as previously ordered by the battalion commander. (28) 10. Presentation of Decorations. a. A review is ordinarily held on occasions of the presentation of decorations or of the decoration of the colors. After the reviewing officer has passed around the line and resumed his post, the commanding officer of the troops from his own post commands (or orders, or signals): 1. Persons to be decorated and all standards, center, 2. MARCH. At the command March, persons to be decorated and all colors move by the most direct route and take post as follows: (1) The persons to be decorated in a single rank in the center of the command and 10 paces in front of the line of battery commanders according to the rank of the decora- tions to be conferred. Those receiving similar awards take position in accordance with their military rank. (2) Colors or standards to be decorated in single rank five paces in front of the center of the line of persons to be decorated in groups according to rank of decoration to be bestowed, highest ranking decoration on the right. (3) All other standards with standard guards in single rank five paces in rear of the center of the persons to be decorated and in the same relative position as their location in the command. (4) The commander of troops takes post five paces in front of the center of the leading element. He then commands: 1. Forward, 2. MARCH. At the command March, the commanding officer, the persons to be decorated, and the standards advance, the band playing. The commander of troops marches on the reviewing officer. In all ranks the guide is center. The detachment is halted by the commander of troops when he has reached a point 10 paces from the reviewing officer by the commands: 1. De- tachment, 2. HALT. He then salutes the reviewing officer and reports, “Sir, the persons (standards) to be decorated are present.” The reviewing officer returns the salute and directs that the command be presented. The commander of troops returns to his post in front of the center of his command by moving around the right flank of the persons or standards to be decorated and then directly to his post. On reaching his post he commands: PRESENT ARMS, faces about, and salutes. The band then plays the National Anthem. If only field music is present, it sounds To the Standard. On completion of the music, the commanding officer of the troops brings the com- mand to the order. If the formation consists of more than one battalion, he directs At ease. The persons to be decorated salute and terminate the salute at the commands of Present arms and Order arms given by the commander of troops. (5) A designated staff officer then reads the order announcing the awards. After the reading of the order, the reviewing officer, accompanied if necessary by his staff or designated members thereof advances to the standards and to the line of persons to be decorated, fastens the appropriate streamer to the staff of the standard, and pins the decoration award on the left breast of each person. He then directs the commanding officer of the troops to march the command in review and resumes his post. The per- sons decorated form line on the left of the reviewing officer or as otherwise directed, and the standards return to their posts by the most direct route. (234) CHAPTER II PARADES 11. Ceremonial Parade. a. This parade is the same as a review except that the appear- ance and movement of troops in formation are the primary considerations. For this reason the troops usually form without heavy weapons or transportation and all batteries form and execute the movements described for foot troops. Small headquarters batteries and detachments are attached to larger units. The march to the initial formation is made to music (band, bugles, or drums). Escort of the standard (par. 10) or the presentation of decorations (par. 9) may be included in a ceremonial parade after the troops have been presented to the reviewing officer. b. At evening parade, as soon as the troops are formed and brought to present arms, the commander of troops commands: SOUND RETREAT (or gives a signal to the band or bugles). The bugles sound Retreat and immediately afterward the band plays the National Anthem (if no band is present the bugles sound To the Color). When the evening parade is held on an Army Post, the evening gun is fired at the last note of retreat and the post flag is lowered as the band plays the National Anthem. c. The commanding officer of troops remains facing the troops and salutes at the first note of the National Anthem. At the last note of the National Anthem he faces the reviewing officer and salutes him. The reviewing officer returns the salute. The commanding officer of troops brings the troops to Order arms and the ceremony pro- ceeds as for a review except that the reviewing officer does not inspect or pass around the troops. (237) 12. Special Ceremonial Parade. a. The special parade ceremonies described herein are for use at the option of local commanders in lieu of the regular ceremony prescribed in paragraph 11. Training in these special ceremonies is not mandatory. (319) b. Battalion parade. (1) At Adjutant's call the troops without transportation are formed in line with batteries in line or in line with batteries in mass (or extended mass) formation as for review but not presented. The battalion commander takes post at a convenient distance in front of the center of, and facing the troops. (2) The adjutant takes post between the battalion commander and the center of the troops and commands: 1. Parade, 2. REST. After the troops have executed Parade rest, he commands: SOUND OFF. The adjutant and the battalion commander and his staff stand at attention during the Sound Off and march by the band. (3) The band, in place, plays the Sound Off of three chords, and at the conclusion of the third chord moves forward, playing a march in quick time. It executes Column left so as to march across the front of the troops midway between the adjutant and the line troops. When the band has passed the left of the line, it countermarches and returns over the same ground to the right of the line. After it passes beyond the right of the troops, it executes Column right. When the entire band has passed beyond the front rank of the troops, it again countermarches and halts in its original position. When the band ceases playing the march, the Sound Off is again played. At the evening parade, Retreat is then sounded by the field music. Following the last note and while the flag is being lowered, the band plays the National Anthem. The evening cannon salute is fired on the last note of Retreat. (4) Immediately after the last note of Retreat, the adjutant commands: 1. Battalion, 2. ATTENTION, 3. Present, 4. ARMS. The adjutant facing the troops then salutes The troops remain at Present arms during the playing of the National Anthem. The adjutant then turns about facing the battalion commander, salutes, and reports, “Sir, the parade is formed.” The battalion commander directs the adjutant, “Take your post, Sir,” and draws saber. The adjutant passes by the battalion commander's right and takes post one and one-half paces to the rear and one pace to the right of the battalion com- mander. (5) The battalion commander then commands: 1. Order, 2. ARMS, and gives such movements in the manual of arms as he may desire. Officers, noncommissioned officers 363 364 CEREMONIES commanding platoons, the color guard, and guidon bearers having once executed the Order, remain in that position during the movements of the manual. (6) The battalion commander then directs the adjutant, “Receive the reports, Sir.” The adjutant, passing by the battalion commander's right, advances toward the center of the battalion, halts midway between it and the battalion commander, and com- mands: REPORT. - (a) At the command Report, the battery commanders in succession from the right salute and report, “A (or others) battery, present or accounted for;” or, “A (or other) (so many) officers or men absent.” The adjutant returns each battery com- mander's salute after the report is made and understood. He returns to the Carry after acknowledging each salute. (b) The reports received, the adjutant turns about, salutes, and reports, “Sir, all present or accounted for”; or “Sir, (so many) officers or men absent,” including among the absentees those from the band and field music reported to him by the band leader prior to the parade. (7) The battalion commander then directs, “Publish the orders, Sir.” The ad- jutant turns about and commands: ATTENTION TO ORDERS. He publishes the orders and then commands: 1. Officers, 2. Center, 3. MARCH. After giving the com- mand March, the adjutant turns about and takes his post with the battalion commander. (8) At the command Officers, all battery officers execute Carry saber, guidon bearers execute Carry guidon. When batteries are in line, at the command Center, all battery commanders, officers commanding platoons, and guidon bearers face to the center. When batteries are in mass formation, at the command Center, all battery commanders and guidon bearers face to the center. Officers commanding platoons step one pace forward and face to the center. Officers second in command move around the flank nearest to the center and take post in the column formed by the platoon leaders. At the command March, the band plays, officers and guidon bearers close to the center, halt, and individually face to the front; commanders when moving to the center, oblique to the front and close on a line four paces in advance of the line of guidon bearers; guidon bearers close on their own line, each taking post in rear of his own commander; all other officers close on the line of platoon leaders. (9) The officers and guidon bearers having closed and faced to the front, the senior commands: 1. Forward, 2. MARCH. The officers and guidon bearers advance, the center officer of the leading rank being the guide, and march on the battalion com- mander. The officers and guidon bearers are halted by the senior with the leading rank six paces from the battalion commander. They halt and salute the battalion com- mander, who returns the salute. The battalion commander then commands: 1. Carry, 2. SABER. At the first command, the guidon bearers grasp the lance with the left hand, executing the first position of Carry guidon, and officers execute Order saber At the second command, the officers execute Carry saber, the guidon bearers completing the carry guidon. The battalion commander then gives such instructions as he deems necessary and commands: 1. Officers, 2. Post, 3. MARCH. (10) At the command Posts, all officers and guidon bearers face about. (11) At the command March, they step off with the guide as before, the center officer of the leading rank being the guide. The senior commands: 1. Officers, 2. HALT, so as to halt the leading rank six paces from the line of batteries when batteries are in line and three paces when batteries are in mass formation. He then commands: 1. Posts, 2. MARCH. , - f (12). At the command Posts, officers and guidon bearers face outward, and at the command March, officers step off in succession at four paces distance, resume their posts, and execute Order saber; guidon bearers step off with their battery commanders, re- sume their posts, and execute Order guidon. The music ceases to play when the last officer has resumed his post. During the execution of Officers, Center and Officers, Posts, all officers and guidon bearers, remain at Carry saber and Carry guidon except when saluting the battalion commander. (13) The battalion commander then gives the commands for the battalion to pass in review and returns saber. r CEREMONIES' 365 (14) The battalion passes in review according to the commands and principles iven for a review. When the last battery has passed, the ceremony is concluded. (15) The band continues to play while the batteries are in march upon the parade ground. After passing in review, batteries are marched to their respective parades and dismissed. (320) c. Regimental parade. The regiment is ordinarily formed in line of batteries with batteries in mass formation. The parade proceeds as for the battalion with the following exceptions: (1) “Regimental commander” is substituted for “battalion commander,” and “regi- ment” for “battalion” in the description; and “battalions” for “battalion” in the com- mands. (2) In moving across the front of the regiment, the band passes midway between the adjutant and the line of battalion commanders. (3) The battalions execute Present arms, Order arms, Parade rest, and come to Attention at the command of execution of their respective commanders, starting with the center (or right center) battalion and continuing simultaneously toward each flank. Reports are made by battalion instead of company commanders. (4) After making his report the adjutant commands: 1. Officers, 2. Center, and 3. MARCH. Battalion commanders and their staffs close on the line of battalion com- manders, battery commanders oblique to the front and close on a line four paces in their rear, guidon bearers oblique to the front and close on a line four paces in rear of the battery commanders, other officers oblique to the front and close on a line four paces in rear of the guidon bearers. (5) The officers and guidon bearers are returned to their posts and the regiment marches in review as in battalion parade. (321) 13. Street Parades. a. For street parades, troops are formed and marched in the most convenient manner. Street parades may include transportation. Weapons transporta- tion with the weapon towed or set up in the vehicles when practicable adds to the effect of a street parade. Cargo vehicles are included only when it is desired to increase the size of the display. b. Among the formations which may be used for street parades are column of threes or fours; two or more columns of threes or fours abreast; mass formation. c. Transportation marches in single column, or column of twos, threes, or fours as the street width permits. - ~ d. In long street parades rifles may be carried slung over the right shoulder with bayonets fixed. (238) - CHAPTER III ESCORTS 14. Escort of the Standard. a. Mounted. The ceremony is executed mounted by the light and medium field artillery only, and is conducted in a manner similar to that pre- scribed for dismounted ceremonies with the following modifications: (1) The escort marches in flank column, the standard bearers (or bearer) at the center of the column. * : (2) When halted facing the entrance to the regimental commander's office or quarters, the escort is formed in line, the standard bearers midway between the two center sections on a line with the muzzles. The senior lieutenant, the standard bearers, and a sergeant designated by the commander of the escort dismount, their horses being held by a bugler, and obtain the standards. They then mount and form facing the center of the escort, the bugler returning to his post. The battery commander commands 1. Present, 2. ARMS. The officers of the escort present arms, the regimental standard, if present, and the guidon salute, the bugler sounding To the Standard. (3) In a motorized battery, all officers and men are dismounted after the battery has been formed facing the regimental commander's office or quarters. They are mounted after the buglers have sounded To the Standard. After the escort has been 366 CEREMONIES marched back to the regiment and has been halted in line opposite the center of the regiment, they are again dismounted. (4) The lead drivers of the escort, when halted facing the regiment, will be 90 yards in front of the line of batteries. (30) 15. Escort of the Standard, Dismounted. a. The regiment being in line, the regimental commander details a battery to receive and escort the national standard to its place. For this ceremony the regimental standard forms with the standard guard at its post with the regiment. b. The band moves straight to its front until clear of the line of battalion com- manders, changes direction if necessary, and halts. The designated battery forms column of threes or fours 15 paces in rear of band with the standard bearer in rear of leading platoon. The escort then marches without music to the regimental commander's office or quarters and forms line facing the entrance. The standard bearer, preceded by the senior lieutenant and followed by a sergeant of the escort, obtains the standard. c. When the standard bearer returns, followed by the lieutenant and the sergeant, he halts before the entrance, facing the escort. The lieutenant places himself on the right and the sergeant on the left of the standard bearer. The escort then presents arms and the field music sounds To the Standard. The lieutenant and the sergeant salute at the command of the battery commander. Arms are brought to the order; the lieutenant and the sergeant return to their posts. The battery is formed in column, the band taking post in front of the column. The standard bearer places himself in the center of the space in rear of the leading platoon. The escort then marches back to the regiment, the band playing. The march is conducted so that the escort arrives at a point about 50 paces in front of the right of the regiment and then passes parallel to its front. When the standard arrives opposite the center of the regiment, the escort is formed in line facing the regiment. The standard bearer moves to a position six paces in front of the regimental commander. d. The standard bearer having halted, the regimental commander, who, prior to the arrival of the standard bearer, has taken post 30 paces in front of the center of the regiment, turns about and brings the regiment to Present arms. The regimental commander then turns to the front and salutes. The field music sounds To the Standard when the regimental commander salutes. The regimental commander then turns about and brings the regiment to the order and the standard bearer moves to his post beside the regimental standard bearer. The escort executes Present arms and Order arms at the command of its commander who then forms it in column to the right and, pre- ceded by the band, marches it to its place, passing around the left flank of the regiment. The band plays until the escort passes the left of the line. The band then returns to its post on the right, passing in rear of the regiment. The regiment may be given the command Rest when the escort passes the left of the line. e. Escort of the standard is executed by a battalion according to the same principles as for a regiment. (235) 16. Escort of Honor, Dismounted. a. Escorts of honor are detailed for the purpose of receiving and escorting personages of high rank, civil or military. The troops detailed for this duty are selected for their soldierly appearance and superior discipline. b. The escort forms in line, opposite the place where the personage is to present himself, the band on the flank of the escort toward which it is to march. On the appearance of the personage, the escort will be brought to attention and, when he has taken position from which to receive them, the honors due his rank will be rendered. Ordinarily the person so honored will inspect his escort. The escort then forms column and takes up the march. The personage with his staff or retinue takes position in rear of the column. When the personage leaves the escort, line is again formed, and, when he has taken position from which to receive them, the same honors are rendered as on his arrival. c. When the position of the escort is at a considerable distance from the point where the personage is to be received, for instance, where a courtyard or wharf intervenes, CEREMONIES 367 a double line of sentinels, facing inward, is posted from that point to the escort. The sentinels successively salute as the personage passes. d. An Officer is designated to accompany the personage (236) e. Escort of honor, mounted. (1) The procedure corresponds to that prescribed for dismounted ceremonies. @ º escort forms in line when practicable. It marches in an appropriate forma- tion. (30 CHAPTER IV FUNERALS 17. General. a. Military funerals are divided into three classes as follows: (1) With chapel service, followed by march to the grave (or place of local dis- position), with the prescribed escort. (2) Without chapel service, but with funeral procession forming at the entrance to the cemetery or at a point within a reasonable marching distance therefrom. (3) With graveside service only. b. A full military funeral normally consists of the following elements: (1) Band. * (2) Escort appropriate to the grade of the deceased, including firing party and bugler (AR 600-30). (3) Standards. (4) Clergy. (5) Caisson and casket bearers. (6) Caparisoned horse (if the deceased was mounted). (7) Honorary pallbearers. c. The services of an Army chaplain will be provided unless otherwise requested by the family of the deceased or its representative. A civilian clargyman may be sub- stituted for or act in conjunction with the Army chaplain. The desires of the family are paramount and will be given the fullest consideration as to the selection of elements involved, but the funeral will be conducted in accordance with these regulations. d. The commanding officer or his representative will assist in making funeral ar- rangements and will supervise the conduct of the funeral. e. The selection of honorary pallbearers, if they are desired, will be made by the family of the decaesed, or its representatives, otherwise by the commanding officer. f. At a military funeral, all persons in the military service in uniform or in civilian clothes, attending in their individual capacity, will stand at attention uncovered and hold the headdress over the left breast at any time when the casket is being moved by the casket bearers and during services at the grave, including the firing of volleys, and the sounding of Taps. During the prayers, they will also bow their heads. In cold or inclement weather, they will remain covered and execute the hand salute at any time when the casket is being moved by the casket barers and during the firing of volleys and sounding of Taps. - g. Whenever arms are presented at a military funeral of a person entitled to personal honors, the prescribed ruffles and flourishes will be sounded, followed immediately by the National Anthem (To the Standards) if only field music is present, or the march pre- scribed for the grade of the deceased, except where arms are presented at the close of the benediction at the grave. h. The word “chapel” as used herein is interpreted to include the church, home, or other place where services are held, exclusive of the service at the grave. i. The word “casket” is interpreted to include the receptacle containing the cremated remains of the deceased. (243) 18. With Chapel Service. a. Prior to the beginning of the service, the funeral escort is formed in line opposite and facing the chapel, the band on the flank toward which it is to march. (244) (1) When the escort, if mounted, is formed opposite the point at which the 368 CEREMONIES casket is received, cannoneers remain mounted in horse-drawn units; they dismount in truck-drawn units. (2) The escort marches in flank or section column. (30) b. Members of the immediate family, relatives, and friends of the deceased will be requested to enter the chapel and be seated before the casket is taken in. Members of the immediate family and relatives should occupy front seats on the right of the chapel. c. The conveyance bearing the remains to the chapel should arrive in front of the chapel a few moments before the time set for the chapel service. When all is in readiness to move the casket into the chapel, the commander of the escort will bring the escort to Attention and command: 1. Present, 2. ARMS. At the command Arms, the band plays an appropriate air; the casket is removed from the conveyance by the casket bearers and carried between the ranks of honorary pallbearers, if present, into the chapel. When the casket has been carried into the chapel, the band ceases playing. The escort is then brought to the Order and may be permitted to stand at ease. d. If honorary pallbearers are present, they will be formed in two ranks (each facing the other) forming an aisle from the conveyance to the entrance of the chapel. At the first note of the music and while the casket is being borne between ranks of honorary pallbearers, they will stand at Attention, uncovered, and hold the headdress over the left breast. In cold or inclement weather, they will remain covered and will execute the Hand salute. They will then follow the casket in column of twos and occupy pews to the left front. e. When the casket has been placed upon the church truck, the casket bearers will form behind the honorary pallbearers and be seated behind them to the left front of the chapel. If there are no honorary pallbearers, the casket bearers will follow the casket in a column of twos and be seated as indicated above. Upon completion of the chapel service, the casket bearers will follow the honorary pallbearers or, if none are present, the chaplain, to the entrance of the chapel. f. Upon completion of the chapel service, the honorary pallbearers will follow the chap- lain in column of twos as the casket is moved to the entrance of the chapel. They will again form an aisle from the entrance of the chapel to the caisson or hearse and pro- ceed as prescribed in d above. When the casket has been placed on the caisson they will, if marching, form column of files on each side of the caisson, the leading member of each column opposite the front wheels of the caisson. If riding, they will enter their conveyances at this time. g. The casket will be moved to the entrance immediately behind the honorary pall- bears and casket bearers followed by the family group. As soon as the honorary pall- bearers have taken their positions (f above), casket bearers will carry the casket to the caisson and form in column of twos behind it. The family group will remain at the chapel entrance until the honorary pallbearers have broken ranks to enter their con- veyances or have taken their positions at the caisson. The family group will then be conducted to their conveyances. (244) 19. Escort, Dismounted. a. The funeral escort and band will follow the procedure prescribed in c above when the casket appears at the entrance of the chapel at the con- clusion of the service. The band will cease playing when the casket has been secured to the caisson. b. The procession is then formed in the following order: (1) Band. (2) Escort, including standards, firing party, and bugler. (3) Clergy. (4) Caisson and honorary pallbearers, if walking. (5) Casket bearers. (6) Caparisoned horse, if the deceased was mounted. (7) Honorary pallbearers, if riding in cars. (8) Family. (9) Patriotic or fraternal organizations, (10) Friends. - CEREMONIES 369 c. When the procession has been formed, the band and the escort are put in march by the commander of the escort. Elements in rear conform. The procession marches slowly to solemn music. d. As the procession approaches the grave, marching elements march directly to posi- tions previously determined. The band and military escort will be formed in line, facing the grave; other marching elements being placed as near as practicable to the grave. The firing party will be so placed that it will not fire directly over the mourners. (244) 20. Funeral Escort, Mounted. The conduct of funerals and the size of funeral escorts are as prescribed in FM 22.5, with the following modifications applicable to Field Artillery in funeral escorts: (a) Arriving at the grave, the escort will be formed in battery with the muzzles pointing away from the grave, and the gun squads formed in rear of their pieces facing the grave. During the reading of the services, dismounted members of the escort conform to the procedure prescribed for funerals. (b) When it is impracticable for the carriage to approach the grave or temporary repository, they will be left outside the inclosure. If volleys are to be fired by the artillery, the order in battery will be formed outside the inclosure, sufficient personnel being left therewith to execute the fire. (c) If the escort consists of artillery only, the command will be dismounted and, except the personnel left with the pieces and limbers, will be formed dismounted and will execute the remainder of the ceremony as prescribed for the funeral escort dis- mounted. (30) 21. Ceremony at Grave. a. As soon as the caisson is halted, honorary pallbearers will be formed in two ranks, each facing the other, extending from the caisson toward the grave, with sufficient distance between ranks to permit passage of the casket. The casket bearers will remove the casket from the caisson, bear it between the lines of honorary pallbearers to the grave, and place the casket on the lowering device. They will remain in place facing the casket. They will raise the flag from the casket and hold it in a horizontal position, waist high, until the conclusion of Taps. The flag is then folded as prescribed in Army Regulations, care being taken that it does not touch the ground. It is then handed to the superintendent of the cemetery or his representative for dis- position in accordance with Army Regulations. As soon as the casket, preceded by the chaplain and cemetery representative (or funeral director), has passed between the honorary pallbearers, they will face toward the grave and follow the casket in column of twos, followed by the family and friends. Upon arrival at the grave they will be formed in line in an appropriate position, facing the grave. When the grave is too near the road to permit the above formation, they will be directed to take their position at the grave prior to the removal of the casket from the caisson. Upon the removal of the casket from the caisson, they will remain covered but will uncover and remain uncovered until the conclusion of Taps. In cold or inclement weather, they will render the hand salute while the casket is being borne between their ranks and will again salute during the firing of musketry and the sounding of Taps. b. As the casket bearers remove the casket from the caisson, the commander of the escort commands: 1. Present, 2. ARMS. At the command Arms, the band plays an appropriate air. When the casket has been placed over the grave the escort is brought to the order and the band ceases playing. The commander of the escort then commands: 1. Parade, 2. REST. The escort executes Parade rest with officers and men inclining their heads. c. When the escort has been brought to Parade rest, the chaplain conducts the grave- side service. At the conclusion of the benediction, he will move two steps to the side Or rear. d. When the service has been completed, the commander causes the escort to resume attention. He then commands: 1. Escort, less firing party, 2. Present, 3. ARMS, 4. Firing party, 5. FIRE THREE VOLLEYS. The firing party then fires three volleys of blank cartridges, assumes the position of Ready, and remains in this position until the con- 370 CEREMONIES clusion of Taps. At the command Arms the bugler takes position at the head of the grave and sounds Taps immediately following the last volley. e. At the conclusion of Taps, rifles of the firing party will be locked. The entire escort is then brought to the order. The band and escort are put in march in quick time by the commander of the escort. Other elements conform. The band will not play during the march from the grave. At the first halt, the rifles of the firing party are unloaded and inspected. • . f. When the distance to the place of interment is considerable, the escort, after leaving the chapel, may march at ease in quick time until brought to attention in the vicinity of the grave. The band does not play while the escort is marching at ease. The field music may alternate with the band in playing. (244) 22. Without Chapel Service But With Procession and Graveside Service. a. When the escort for a military funeral forms at or near the entrance to the cemetery, the officer in charge will supervise the transfer of the casket from the hearse to the caisson. b. If honorary pallbearers are present, they will be formed in single line facing the caisson, the leading honorary pallbearers opposite the front wheel and on the side opposite to that on which the hearse is to be halted. If more than twelve are present they will form in double rank. c. While the casket is being transferred from the hearse to the caisson, the escort is brought to Present arms and the band plays an appropriate air. The honorary pallbearers uncover or salute as outlined in paragraph 18. During the transfer of the casket, the family and friends remain in their conveyances. d. The funeral procession is then formed and proceeds as prescribed in paragraph 19. (245) 23. Graveside Service. a. For this type of funeral all elements of a full military funeral except the caisson and caparisoned horse, may be present and used as outlined in para- graph 19. If, however, troops are not conveniently available or the family desires to eliminate other elements, the following will suffice: (1) Clergy. (2) Casket bearers. (3) Firing party. (4) Bugler. b. All military elements participating in a graveside service will be in position prior to the arrival of the remains. (246) 24. Cremated Remains. a. (1) In cases where the remains are cremated and the ashes interred with military honors, the provisions of paragraphs 18, 22, and 23 with neces- sary modifications, will govern. (2) For all phases of the funeral where the cremated remains are carried by hand, one enlisted man will be detailed to carry the receptacle containing the ashes. Four enlisted men will also be detailed as flag bearers. When the receptacle containing the ashes is carried from the conveyance into the chapel, from the chapel to the conveyance or conveyance to the grave, the flag bearers will follow the receptacle, the flag being folded as prescribed in paragraph 2 g, AR-260-10, and carried by the leading flag bearer on the right. (3) When the receptacle has been placed on the stand before the chancel of the chapel or when placed in the conveyance, the flag will be folded and placed beside the receptacle. If the caisson is equipped with a casket container for the receptacle, the open flag will be laid upon the container as prescribed for a casket, otherwise the flag will be carried, folded as prescribed, by the active flag bearers. (4) When no hearse or caisson is used, suitable transportation will be provided for the receptacle bearer and the flag bearers. b. In cases where the remains are conducted to a crematory and the ashes are to be interred with military honors at a later time, the ceremony will consist only of the escort to the crematory. Arms will be presented as the remains are borne into the crematory. The firing of volleys and sounding of Taps are omitted. In case the funeral ceremony is held at the crematory and no further military honors are anticipated, the CEREMONIES 371 volleys may be fired and Taps sounded at the discretion of the commanding officer and dependent upon local conditions. (247) 25. Ceremony Prior to Shipment of Remains. In cases where the remains of a deceased officer or soldier are moved to a railway station or other point for shipment to a distant place for interment or final disposition, funeral services, modified as necessary, may be carried out essentially as prescribed in paragraphs 18, 22, and 23. If no further military honors are anticipated at the place of interment or final disposition, the volleys of musketry may be fired and Taps sounded at the discretion of the commanding officer and dependent upon local conditions. If military honors are anticipated at the place of final disposition, the firing of volleys and sounding of Taps will be omitted. (248) 26. Cannon Salute. a. When the funeral of an officer on the active or retired list who was entitled to a salute takes place at or near a military post, minute guns will be fired while the remains are being borne to the place of interment (or place of local disposi- tion). The first gun will be fired immediately after the procession is put in motion. b. Immediately after the remains have been lowered into the grave (upon completion of the benediction) a salute corresponding to the rank of the deceased (as prescribed in Army Regulations) will be fired, followed by three salvos of artillery, guns firing simul- taneously, or three volleys of musketry. (249) 27. Participation of Aviation. When aviation participates in a military funeral, the participation will be so timed that planes will appear over the procession while the re- mains are being borne to the grave. (250) 28. Participation of Fraternal or Patriotic Organizations. a. At the request of the immediate family of the deceased, or its representative, fraternal or military organizations of which the deceased was a member may be permitted to take part in the funeral ServiceS. b. If the ritual is military or semimilitary in nature, the rites will begin immediately upon the conclusion of the Army religious service. If the ritual contains the firing of three volleys of musketry and the sounding of Taps, the military firing party and bugler may be used. This sounding of Taps will conclude the funeral services. c. Nonmilitary rituals by fraternal organizations will be held at the conclusion of Taps. The military escort will be marched away from the site of the grave promptly and quietly at the termination of the military ceremonies. (251) 29. Duties of the Chaplain. The chaplain will take position in front of the chapel prior to the arrival of the remains. He will precede the casket when it is borne into the chapel and again while the casket is borne from the chapel to the caisson or hearse. While the remains are being placed on the caisson or in the hearse, he will stand uncovered at the rear and to the side facing the caisson or hearse. When the casket has been secured, he will take his position in front of the caisson or hearse. In the event that the chaplain is wearing vestments, he may, at his discretion, proceed directly from the chancel to the sacrisy at the conclusion of the service and devest, joining the procession just prior to its movement from the chapel. When the procession is formed at the entrance to the ceme- tery or other point and the chapel service is omitted, he will take a similar position near the caisson while the remains are being transferred from the hearse to the caisson. If riding, his conveyance will be placed in position in front of the caisson or hearse. In cold or inclement weather, the chaplain may remain covered except when reading such parts of the service as require that he be uncovered. (252) 30. Preliminary Arrangements. The officer detailed in charge of a military funeral, accompanied by the commander of the escort and the superintendent of the cemetery or his representative, will visit the places involved and make careful arrangements prior to the time set for the funeral. Positions at the grave to be occupied by various elements of the funeral, arrangements for traffic control, etc., will be definitely determined. (253) 31. Floral Tributes. a. In the absence of a funeral director, the officer in charge, assisted by the chaplain and such details as may be required, will cause all floral tributes to be properly arranged in the chapel and at the grave. He will call upon the commanding officer for necessary transportation for the prompt transfer of floral tributes from the 372 CEREMONIES chapel to the gave. The conveyance bearing floral tributes will be loaded promptly at the conclusion of the chapel service and will precede the funeral procession, moving as rapidly as practicable to the site of the grave. The funeral procession will not move from the chapel until the conveyance carrying floral tributes has cleared the escort. b. The officer in charge will be responsible that cards are removed and a record made giving a brief description of the floral piece pertaining to each card. The cards and record will be turned over to a member of the family of the deceased after completion of the funeral services. (254) CHAPTER V INSPECTIONS 32. General. a. The inspections herein prescribed partake, in part, of the nature of ceremonies. Such inspections do not in any sense replace the detailed inspections which organization and other commanders should make of matériel and equipment. If the battery commander (in horse-drawn units) dismounts to make the inspection, the chiefs of platoon and section immediately dismount and turn over their horses. (29) b. The battery is the basic unit for inspection. Battalion, regimental and higher com- manders or inspecting officers should inspect each battery in its own area or have each battery march to a designated place at a specified time, for inspection. Under special conditions an entire battalion or regiment may be formed and inspected in one large formation. (239) - }, J. : § 4yds | | 20yds— as tº gº tº dº * * * J. — — — — — ... - - - - - - - - - *m sº sº me sº- * *H: *H-eyas-TE Y4 AT-X}. D 3D DºD DºD------ gº D º D r D EE ED E. E. [[IZºZº. Tº D 5 O U [] C CITICUT, § § * ea. * * A "* . . . § { § {} § { § § {} : ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; #: #-4 +--- * * * * * ~ * * - D [...] CLUI tºº ; LEGEND à Battery command zr Ö Lizutznant, #aaaen tº ist Szrg2 ant [X] Sergeant, [Z Corporal S. Bugler D] Driver [] Otraors Plate 4. Battery Inspection, 75-mm Gun Battery, Horse-Drawn. 33. Gun or Howitzer Battery, Horse-drawn (Plate 4). a. The battery being in double section line, the battery commander commands: 1. Prepare for inspection, 2. ACTION FRONT. (b) At the second command, the first and second platoons are unlimbered and prepared for firing. The instruments and equipment of the detail are displayed for in- spection. The chief of the fifth section moves his section to the rear by a left about, and CEREMONIES 373 after gaining sufficient distance executes a second left about and forms the section in double section abreast of the limbers of the piece sections. The horsed elements and lead horses of the detail form on this same line in rear of the instruments. 1) All the carriages being in position, the battery commander commands: 1. (c) The chiefs of the first and second platoons take post opposite the center of their platoons 4 yards in front of the line of muzzles. The chief of the detail (recon- naissance officer if present) takes post on this line opposite the center of the detail. The chief of the fifth section takes post opposite the center of the section 4 yards in front of the line of lead drivers. The first sergeant takes post midway between the limbers of the second and third sections 4 yards in front of the line of lead drivers. (d) In the detail, the vehicle drivers, the signal corporal with the reels, and the chief of section (instrument sergeant) remain mounted. All others form in double rank behind the displayed instruments and equipment except three orderlies holding the lead horses and two linemen remaining with the reels. Right, 2. DRESS, verifies the alinement of the officers and the two ranks of carriages, commands: FRONT, and posts himself, when not acting as inspector, opposite the center of the battery and 8 yards in front of the line of muzzles. (2) The guidon is 4 yards from the right flank of the line of limbers, abreast of the lead drivers, the buglers on the right of the guidon. The chiefs of section cause all limber caisson, and tool chests to be opened for inspection and tool kits to be displayed. Gunners' tool kits are opened and laid out on the trails of the pieces. (3) When acting as inspector, the battery commander inspects the reconnaissance officer and chiefs of platoon from right to left and then the first sergeant; he then moves Note.—The maintenance section, if present, is posted to the left of the fifth section. to the right flank of the limbers, where he returns saber and inspects the guidon and buglers. Followed by a bugler, he then moves to the right flank of the battery where, in case he desires to inspect dismounted, he dismounts and turns over his horse. He then inspects the detail and sections in order from right to left. The detail is inspected in the order: chief of section, instruments and equipment, horsed elements. Each piece section is inspected in the order: chief of section, piece and caisson limbers. The fifth section and the maintenance section (if present) are then inspected, commencing in each case with the chief of section. The foregoing procedure may be varied at the discretion of the inspecting officer. When the battery commander commences the in- calling them to attention as the battery commander approaches. Each chief of platoon spection of the right platoon, the chiefs of the other platoons give their platoons At ease, accompanies the battery commander during the inspection of his platoon. As soon as a platoon is inspected, its commander causes it to take the march order and then gives it At ease. The platoon commander faces his platoon while it is at ease. (4) The inspection having been completed, the battery commander causes the bat- tery to limber front and rear, mounts the cannoneers, and commands: 1. Form double section line, 2. MARCH. The first and second platoons form double section line, and the chiefs of the other platoons move their platoons in double section up on the line. (5) Should the inspector be other than the battery commander, the latter, having prepared his battery for inspection and taken his post, salutes when the inspector arrives in front of him. The inspector returns the salute and inspects the battery commander. The latter having been inspected returns saber and accompanies the inspector during the inspection of the battery. (29) 34. Gun or Howitzer Battery, Motorized (Plate 5). While the inspections herein pre- scribed are intended to apply primarily to light truck-drawn artillery, the principles apply, with modifications necessitated by differences in matériel and organization, to other types of motorized artillery. - (a) The battery being in line the personnel mounted the command is: PRE- PARE FOR INSPECTION. All personnel dismount. The pieces are uncoupled, run 2 yards to the rear, and prepared for action. Chiefs of section cause all chests to be opened, hoods of vehicles to be raised, and all tools and accessories to be uniformly dis- played. Fire-control instruments and other detail equipment are uniformly displayed 2 yards in the rear of the vehicle in which they are normally carried. The cannoneers 374 CEREMONIES take their posts at the pieces uncoupled, other personnel taking posts at the vehicles dis- mounted. Each chief of subdivision takes post in line with the line of radiators of his subdivision 2 yards to the right of the right wheel of the right vehicle. When not acting as inspector, the battery commander takes post as prescribed for the battery in line. (b) When acting as inspector, the battery commander inspects the subdivisions of the battery in the order: battery headquarters, firing battery, ammunition section, maintenance section. The vehicles of each subdivision are inspected in order from right to left. When the battery commander commences his inspection of the leading sub- division, the chiefs of other subdivisions give their men At ease, calling them to atten- tion as the battery commander approaches. During the inspection of each subdivision, its chief accompanies the battery commander. As soon as a subdivision is inspected, its commander causes the hoods to be closed, the tools secured, and in the case of the firing battery the pieces to be placed in march order, then gives the subdivision At ease. The subdivision commander faces his subdivision while it is at ease. ë be ô ex Dº | E E Ö Asst Ex Plate 5. Battery Inspection, 75-mm Gun Battery, Truck-Drawn. (c) The inspection having been completed, the battery commander causes the pieces to be coupled and the personnel to mount. (d) Should the inspector be other than the battery commander, the battery com- mander, having prepared his battery for inspection and taken his post, salutes when the inspector arrives in front of him. The inspector returns the salute and inspects the battery commander. The latter, having been inspected, returns saber and accompanies the inspector during the inspection of the battery. (e) Batteries of heavy artillery are not uncoupled and prepared for action at formal inspections. (29) 35. Headquarters Battery, Combat Train. The inspection is conducted in general as described above for a gun or howitzer battery. Horse-drawn headquarters batteries are formed in double section line, headquarters instruments and equipment being displayed CEREMONIES 375 13 yards to the right of the line. Motorized units form in line. The command Action. front is omitted. (29) 36. Battalion. a. The battalion being in column of batteries (double section line for horse-drawn units), on the approach of the inspector the battalion commander com- mands: PREPARE FOR INSPECTION. (b) The batteries are prepared for inspection as prescribed in above paragraphs. (c) The buglers join their batteries. The drum major conducts the band, if there is one, to the rear of the column, passing by the right flank, then places it, facing to the front, 36 yards in rear of the last battery, and opens rank. (d) The standard moves to the front and takes post 6 yards in rear of the center of the line of the noncommissioned staff. (e) The inspector inspects the battalion commander and accompanied by the latter inspects the staff. The battalion commander and his staff, as soon as inspected, return saber and accompany the inspector. (f) The inspector, commencing at the head of the column, inspects the standard, the batteries in their order in column, and the band. The standard may be dismissed as soon as inspected. (g) The battery commander of each battery not undergoing inspection dismounts all personnel and brings the men to rest. As the inspector approaches the battery, the battery commander brings it to attention and in horse-drawn units mounts the drivers. As soon as the battery commander has been inspected, he returns saber and accompanies the inspector. The inspector proceeds as in battery inspection. At its completion the battery commander limbers or couples, forms double section line to the front in horse- drawn artillery, dismounts the battery, and brings the personnel to rest. -- (h) Upon intimation from the inspector, the battalion commander may direct that each battery in turn be dismissed as soon as inspected. (i) The band plays during the inspection. (j) The battalion may be inspected in line, the inspection being conducted ac- cording to the same principles as when formed in column. The battalion commander and his staff are inspected at their posts in front of the center of the line; the band, which remains at its post on the right, is next inspected; then the batteries and the standard in order from right to left. (k) If the battalion commander is the inspector, the inspection is conducted according to the same principles. (29) 37. Regimental. Regimental inspection is conducted in a manner similar to that pre- scribed for a battalion. When the regiment is formed in column, the regimental com- mander and his staff take post 30 yards in front of the band. The regiment may be in- spected in line, the inspection being conducted according to the same principles as when formed in column. (29) 38. Battery Inspection, Dismounted. a. Formation. The battery forms in line or in an inspection formation of column of platoons as described in paragraph 39. If transpor- tation is to be included in the formation it forms in line three paces in rear or as di- rected. Drivers of motor vehicles remain with their vehicles. Drivers and mule leaders of animal transportation stay with their animals. Drivers or animal leaders lay out their equipment as directed. Transportation may be inspected separately from the foot ele- ments as directed. b. Procedure. (1) The battery being in column of platoons (par. 39) the battery commander commands: PREPARE FOR INSPECTION. At this command, platoon leaders cause ranks to be opened. They then place themselves, facing to the front, three paces in advance of the right flank of their platoons. (2) Ranks having been opened, the battery commander commands: REST and returns saber. He then inspects the battery. During the inspection, officers, noncom- missioned officers, and guidon bearers not in ranks come to attention at Order arms as the inspecting officer approaches, and after being inspected resume the position of Rest. The battery commander may direct the second in command and/or the first sergeant to join him and take down notes as he inspects. The battery commander, commencing at 376 CEREMONIES the head of the column, then makes a minute inspection of the arms, equipment, dress, and appearance of the personnel of the battery. As he approaches each platoon, its leader brings the platoon to attention and salutes. As soon as inspected, the platoon leader re- turns saber, places himself on the right of the battery commander, and accompanies him throughout the inspection of the platoon. (3) The inspection is made from right to left in front and from left to right in rear of each rank. (4) Each man executes Inspection arms as the battery commander or inspecting officer reaches his position. . (5) The battery commander takes the rifle, grasping it with the right hand just above the lower band, the man dropping his hands. He inspects the rifle and, with the hand and rifle in the same position as in receiving it, hands it back to the man, who takes it with the left hand at the balance and executes Order arms. (6) Should the piece be inspected without handling, each man executes Order arms as soon as the battery commander has passed to the next man. Note.—Subparagraphs (4), (5), and (6) do not apply when not armed with the rifle. (7) A man armed with the automatic rifle executes Inspection arms as the battery commander reaches his position. The inspection completed, he pulls the trigger, re- ; the magazine, and resumes the position of the soldier, the automatic rifle being slung. (8) Enlisted men armed with the pistol execute Inspection pistol. When the battery commander has passed, they execute Return pistol. (9) Upon completion of the inspection of each platoon, its leader takes his post, faces down the line, and commands: 1. Close ranks, 2. MARCH, and adds Rest after ranks have been closed. He then takes his post in front of the center of the platoon. (10) The battery commander may direct the platoon leaders to make the detailed inspection of arms or other equipment of the men of their platoons. (240) 39. Inspection of Personal Field Equipment While in Ranks. The battery forms in column of platoons (with each platoon in line) by forming extended mass formation to the right at 24 paces, and then executing Left face. The battery commander, after the inspection of arms has been completed in a platoon, causes that platoon to take interval for inspection of equipment. Intervals having been taken, the platoon leader commands: 1. Unsling equipment, 2. DISPLAY EQUIPMENT. a. At the command Unsling equipment, each man marks ranks, with the left heel, the line for the rear edge of equipment when displayed. Each man then unslings his equipment and places it on the ground at his feet, haversack to the front, the pack one foot in front of his toes. b. At the command Display equipment, packs are opened and equipment displayed as prescribed in Individual Equipment and Tent Pitching. Equipment is displayed in the interval to the left of each man. When equipment is displayed, each man resumes his original position in ranks. c. The battery commander then passes along the ranks as before, inspects the equip- ment, and directs the platoon leader to have packs rolled and the platoon assembled. The platoon leader then commands: ROLL PACKS. d. Each man assembles his equipment and, leaving the equipment in its position on the ground at his feet, resumes the position of Attention. e. All equipment being assembled, the platoon leader commands: SLING EQUIP- MENT. f. Packs are slung and belts fastened. g. The platoon leader then causes the platoon to assemble. The inspection is com- pleted as already explained. - h. In units which have special combat equipment the battery commander, after packs have been opened (or after the individual inspection has been completed), directs Lay out machine gun (signal or other) equipment for inspection. Gun squads under the direction of their leaders break ranks and lay out their weapons and accessories for inspection as prescribed in the gun drill for the weapon. Headquarters personnel lay CEREMONIES 377 out the fire-control, communication, or other combat equipment. The gun or equip- ment is laid out in rear of its vehicle. If no transportation is present the equipment is displayed three paces from the flank of each squad on the side from which interval was taken. The rear of the equipment is placed on line with the rear edge of the individual field equipment. (241) 40. Battalion Inspection. a. The battalion is formed in column of batteries, each battery being formed as prescribed. for the battery. Any other convenient formation may be used. Before the inspection, the battalion commander indicates whether special equip- ment is to be laid out for inspection or left on its transportation. b. The headquarters, and service units are prepared and inspected in the manner prescribed for the battery. c. The battalion being in column of platoons, with all personnel dismounted, the battalion commander commands: PREPARE FOR INSPECTION. At this command each battery and the band, if present, are prepared for inspection. Buglers rejoin their batteries. The standard bearer and the standard guard proceed to the head of the column and take position three paces in rear of the staff. d. The battalion commander then commands: REST, and inspects his staff and the standard guard. When they have been inspected, they accompany the battalion com- mander. As the battalion commander approaches the standard guard, the bearer com- mands: 1. Standard guard, 2. ATTENTION. The standard guard may be dismissed as soon as inspected. e. The battalion commander commencing at the head of the column makes an in- spection of the arms, accouterments, dress, and appearance of the personnel of the band and of the several batteries. f. When the inspection of the band has been completed, it may be dismissed or it may take position at the rear of the column and play during the inspection. g. As the battalion commander approaches each battery, its commander faces toward it and commands: 1. Battery, 2. ATTENTION, faces to the front and salutes. As soon as he has been inspected, the battery commander faces about and commands: REST, and accompanies the battalion commander. The inspection proceeds as prescribed for battery inspection. h. The battalion commander may direct the battery commanders to make the detailed inspection of the arms or other equipment of their batteries. He may require officers of his staff to assist in the inspection, especially by checking equipment. i. When a battery has been inspected, the battalion commander directs that it be dismissed or otherwise occupied. j. When desired, the battalion commander may cause batteries not under inspection to stack arms, fall out, and resume their places in time to be inspected. k. If the inspecting officer is an officer other than the battalion commander, the latter prepares the battalion for inspection as prescribed in the preceding paragraphs. Upon the approach of the inspecting officer, the battalion commander brings the battalion to attention, faces to the front, and salutes. The inspecting officer inspects the battalion commander who then commands: REST, and accompanies the inspecting officer. The inspection then proceeds as previously prescribed. (242) STANDARDS AND GUIDONS CONTENTS - Paragraphs Chapter I. The Standards and the Guidon - • * * * * * * * * * 1-9 (Numbers following paragraphs shown thus: (95) are based upon paragraphs thus numbered in FM 22-5, Infantry Drill Regulations. Those shown thus (31) (Italics) are from FM 6-5, Field Artillery Organization and Drill.) CHAPTER I THE STANDARDS AND THE GUIDON 1. Definitions. The national and regimental flags carried by mounted or motorized organizations are called the “national standard” and the “regimental standard”. The term “standard” implies the national standard. The term “standards” implies both the national and the regimental standard. A color is a flag carried by a dismounted unit; it is slightly larger than a standard. Nº. §§ºss S SyºğS º §§ § Š º *-*. Plate 1. The Standards with Guards, Dismounted. An ensign is a flag flown on ships, small boats, and airships. In the military service the general term “flag” is used only when none of the other terms are applicable. Ordinarily, when we speak of “flags” we do not mean colors, standards, or ensigns. 2. Description of the Standards. a. National standards. National standards for mounted or motorized regiments, and such other independent mounted units as may be authorized to carry standards, will be of silk, or wool bunting for service standards, 3 feet on the lance by 4 feet fly, the union 1 foot 10 inches in length, with stars embroidered in white silk on silk flags or appliquéd in white percale on bunting flags. The standard will be trimmed on three edges with a knotted fringe of yellow silk 2% inches wide. The official designation of the unit, in letters one-fourth inch in height, will be engraved on a silver band, three-fourths inch in width, placed upon the lance. (Par. 4, AR 260-10). b. Regimental standards. Regimental standards for regiments and such other inde- 379 380 STANDARDS AND GUIDONS pendent units as may be authorized to carry them will be of silk of the color of the facings of the arm or service. The size of the standards will be 3 feet on the lance by 4 feet flv. stººd. will be trimmed on three edges with a knotted fringe of silk 2% inches wide. The color of the silk fringe will be yellow, except for quartermaster organizations, which will be light blue, and except when the facing are of two colors, in which case the fringe will be of the piping color. The cord and tassels will not be used on the regimental standard. * In the center of regimental standards will be embroidered the regimental coat of arms or the regimental badge, as the case may be, with the American eagle displayed holding in his dexter talon an olive branch and in his sinister a bundle of thirteen arrows all proper, as a supporter. The height of the eagle will be 1 foot 3 7/8 inches on the standard. Below the eagle will be a scroll bearing the official designation of the regiment, e. g., for the Regular Army, 3d—Regiment—Field—Artillery; for the National Guard, 107th—Regiment—Field—Artillery; and for the Organized Reserves, 301st—Field—Artillery. Cases are as follows: (1) In the Regular Army. (a) A regiment having an approved coat of arms. The shield of the coat of arms will be embroidered on the eagle's breast, the regimental motto on a scroll in the eagle's beak, and the regimental crest above the eagle's head. (b) A regiment having an approved badge but no coat of arms. The eagle's breast will be feathered, the regimental motto will be on a scroll in the eagle's beak, and the regimental badge will replace the regimental crest above the eagle's head. (2) In the National Guard a regiment having an approved coat of arms. The shield of the coat of arms will be embroidered on the eagle's breast, the regimental motto on a scroll in the eagle's beak, and the crest approved for regiments of the State above the eagle's head. Regiments allocated to two or more States will bear the crests approved for regiments of each of the several States arranged from dexter to sinister in order of admission of the States into the Union. (3) In the Organized Reserves a regiment having an approved coat of arms. The shield of the coat of arms will be embroidered on the eagle's breast, the regimental motto on a scroll in the eagle's beak, and the crest approved for regiments of the Or- ganized Reserves, the Lexington Minute Man, above the eagle's head. c. Service standards. (1) The service national standard, which is of wool bunting or other suitable material but in all other respects similar to the silk national standard, may be carried at drills, on marches, and on all service other than that for which the silk standard is prescribed. (2) A service national standard may be carried with the organization and individual distinguishing flags of brigade and higher unit headquarters on occasions designated by the general officer commanding. The position in line from right to left will be national standard, individual flag, and distinguishing flag. Although not authorized for issue, a national standard, silk, may be purchased by brigade and higher headquarters for use on ceremonial occasions. (Par. 5, AR 260-10). 3. Use and Care of the Standard. The following rules will govern the use and care of the standards: a. In garrison, the standards when not in use are kept at the office or quarters of the commanding officer and are escorted thereto and therefrom by the standard guard. In camp the standards when not in use are displayed in front of the commanding officer's tent. From reveille to retreat, when the weather permits, they are displayed uncased. From retreat and to reveille and during inclement weather, they are cased and placed in the commanding officer's office, quarters, or tent. b. Standards are cased when furled and placed within protective covering. c. The standards may be carried in any formation in which two or more batteries participate, and in escorts when ordered. d. In separate organizations and commands entitled to standards and in battalions not stationed with their regimental headquarters the standards are similarly cared for and displayed at the office, quarters, or tent of the commanding officer. STANDARDS AND GUIDONS 381 e. Battalions stationed with their regimental headquarters do not display the standards of their organizations. f. At regimental formations the standards are posted with the regiment. g. When the regimental formation is broken up, as at drill or field exercises, the standards join the regimental commander or are dismissed as directed. (95) 4. Salutes Not Rendered by the National Standard. The national standard renders no salute. (96) 5. Salutes by the Regimental Standard. a. The regimental or separate battalion standard salutes in all military ceremonies while the National Anthem or To the Color or To the Standard is being played and when rendering honors to its commanders or an individual of higher rank, but in no other case. b. If marching, the standard salutes when six paces from the person entitled to the salute and resume the Carry when six paces beyond him. (97) c. In passing in review the standard guard executes Eyes right at the command of the senior standard sergeant, who commands: 1. Eyes, 2. RIGHT and 1. Ready, 2. FRONT at the saluting distances prescribed in b above. The regimental or separate battalion standard also salutes (a above) at the command Right and resumes the Carry at the command Front. The man on the right flank does not execute Eyes right. In those organizations which do not execute Eyes right in passing in review, the standard guard omits this compliment. Where applicable, the regimental or separate battalion standard salutes at the command of the senior, who commands: 1. Standard, 2. SALUTE. The return to the Carry is made at the command: 1. Carry, 2. STANDARD. (97) Plate 2. The Standards with Guards, Mounted. 6. Manual of the Standard. a. Dismounted. The standard guard consists of two sergeants, who are regimental standard bearers, and two experienced privates selected by the regimental commander, usually for long and honorable service. A position on the standard guard is one of honor and responsibility. The privates so designated, when not engaged in the performance of their duties as members of the standard guard, join their organizations. The senior standard sergeant carries the national standard and commands the standard guard. He gives the necessary commands for movements and 382 STANDARDS AND GUIDONS for rendering honors, when present; otherwise the senior remaining member does so. The junior standard sergeant carries the regimental standard. The regimental standard is always placed on the left of the national standard in whatever direction they face. b. When battalions carry the standard, the battalion staff sergeant acts as standard bearer, and two experienced privates are selected by the battalion commander as members of the standard guard. The general rules prescribed for the regimental standard guard are applicable to the battalion. c. The standard guard is formed and marched in one rank at close interval, the standard bearers in the center. The standard guard does not execute To the rear march or About face. When the unit to which it is attached moves to the rear for short distances, the standard guard, at the command of the senior standard sergeant, executes Column right (left) twice, marches to the new line, again executes Column right (left) twice, and halts in its proper place. d. At the command of the senior standard sergeant, the privates of the standard guard execute the Hand salute in receiving and parting with the standard. e. Having received the standard, the senior sergeant conducts the guard to its proper position before the standard battery, as outlined in f below. Having parted with the standards the guard is dismissed by the senior sergeant. f. At drills and ceremonies in which the standards are to participate, except escort of the standard, the standards are received by the standard battery prior to the formation of the battalion with the following ceremony; the standard battery is formed, its battery commander facing the front. The standard guard, conducted by the senior sergeant, approaches from the front and halts at a distance of 10 paces from the battery com- mander. The battery commander then faces about, commands, 1. Hand, 2. SALUTE, faces to the front, and executes Hand salute. The privates of the standard guard execute Hand salute with the standard battery. The standard guard is then marched by the senior standard sergeant directly to its post, as indicated. When the standard battery joins the battalion, the standard guard takes its appropriate post in the battalion formation. When the standard battalion joins the regiment, the standard guard takes its appropriate post in the regimental formation. When the standard joins the standard battery, it takes post on the left when the battery is in line or mass and in rear when it is in column. g. When it is desired to dismiss the standard guard at the conclusion of a drill or ceremony in which the standards have participated, the standard guard proceeds from its position and halts 10 paces in front of and facing the battery commander of the standard battery. The battery commander then faces about, brings the battery to 1. Hand, 2. SALUTE, faces to the front, and salutes. The privates of the standard guard execute Hand salute with the standard battery. The standard guard then escorts the standard to the office, quarters, or tent of the commanding officer. The standard guard is dis- missed from organizations smaller than a battery (funeral escort) in a similar manner. h. In campaign, prior to engagement of the regiment and upon direction of the com- manding officer, the standards are stored with the regimental baggage under guard of one standard sergeant. The other standard sergeant remains with regimental head- quarters. (98) 7. Manual of the Standard. a. Mounted. (1) Position of the standard at stand to horse. At Stand to horse, the ferrule of the lance rests on the ground on line with and touching the toe of the left shoe, lance vertical, left hand at the height of the neck, elbow and forearm closed against the lance. (31) (2) Position of the standard at “Prepare to mount” and mounted. At the command Prepare to mount, the lance is raised slightly from the ground while stepping back. Upon halting, the ferrule is placed on the ground about 1 foot in front of the left forefoot of the horse. The left hand continues to grasp the lance as well as a lock of the mane. (3) Position of the standard mounted. After mounting, the lance is grasped with the right hand and is then raised over the horse's neck and over the reins and is lowered STANDARDS AND GUIDONS 383 on the right of the saddle, the ferrule being inserted in the stirrup socket. (31) The right forearm is passed through the sling. (94d) & (4) Position of the standard at the Carry (mounted). The ferrule is inserted in the stirrup socket, the right hand grasping the lance, forearm nearly horizontal (the arm through the sling), lance vertical. Carry standard is the habitual position of the standard when troops are mounted. (31) (5) Position of the standard at the standard salute (mounted). Mounted, the ferrule is raised from the socket of the stirrup and the standard is lowered to the front until the lance is horizontal and passes under the right arm close to the armpit. (31) (6) Position of the standard while dismounting. At the command Prepare to dismount, the lance is raised from the stirrup socket, passed over the horse's neck and over the reins, and lowered to the ground about 1 foot in front of the left forefoot of the horse. The lance is then grasped in the left hand. (31) After dismounting the position of the standard at Stand to horse is taken. (7) When leading the horse. When leading the horse the lance is held in the left hand in the same relative manner as in the Carry, dismounted, the lance being included slightly to the front. Plate 3. The Standards, Truck-Drawn Field Artillery. (8) Position of standard for motorized organizations. For ceremonies, the standards of motorized organizations, except when dismounted, are carried in a vertical position in improvised fixtures attached as directed by the regimental or separate unit com- mander near the right and left doors of the cab, in such positions as not to obscure the view of the driver. On the march, except for ceremonies, motorized organizations carry the standards as directed by unit commanders. (31) (9) The individual salute is not rendered by a standard bearer when mounted. b. Dismounted. (1) Position of the standard at the Order. At the Order, the heel of the lance rests on the ground on line with and touching the toe of the right shoe. The right hand at a convenient place on the lance clasps it with the thumb, back of the hand to the right, and holds it in a vertical position. (99) 384 STANDARDS AND GUIDONS (2) Position of the standard at the Carry. At the Carry, the heel of the lance rests in the socket of the sling; the right hand grasps the lance at the height of the shoulder; the lance is inclined slightly to the front. (100) (3) Position of the standard at Parade rest. (a) Parade rest with the standard is similar to Parade rest with the rifle, except that the lance is kept vertical. (b) The Order is resumed at the command Attention. ar (c) The Order and Parade rest are executed with the standard battery. (101) (4) Parade, REST. At the command Parade rest, the left foot is moved smartly 12 inches to the left of the right foot, keeping the legs straight, so that the weight of the body rests equally on both feet. At the same time incline the muzzle of the rifle to the front, the right arm extended, right hand grasping the rifle just below the upper band. Hold the left hand behind the body, resting in the small of the back, palm to the rear. (49) (5) Position of the regimental standard at the standard salute. This position is assumed from the Carry by slipping the right hand up the lance to the height of the eye, then lowering the lance by straightening the arm to the front. When the regimental standard salutes with troops who execute Present arms from the order, the position of Carry is assumed at the command Arms and the Standard salute executed. (102) (6) Position of standards during manual of arms. The standards habitually remain at the Order during the execution of the manual of arms. 8. The Guidon. a. Uses. The guidon is a battery identification flag. It is carried at ceremonies and when prescribed by the commander. In camp it is displayed at the battery headquarters. In combat it is with the battery baggage. The guidon bearer is a specially selected enlisted man designated by the battery commander. b. Design. In general, the guidon prescribed for use by troops of an arm or service will be the color of the facings of that arm or service, except cavalry, which will be horizontally divided red and white, and infantry and military police, which will be dark blue, with the device, figures, and letters in the piping color, with the exceptions noted below. The device will be placed in the center of the guidon, except when there is no designation above it in which case it will be raised enough to preserve the sym- metry of the guidon. Above the device will be the designation of the larger unit, e.g., the regiment, and below it the designation of the smaller unit, e. g., the battery. c. Color. The color of the Field Artillery guidon will be scarlet. The device will consist of two crossed field guns 10 inches in length. Above the device will be the number of the regiment or letters indicating the character of the unit, and below it the designation of the battery. The following designations will be used: Regimental headquarters battery ....................... HQ. Service battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S. Observation battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Obsn. Battalion headquarters battery and combat train (peace time) The number of the battalion Battalion headquarters battery (war time) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The number of the battalion Device, numerals, and letters will be yellow. (Par. 6 AR 260-10.) 9. Manual of the Guidon. a. Mounted. (1) Position. When mounted, the heel of the lance being in the guidon, socket, the right hand grasps the lance, forearm nearly horizontal, the arm through the sling, lance vertical. This is the position of Carry guidon, mounted, and is the habitual position of the guidon when the guidon bearer is mounted. - - (2) Other movements. All other movements of the guidon, mounted, are the same as for the standard, mounted, as shown in paragraph 8. (3) No individual salute. The individual salute is not rendered by a guidon bearer when mounted. b. Dismounted. (1) General rules. The guidon is brought to Present arms, Parade rest, and to the Order with the battery. At the command of execution of other move- ments of the manual, the guidon is brought to the Carry except for the execution of the manual at parades. When executing the Facing, Side step, and Alinements, the STANDARDS AND GUIDONS 385 guidon is held at Carry guidon. When marching at Route step or At ease the guidon is at the Carry, the lance held by either hand. When at the Order, unless otherwise prescribed, the guidon is brought to the Carry at the command of execution for march- ing in quick time. (2) Carry guidon. The lance of the guidon is held vertically in the right hand, resting in the hollow formed by the thumb and first finger, back of the hand to the right, arm extending downward, lance resting in the hollow of the shoulder, ferrule 6 inches from the ground as shown in Plate 5. The Carry is the habitual position when troops are marching. Fig. 1. At the Carry. Fig. 2. At the Salute. Plate 4. Positions of the Guidon, Mounted. (3) Being at Order guidon, to execute Carry guidon. Grasp the lance with the left hand, at the same time loosening the grip of the right hand on the lance. Raise the guidon vertically with the left hand, the lance sliding through the right hand until the ferrule is 6 inches from the ground, and then regrasp the lance with the right hand. Cut the left hand away smartly to the left side. (4) Being at Carry guidon, to execute Order guidon. Allow the lance to slide through the right hand until the ferrule is on the ground on line with and touching the toe of the right shoe, right hand grasping the lance as in the Carry. (5) Being at Order guidon, to execute Parade rest. Execute in a manner similar to Parade rest with the rifle. (See Par. 8 b (4)) (6) Being at Carry or Order guidon, to execute Present guidon. (a) Lower the guidon straight to the front, extending the right arm nearly horizontal until the lance, resting in the pit of the right arm, is horizontal. This movement is executed at the command of 1. Hand, 2. SALUTE, or, if the battery is in formation with other arms, at the command of execution ARMS, of 1. Present, 2. ARMS. (b) In passing in review the guidon bearer executes Eyes right and Present guidon at the first movement of the battery commander's hand salute and returns to Front and Carry guidon at the last movement of the company commander's salute. (7) Being at Present guidon, to execute Carry guidon. Grasp the lance with the left hand, palm up, at a point just beyond the right hand. With the left hand carry the guidon up and back to the position of Carry guidon as shown in Plate 5; at the same time the right hand, retaining its grasp on the lance, is lowered to the right side. Cut the left hand away smartly to the left side. FA1 (1) 386 STANDARDS AND GUIDONS (8) Being at Present guidon, to execute Order guidon. The manual is executed as prescribed in paragraph (7) except that when the guidon is brought to the vertical position, the lance is allowed, if necessary, to slide through the right hand, the left hand steadying the lance, until the guidon is in the position of Order guidon as shown in Plate 5. | Mº - * \ \ lance — Ferrule N Fig. 1. Order Guidon. Fig. 2. Carry Guidon. Fig. 3. Present Guidon. Plate 5. Manual of the Guidon. (9) Individual salute by guidon bearer. At the Carry or Order, the salute is given with the left hand in the same manner as a rifle salute at order arms. (10) Double time. At double time, the guidon is held diagonally across the body, the right hand grasping the lance at the position used at the Carry, right forearm hori- zontal, elbow near the body, left hand grasping the lance opposite the junction of the neck and left shoulder. INTERIOR GUARD DUTY CONTENTS Paragraphs Chapter I. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-6 Chapter II. Main Guard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-27 Chapter III. Special Guards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28–41 Chapter IV. Prisoners and Prisoner Guards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42–45 Chapter V. Miscellaneous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46-49 Appendix I. Formal and Informal Guard Mount . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-4 Appendix II. Fixed Post System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3 Appendix III. Details and Rosters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3 (Paragraph numbers shown thus: (1), refer to paragraphs in FM 26-5, Interior Guard Duty. Notations in small type are unofficial explanations or amplifications of the text proper. The terms company and troop, have been changed to read battery; and color to standard.) CHAPTER I GENERAL 1. Protection. In the earliest ages of man there was no organized unit of society larger than the family. Every family erected its own shelter, hunted or cultivated its own food, made its own clothes- such as they were. The entire effort of all members of the family was devoted to the single aim of keeping body and soul together. One of the things required in those days, as in these, was protection or security. Each family had either to hide or fight for its life, or both alternately. Civilization took a great step forward when families banded themselves together to form com- munities, tribes, and finally nations. In the community certain individuals or groups were assigned the duty of performing certain services necessary for the entire community. Thus, certain men did the hunting, certain others cultivated the fields, etc. But the chief need that led families to unite in communities was the need for security. If one family was attacked by an invader from outside, all the able-bodied men present combined to restrain or expel the intruder. Thus, being in great measure relieved from the dangers and alarms to which they formerly were exposed, the members of the com- munity found time for other things than merely maintaining life, and life began to be worth living. Thus, the growth of civilization has been the development of the community idea. In contrast to the primitive family which supplied all its own wants we now see the modern family which supplies none of them. We do not build our own houses, make our own clothes, or even educate our own children. All of these services are furnished us by the organized community to which we belong. Protection or security is as necessary as ever. And today we are exposed to dangers which primitive man did not have to face, such as fire. Protection for the community against what we call “com- munity dangers” is provided by organized forces, called police, fire department, National Guard, the Army and the Navy. And so effective is this protection that we seldom give it a thought, so far as it affects our own security. But as to what may happen when the organized security of a com- munity breaks down, we have only to recall the San Francisco fire and the Boston police strike, when the armed forces were called out to protect life and property against the predatory elements. Thou- sands of years of experience have shown us that communities must be protected from common dangers by means of organized forces maintained by the communities. And so we have our police and fire departments, public health service, etc., all based on the principle of security. In its application to the protection of a military command which is stationary and not in the im- mediate presence of the enemy, the means of security consists in what are known as Interior Guards. The duty performed by interior guards is called Interior Guard Duty, and is the subject of this particular course. The measures carried out are those which experience has shown to be appropriate to this particular situation. When the command is on the march or, if stationary, exposed to attacks of the enemy, security is provided by means of covering detachments called advance, rear and flank guards, and outposts, instead of or in addition to interior guards. The dispositions and operations of interior guards are largely routine. But they are none the less important. It has been found by experience that certain things are necessary and that they should be done in certain definite ways. This routine should be thoroughly understood, and it forms a background for the exercise of judg- ment in meeting emergencies. Interior guard duty has two other important functions. It is a most valuable training in discipline and the exercise of initiative for the soldier, and by its rather conspicuous formality lends an impres. sive dignity to military life. 387 388 INTERIOR GUARD DUTY 2. Purpose. a. Purpose. (1) At all military posts, an interior guard will be detailed to provide for the safety and security of public property and buildings within the jurisdiction of the post. * (2) Interior guards are used to preserve order, protect property, and enforce police regulations. (1) b. Definitions. (1) Whenever the term post, other than in the sense of a sentinel's post, is used, it will be constructed to include garrison, station, or camp. (2) Whenever the term company is used, it will be construed to include troop, battery, or similarly organized unit. Cº- E 8 * = + š, E 8 C * @ 9 Tº 32 2 £ § 3 ; ; ; ; ; #; § { { § g O z ‘o 5 † : ; # 9 , #3 £5 CN. Y. u_0 Post N92 §'s [][] [...] [..] H+t-H-Heil-Mºº--- |-3 I–––Post–St tº &ºme tº | cº-e ſ | | H | : | *i'Position of officer | I- * when sentinel solutes | § |3: UOI 3 iſ o, C A D E T C A M P KO Position ofofficer z W E S T P O J N T — --o whº ºff-ling * * = & e wn| Position of sentinel + & while saluting i Position of sentinel, | (full line) i focing out while being | | inspected (broken line) | | | |-|--———————————————1–––– -] | Post N95 FF&EFNGA Plate 1. Organization of an Interior Guard. Inspection of a Sentinel on Post. (3) Whenever the term guardhouse is used, it will be construed to include guard tent or any other designated location for the guard. (4) The term commanding officer as used herein refers to the commanding officer of a post, camp, station, or garrison. (2) 3. How Provided. Usually interior guards are provided by details from the troops of the unit, garrison, or post. Military police, when available, may be used to perform all or part of the interior guard duty. (3) 4. Classification. The various elements of an interior guard, classified according to their purposes and the manner in which they perform their duties, are as follows: a. The main guard. b. Special guards; stable guards, park guards, herd guards, train guards, boat guards, and other guards detailed for specific purposes. c. Prisoner guards. (4) 5. Composition. An interior guard will be composed of such personnel as the com- manding officer may desire. However, in order that guard duty may not be needlessly irksome nor interfere with tactical instruction, the smallest possible number of men will be detailed for guard. (5) 6. General System. In general an interior guard will consist of a system of patrols. Regiments and separate commands will be charged with the interior guard of their own areas; the military police, if available, may be charged with the guard for the general area. (For military police regulations, see FM 29-5.) In garrison, commanding officers may place interior guard duty under the provost marshal, attaching additional men to the military police for additional guard duty. (6) CHAPTER II MAIN GUARD 7. Composition. The main guard will be composed of two elements; patrols and a reserve. (7) 8. Strength. The main guard will consist of one officer of the day of each regiment or separate command; one officer of the guard (if necessary); one sergeant of the guard (commander of the guard when there is no officer of the guard); and the necessary number of noncommissioned officers and privates for patrols. The number of sentinels on duty in the daytime ordinarily can be considerably reduced from the number required at night and on Sundays and holidays. (8) 9. Patrol Element. a. The personnel for the patrols will be detailed semipermanently and will be of such strength as the commanding officer may direct. Certain key men may remain permanently on guard duty while the others may be changed after a period of time. Generally, patrols will consist of a single sentinel. b. The patrols will if practicable be quartered together, generally at the guardhouse; and, at the discretion of the local commanding officer, they will not ordinarily be required to remain in the vicinity of the guardhouse when not on post. c. The daily tour for each patrol will ordinarily be for a period of from 6 to 8 hours. Each relief will be inspected before going on duty; but patrols will move directly to their posts from the guardhouse. One patrol relieves another by meeting at a particular point at a prearranged time. d. Regulations for the detailed conduct of the patrol element of the guard will be published by the commanding officer to fit the local conditions of the post. (9) 10. Reserve Element. A reserve of sufficient strength to meet the local conditions will be maintained at the guardhouse. The commanding officer will prescribe regula- tions for the strength and conduct of the reserve. (10) 11. Equipment of the Guard. a. Patrols will be armed and equipped commensurate with the needs of their particular duty; that is, with the rifle, pistol, shotgun, police- man's club (or combination thereof), whistle, etc. b. Patrols will cover their posts on foot, mounted on animals, bicycles, motorcycles, or in motor transportation, as prescribed by the commanding officer. The widest possible use will be made of motor transportation. c. The performance of duty of the patrols will be checked by time clocks, periodic telephone calls, or periodic reporting at the guardhouse in person, and by frequent Inspections. d. When practicable, a system of telephone communication will be provided. (11) 12. Commanding Officer. a. The commanding officer will detail a guard sufficient to provide for the adequate safety and security of public property and buildings within his jurisdiction. He will exact a vigilant performance of guard duty in all of its details, giving his orders to the officer of the day or causing them to be communicated to him. He will prescribe the necessary regulations for the guard. b. The commanding officer or his representative each day receives the reports of the officers of the day at the time and place designated by him. He or his repre- sentative examines the guard report, then relieves the old officer of the day and gives the new officer of the day his instructions. c. The commanding officer will exercise such personal supervision over the guard- house and prisoners as to comply fully with the Articles of War and AR 600-355 and 600-375. He will specify the duties of the prison officer and of the commander of the guard with respect to prisoners and prescribe the necessary regulations for the control of prisoners. (12) 13. Officer of the Day. a. The officer of the day is responsible for the proper per- formance of duty by the main guard, and other guards when specifically directed. He is charged with the execution of all orders of the commanding officer relating to interior guard duty. 389 390 INTERIOR GUARD DUTY b. His actual tour begins when he receives the instructions of the commanding officer and ceases when he has been relieved by the same authority. The officer of the day is generally detailed daily. c. In the absence of special instruction from the commanding officer, the officer of the day will inspect the guard and sentinels at such times during the day and night as he may consider necessary. He will visit them daily at least once between midnight and daylight. d. He prescribes visits of inspection to be made by officers and noncommissioned officers of the guard whenever he considers it necessary. e. In case of alarm of any kind, he will at once take steps to protect life and public property and to preserve order, using the guard for this purpose. f. In the performance of his duties, he takes orders only from the commanding officer, except that in case of an alarm of any kind and at a time of great danger, the senior line officer present is competent to give necessary orders to the officer of the day for the employment of the guard. g. The officer of the day verifies the count of prisoners and inspects the guardhouse and premises whenever he considers it necessary. h. In the absence of special instructions, the officer of the day releases all garrison prisoners whose sentences expire that day. If there are prisoners with no record of charges against them, the officer of the day reports that fact to the commanding officer or his representative. i. The officer of the day signs the report of the commander of the guard, entering thereon his remarks or comments. The guard report will be submitted daily to the commanding officer by the officer of the day. j. The officers of the day report to the commanding officer or his representative as follows: On presenting themselves both salute. The old officer of the day standing on the right of the new then says, “Sir, I report as old officer of the day,” and presents the guard report. As soon as the commanding officer or his representative notifies the old officer of the day that he is relieved, the latter salutes and retires. The new officer of the day again salutes and says, “Sir, I report as new officer of the day.” After receiving his instructions he salutes and retires. K. The officer of the day keeps the guard informed as to where he may be found at any time. (13) 14. Commander of the Guard. a. The commander of the guard is responsible for the instruction, discipline, and performance of duty of the guard. b. He receives and obeys the orders of the commanding officer and officer of the day, and reports to the last named all orders to the guard not received from him. He transmits to his successor all instructions and information relating to his duties. He will see that all members of the guard are correctly instructed in their orders and duties and that they understand and properly perform them. He questions his non- commissioned officers and sentinels relative to the instructions they may have received. He will see that patrols properly perform their duties and that visits of inspection as directed by the officer of the day are made. He will see that the special orders for each post and member of the guard are posted in the guardhouse. c. The commander of the guard will inspect the guard at such time as may be necessary to assure himself that the men are in proper condition to perform their duties and that their arms and equipment are in proper condition. For inspection by other officers he will prepare the guard in each case as directed by the inspecting officer. He will visit each relief daily while it is on post as often as prescribed by higher authority. At least one of these daily visits will be made between midnight and daylight. He will inspect the guardrooms and cells and the irons of prisoners who are handcuffed or shackled at least once each day and at such other times as he may consider necessary. Where there is no prison officer, he will inspect the meals sent to the guardhouse or prepared therein, and will see that quarters are kept properly policed. d. A commander of the guard leaving the guardhouse for any reason will inform the next in command of his destination and probable time of return. Except in INTERIOR GUARD DUTY 391 emergencies, the commander of the guard may divide the night with the next in º but retains his responsibility. The one on watch must be constantly on the alert. * e. When an alarm is raised, the guard will be formed as soon as practicable. If the case is serious, the proper call will be sounded and the commander of the guard will cause the commanding officer and the officer of the day to be notified at once. f. The commander of the guard will see that proper calls are sounded at the hours prescribed by the commanding officer. g. He will cause the details for raising and lowering the flag at reveille and retreat and the detail for firing the saluting gun to be made in time for the proper performance of these duties. (See pars. 47 and 48.) He will see that the flags are kept in the best possible condition and that they are never handled except in the performance of duty. When flags are not in a serviceable condition, he will report that fact to the officer of the day. h. He will see that all sentinels are relieved at the proper time. i. He will permit members of the guard, except the reserve, to leave the guardhouse when not on post, unless otherwise ordered. j. The commander of the guard will detain at the guardhouse all suspicious looking persons or parties moving about without authority. He will report the circumstances to the ;" of the day who will decide what action is to be taken. (See par. 15 k and 16 l. k. He is responsible for the security of the prisoners under charge of the guard. When any person is sent to the guardhouse for confinement, the commander of the guard will cause him to be searched for any unauthorized articles in his possession. He will report the fact of confinement to the officer of the day. Immediately before each relief goes on post, the commander of the guard causes the corporals of the old and new reliefs to verify together the number of prisoners who should then be in the guardhouse. He sees that the sentences of prisoners under his charge are strictly executed. He reports to the officer of the day all cases of prisoners whose terms of sentence expire on that day, and also all cases of prisoners concerning whom no statements of charges have been received. (See A. W. 71, 72, and 73 and AR 600-375.) l. He will prepare the guard report and present it daily to the officer of the day. (See AR 345-40.) (14) 15. Sergeant of the Guard. a. The senior noncommissioned officer of the guard, whatever his grade, will officially be known as the sergeant of the guard. If there is no officer of the guard, he will perform the duties prescribed for the commander of the guard. b. The sergeant of the guard will have general supervision over the other non- commissioned officers, buglers, and privates of the guard, and must be familiar with all of their orders and duties. c. He is responsible for the property under charge of the guard and will see that it is properly cared for. If it is not, he will immediately report the facts to the commander of the guard. He will list all articles taken out by working parties and see that such articles are returned in good condition unless they are issued and cared for by the prison officer or similar authority. d. He will prepare duplicate lists daily of the names of the noncommissioned officers, buglers, and privates of the guard, showing the reliefs and posts or duties of each. One list is given to the commander of the guard and the other retained by himself. e. He will see that all reliefs are turned out at the proper time and that the corporals thoroughly understand and are prompt and efficient in the discharge of their duties. f. He will make such inspections and see that the other noncommissioned officers of the guard make such inspections and patrols as may be prescribed by superior authority. g. During the temporary absence from the guardhouse of the sergeant of the guard the next ranking noncommissioned officer will perform his duties. h. Should the corporal whose relief is on post be called away from the guardhouse, 392 INTERIOR GUARD DUTY the sergeant of the guard will temporarily take his place or designate another non- commissioned officer to do so. (See par. 16 f.) i. The sergeant of the guard is responsible for the proper police of the guardhouse, including the grounds around it. j. He will go to the adjutant's or other office for the guard report book as directed by the commanding officer. k. He will report to the officer of the guard or, when there is none, to the officer of the day, any suspicious or unusual occurrence that comes under his notice and notify him of all persons arrested by the guard. l. The sergeant of the guard has direct charge of the prisoners except during such times as they are under the charge of the prisoner guard, and is responsible to the commander of the guard for their security. m. He will keep the keys of the guardroom and cells in his personal possession while at the guardhouse. (See par. 23 b.) Should he leave the guardhouse for any purpose he will turn the keys over to the noncommissioned officer who takes his place. n. He will count the knives, forks, and other utensils given to the prisoners with their food and see that none of these articles remain in their possession. He will see that no unauthorized articles are conveyed to the prisoners. (See AR 600-375.) o. He forms the guard whenever a formation is necessary. (15) 16. Corporal of the Guard. a. A corporal of the guard receives and obeys orders only from the commanding officer, officer of the day, officers of the guard, and noncom- missioned officers of the guard senior to himself. b. The corporal will assign the members of their respective reliefs to posts by number. Such assignment will not be changed except by direction of the commander of the guard or higher authority. c. Each corporal will make a list daily of the members of his relief, including him- self. This list will show the number of the relief, the post to which each member is assigned, and his name and organization. The list will be made in duplicate; one copy will be given to the sergeant of the guard and the other retained by himself. d. It is the duty of the corporal of the guard to instruct the members of his relief regarding their orders and duties. Each corporal will thoroughly acquaint himself with the special orders of every sentinel of his relief and see that each understands such orders. e. He will at once report to the commander of the guard any violation of regu- lations or any unusual occurrence which is reported to him by a sentinel or which comes to his notice. f. There will be at least one noncommissioned officer constantly on the alert at the guardhouse, usually the corporal whose relief is on post. This noncommissioned officer will take post near the entrance of the guardhouse and will not fall in with the guard when it is formed. He will have his rifle or other prescribed arm con- stantly with him. Whenever it becomes necessary for the corporal to leave his post near the entrance of the guardhouse, he will notify the sergeant of the guard, who will at once take his place or designate another noncommissioned officer to do so. He will see that no person enters the guardhouse without authority. g. Should any sentinel call for the corporal of the guard by telephone or other means, he will go at once to such sentinel. h. Should the guard be turned out, each corporal will call his own relief and cause its members to fall in promptly. Tents or bunks in the same vicinity are designated for the reliefs so that all members of each relief may be found and turned out by the corporal in the shortest time and with least confusion. i. He will wake the corporal whose relief is next on post in time for the latter to verify the prisoners, form his relief, and post it at the proper hour. The relief is formed and posted as prescribed in paragraph 24 a. j. During the time for challenging, the corporal of the guard will challenge all suspicious looking persons or parties he may observe. He will advance such persons or parties in the same manner as do sentinels on post. (See par. 27 j.) k. The corporal will examine persons or parties halted and detained by a sentinel. INTERIOR GUARD DUTY 393 If he is doubtful of their authority to be there, he will conduct them to the com- mander of the guard. l. On a military reservation or in a post, the corporal of the guard will arrest all suspicious looking persons, disturbers of the peace and persons taken in the act of committing crime against the Government. Persons arrested by the corporal of the guard or by sentinels will be conducted at once to the commander of the guard by the corporal. (16) 17. Buglers of the Guard. a. As many buglers of the guard will be detailed as the commanding officer may direct. b. The buglers of the guard will remain at the guardhouse during their tour unless otherwise directed by the commanding officer. c. The buglers of the guard sound calls as prescribed by the commanding officer. (17) 18. Privates of the Guard. a. Privates are assigned to reliefs by the commander of the guard and to posts by the corporal of their relief. Privates are not changed from one relief to another except by proper authority. b. Privates of the guard must be familiar with the general orders for sentinels and with special orders applying to their particular posts. c. No. 1 at the guardhouse is directly charged with guarding the prisoners except when they have been turned over to the prisoner guard. When there are no prisoners in the guardhouse the sentinel for No. 1 post will not walk post unless so required by the commanding officer. At such times he will remain on the alert at the main entrance to the guardhouse. The orders that apply to his post are: (1) He will allow no prisoners to escape. (2) He will allow no prisoners to cross his post from the guardhouse except when passed by an officer or noncommissioned officer of the guard. (3) He will allow no one to communicate with prisoners without authority from a superior from whom he receives orders. (4) He will promptly report to the corporal of the guard any suspicious noise made by the prisoners. (5) Whenever prisoners are brought to his post he will halt them and call, “Corporal of the guard (so many) prisoners.” (6) He will not allow prisoners to pass into the guardhouse until the corporal of the guard has responded to the call and ordered him to do so. (7) He will challenge any person or party in the same manner as other sentinels. (8) In case of fire or disorder or the presence of suspicious or disorderly persons in the vicinity of his post, he will call the corporal of the guard and report the facts to him. (See par. 16 l.) d. After relief, each member not at once required for duty will place his rifle, if so armed, in the arm rack or stack and will not remove it therefrom unless required in the performance of some duty. (18) 19. Standard Sentinels. Guards may be furnished for the standard when unfurled and posted out of doors. For this purpose, guards are detailed and governed by the same regulations as apply to other members of the main guard. (19) 20. General. a. At all formations the guard forms under arms. b. Members of the guard, or reliefs upon forming, execute Inspection arms as prescribed in regulations. (20) 21. When Turned Out. a. The guard is never turned out as a compliment. b. Formal inspections may be prescribed periodically, at which all members of the guard, except those on post or specifically excused, will be present. (21) 22. To Form the Guard. a. When directed to turn out, the guard is formed and the inspection is conducted as prescribed in regulations for inspection of a Company or platoon. b. The post of the senior noncommissioned officer, if commander of the guard, is the same as in the case of an officer. If not commander of the guard, it is in the line of file closers and in rear of the right file of the guard. The next in rank is right guide, the next left guide, the others in the line of file closers, each corporal being 394 INTERIOR GUARD DUTY usually in rear of his relicf. The buglers are three paces to the right of the guard. The reliefs form in numerical order from right to left. c. At night the roll may be called by reliefs and numbers instead of names. Thus, the first relief being on post: Second relief, corporal; No. 1; No. 2; etc. Third relief, corporal No. 1; No. 2; etc. d. If the sergeant is also commander, he forms the guard as sergeant of the guard and then takes post and proceeds as commander of the guard. (22) 23. To Turn Out Prisoners. a. Prisoners, when turned out with the guard, are placed in line in an interval in its center, under the direction of the sergeant of the guard. b. The sergeant immediately before forming the guard will turn over his keys to the noncommissioned officer at the guardhouse. The guard having been formed to receive the prisoners, the doors of the guardroom and cells are then opened by the noncommissioned officer having the keys. The prisoners file out under the super- vision of the sergeant, the noncommissioned officer having the keys, the sentinel on duty at the guardhouse, and such other sentinels as may be necessary. They form in line in the interval made in the guard. c. The prisoners, under the same supervision as before, return to their proper rooms or cells. (23) 24. To Post Reliefs. a. (1) At an appropriate time before sentinels are due to go on post, the corporal assembles them, checks their appearance, fitness for duty, condi- tion of arms if carried, issues ammunition if required, and assures himself that they understand their instructions. When the relief is large, it may be more convenient to form the relief, call the roll, and inspect the sentinels in ranks. The corporal then reports to the commander of the guard that his relief is ready to be posted, or if directed, sends the sentinels to their posts without so reporting. The corporal sends his sentinels to their posts by the direct order, “Private A, Private B, take your posts,” or if the roll has been called, “Take your posts.” Each sentinel will then proceed to his post. One sentinel relieves another by meeting at a particular point at a prearranged time. The sentinel on post at the expiration of his tour will remain on post within view of the prearranged relieving point and when relieved by the new sentinel he will proceed directly to the guardhouse and report to the corporal of the old relief. The last sentinel on duty on a night post will proceed directly to the guardhouse at a designated time. If the relief was posted with arms loaded, the corporal of the old relief will see that no cartridges are left in the chambers or magazines before dismissing the members of the old relief. The same rule applies to prisoner guard. (2) The corporal writes down the names of the sentries, the number of their posts, the time and date he directed them to their posts, and the time they report back upon being relieved. This record is kept on file by the commander of the guard. 6. Sentinels mounted on horses, bicycles, motorcycles, and in small cars are posted and relieved in accordance with the same principles. (24) 25. Classes of Orders. Orders for sentinels are of two classes: general orders and special orders. General orders apply to all sentinels; special orders relate to particular posts and duties. (25) 26. General Orders. All sentinals are required to familiarize themselves with the following general orders: 1. To take charge of this post and all Government property in view. 2. To walk, my post in a military manner, keeping always on the alert and observing everything that takes place within sight or hearing. 3. To report all violations of orders I am instructed to enforce. 4. To repeat all calls from posts more distant from the guardhouse than my own. 5. To quit my post only when properly relieved. 6. To receive, obey, and pass on to the sentinel who relieves me all orders from the commanding officer, officer of the day, and officers and noncommissioned officers of the guard only. 7. To talk to no one except in line of duty. 8. To give the alarm in case of fire or disorder. INTERIOR GUARD DUTY 395 9. To call the corporal of the guard in any case not covered by instructions. 10. To salute all officers, and all colors and standards not cased. 11. To be especially watchful at night and, during the time for challenging, to challenge all persons on or near my post and to allow no one to pass without proper authority. (26) 27. Regulations Relating to General Orders. a. No. 1. To take charge of this post and all Government property in view. (1) All persons of whatever rank in the service are required to respect members of the guard in the performance of their duties. (2) A sentinel will report immediately to the corporal of the guard by telephone or other means every unusual or suspicious occurrence noted. (3) He will arrest all suspicious-looking persons and all parties involved in a disorder occurring on or near his post. He will turn over to the corporal of the guard all persons arrested. (4) The number, limits, and extent of his post will constitute part of the special orders of a sentinel. The limits of his post will be so defined as to include every place to which he is required to go in the performance of his duties. b. No. 2. To walk my post in a military manner, keeping always on the alert and observing everything that takes place within sight or hearing. A sentinel is not required to patrol his post in any prescribed manner, but he must be constantly alert observing everything that takes place within his sight or hearing. c. No. 3. To report all violations of orders I am instructed to enforce. A sentinel will report a violation of orders at the first opportunity. He will arrest the offender if necessary. d. No. 4. To report all calls from posts more distant from the guardhouse than my own. To call the corporal of the guard for any purpose other than fire or disorder (h below), a sentinel will call, “Corporal of the guard, No. º e. No. 5. To quit my post only when properly relieved. (1) If relief becomes necessary by reason of sickness or other cause, a sentinel will call, “Corporal of the guard, No. relief,” or communicate by telephone or other means with the corporal of his relief. If there is but one relief, he will leave his post at the proper time, return to the guardhouse, and report to the corporal of his relief. (2) Sentinels will leave their posts for meals as specifically directed by the commanding officer. If a sentinel is not relieved by the new sentinel at the expiration of his tour, the old sentinel will not abandon his post but will communicate with the . of his relief by telephone or other means and comply with the instructions received. f. No. 6. To receive, obey, and pass on to the sentinel who relieves me, all orders from the commanding officer, officer of the day, and officers and noncommissioned officers of the guard only. (1) During his tour of duty, a sentinel is subject to the orders of the commanding officer, officer of the day, and officers and noncommissioned officers of the guard only; but any officer is authorized to investigate apparent viola- tions of regulations by members of the guard. (2) A sentinel will quit his piece only on an explicit order from a person from whom he lawfully receives orders while on post. Unless necessity therefore exists, no person will require a sentinel to quit his piece or even require it to be inspected. g. No. 7. To talk to no one except in line of duty. When persons make proper inquiries of a sentinel, courteous answers should be given. When challenging or holding conversation with any person, a dismounted sentinel armed with a rifle will take the position of Port arms. At night a dismounted sentinel armed with a pistol takes the position of Raise pistol in challenging or holding conversation. A mounted sentinel does not ordinarily draw his weapon in the daytime when challenging or holding conversation. At night in challenging or holding conversation he takes the position of Raise pistol. h. No. 8. To give the alarm in case of fire or disorder. In case of fire, the sentinel will immediately call, “Fire No. ” and give an alarm or make certain that an alarm has already been given. He will then take the necessary action to direct the responding fire apparatus to the fire. If possible, the sentinel will extinguish the fire. 396 INTERIOR GUARD DUTY As soon as practicable, the sentinel will notify the guardhouse of his action by tele- phone or other means. Sentinels shall immediately transmit to the guardhouse by telephone or other means information of any disorder and will take proper police action with regard thereto. If necessary, the sentinel will call, “The guard, No. ." In either case, if the danger is great, he will discharge his piece three times in rapid succssion before calling. In time of war, sentinels will give warning of air and gas attacks as directed by the commanding officer. Point of neorest h approac Route of º- º º - º wº- wº- tº- º e- sº- sºme --> --> sº- Fo- ** º e sº- o F F; c er r *- ---> * * - - - - - - - - - - -º ame. * =e sº- * * * * * *º- º (ſ) Q) O O Cl- O CY) Sentinel - Post of sentineſ —tº Sentinel faces ond solutes when relative positions ore os shown. Plate 2. Relative Positions, Sentinel Saluting an Officer. i. No. 10. To salute all officers and all colors and standards not cased. (1) Sen- tinels and other members of the guard render salutes as prescribed in AR 600-25, with the following exceptions: (a) No salute is rendered to persons by a member of the guard who is engaged in the performance of a specific duty, the proper execution of which would prevent saluting. (b) A mounted or dismounted sentinel armed with a pistol does not salute after challenging. He stands at Raise pistol until the challenged party has passed. (2) During the hours when challenging is prescribed the first salute is given as soon as the officer has been duly recognized and advanced. (3) A sentinel in conversation with an officer will not interrupt the conversation to salute, but in case the officer salutes a senior the sentinel will also salute. (c) In garrison, sentinels posted with the rifle salute by presenting arms. j. No. 11. To be especially watchful at night and, during the time for challenging, to challenge all persons on or near my post and to allow no one to pass without proper authority. (1) (a) During challenging hours, if a sentinel sees any person or party on or near his post, he will advance quickly along his post toward such person or party, and when within about 30 paces will challenge sharply, “HALT! Who is there?” The sentinel ordinarily continues to advance while challenging but he may halt if circumstances require. After challenging, he places himself in the most advantageous position from which to pass or arrest the person or party. In selecting this position, the sentinel may require the challenged person or one of a party to advance toward him, or to remain halted, or to advance to a particular place, or to face toward the light, or to take whatever position necessary in order that he may most surely and promptly determine whether the person or party should be passed or turned over to the guard. © (b) If the person or party challenged is mounted or in a vehicle, the sentinel INTERIOR GUARD DUTY 397 will proceed as when the person or party challenged is on foot. If necessary to the proper performance of his duty, he may cause one or all of a party to dismount. (c) The sentinel will permit only one of a party to approach him for the purpose of being duly recognized. (d) The sentinel must satisfy himself beyond a reasonable doubt that those challenged are what they represent themselves to be and have a right to pass. If he is not satisfied, he calls the corporal of the guard by nearest telephone or other means. (e) When a party approaches, the sentinel, on receiving an answer, that indicates that the party is authorized to pass, will say, “Advance one to be recognized,” and when that one has been recognized will then say, “Advance (so-and-so),” re- peating the answer to his challenge. Thus, if the answer is “Patrol (friends, etc.)." the sentinel will say, “Advance one to be recognized,” and when recognized he will say, “Advance patrol (friends, etc.).” ) If a person approaches alone, he will be directed to advance to be recognized and when recognized will be advanced as indicated above for one of a party. Thus, if the answer is, “Friend (officer of the day, etc.),” the sentinel will call, “Advance, friend (officer of the day, etc.), to be recognized.” After recognition, the sentinel will say, “Advance, friend (officer of the day, etc.).” (2) (a) If two or more persons or parties approach the sentinel's post from different directions at the same time, they will be challenged in turn and required to halt and remain halted until advanced. (b) The senior is first advanced in accordance with the foregoing rules. (c) If a person or party is already advanced and in conversation with a sentinel, the latter will challenge any other person or party that may approach. If the person or party challenged is senior to the one already on his post, the sentinel will advance the new person or others that may be challenged; otherwise the sentinel will advance no one until the senior leaves him. He will then advance only the senior of the remaining ones, and so on. (d) The following order of rank governs a sentinel in advancing different persons or parties approaching his post: Commanding officer, officer of the day, officer of the guard, officers, patrols, relief, noncommissioned officers of the guard in order of rank, and friends. (3) A sentinel must never allow himself to be surprised, nor permit two parties to advance upon him at the same time. (4) Answers to a sentinel’s challenge intended to confuse or mislead him are prohibited, but the use of such an answer as “Friend” is not to be understood as misleading, but as the usual answer made by officers or patrols when the purpose of their visit makes it desirable that their official capacity should not be announced. (5) The commanding officer may limit challenging to suspicious looking persons. (27) CHAPTER III SPECIAL GUARDS 28. When Detailed. a. Special guards are detailed when it is uneconomical or impracticable to guard property or an area by sentinels from the main guard. b. Special guards are governed by the general principles set forth for the main guard unless circumstances make this impracticable. c. In this chapter when the term troop is used, it will be construed to include any organization having stables. (28) … Note: In these and succeeding paragraphs the term “troop” or “company” has been changed to read “battery.” 29. Purpose. Special guards are for the protection of animals, motors, buildings, forage, equipment, and supplies, and public property generally, when not charged to the main guard. In addition, they enforce the special regulations in regard to stables, animals, parks, or other property being guarded. (29) 398 INTERIOR GUARD DUTY 30. Stable Guards. Posts and Duties. a. Sentinels of the stable guard are posted at the stables, or, when the animals are kept outside, at the picket lines. b. Neither the noncommissioned officer nor members of the stable guard will absent themselves from the immediate vicinity of the stables unless otherwise ordered. c. When animals are herded, each battery will furnish its own herd guard. d. Stable guards will not be employed for police and fatigue duties at the stables except in an emergency. e. The instructions given for battery stable guard will be observed by the noncom- missioned officers and sentinels of the main guard when in charge of the stables. (30) 31. Battery Stable Guards. a. Battery stable guards are used in the field or when it is impracticable to guard the stables by sentinels from the main guard. b. Battery stable guards are under the immediate control of their respective battery commanders. They will be posted in each stable or near the picket line and will consist of not less than one noncommissioned officer and three privates. c. The battery stable guard attends stables with the rest of the battery and grooms its own animals, the sentinels being taken off post for that purpose. (32) 32. Herd Guard. The battery stable guard may be used as a herd guard during the daytime or when grazing is practicable. (32) 33. Noncommissioned Officer of Battery Stable Guard. a. The noncommissioned officer receives orders from his battery commander to whom he reports immediately after posting his first relief. When relieved, he will turn over all orders to his successor. He will instruct his sentinels in their general and special duties; exercise general supervision over his entire guard; exact order and cleanliness about the guardroom; check the animals, equipment, and property for the protection of which he is responsible. Before relieving his predecessor, he will examine all locks, windows, and doors, and should any be found insecure, report that fact to his battery commander when he reports for orders. He will personally post and relieve each sentinel, taking care to verify the property responsibility of the sentinel who comes off post. He will see that the sentinel who goes on post is aware of the property responsibility that he assumes. b. That the noncommissioned officer may have knowledge of his specific respon- sibility, all animals returning will be reported to him except those from a regular formation. He will then notify the sentinel on post of the number of animals. In the absence of the stable sergeant he will see that the animals are promptly cared for. (1) He will promptly report to the battery commander any unusual occurrences and any abuse of animals or property. (2) He will answer the sentinel's calls promptly. (3) In case of fire, he will see that the requirements of paragraph 34 d are promptly carried out. (4) Whenever it becomes necessary to leave his guard, he will designate a member of it to take charge and assume his responsibility during his absence. c. Animals, vehicles, and other property for which the noncommissioned officer is responsible, will not be taken from the stables without the authority of the battery commander or higher authority. (33) 34. Sentinels of Battery Stable Guard. a. The sentinel is governed by the regulations for sentinels on interior guard duty. b. The sentinel receives orders from the commanding officer, the battery commander (and officers and noncommissioned officer of the guard when the sentinel is part of the main guard), and the noncommissioned officer of the stable guard only. c. (1) In the field, or when so directed by proper authority, the sentinel upon being posted will verify the number of animals for which he is responsible, and upon being relieved will give the number to his successor. (2) The sentinel will not permit any animals or equipment to be taken from the stables except in the presence of the noncommissioned officer. (3) Should an animal become loose, the sentinel will catch and retie it. If unable to catch it, he will at once notify the noncommissioned officer. In case an animal is cast or in any way entangled, he will relieve it if possible. If unable to do so, he will INTERIOR GUARD DUTY 399 call the noncommissioned officer. Sentinels are forbidden to punish or maltreat an animal. (4) When an animal is taken sick, the sentinel will notify the noncommissioned officer, who, in turn, will communicate the information to the stable sergeant. The latter will see that the animal is promptly attended to. d. (1) In case of fire, the sentinel will give the alarm by stepping outside the stable, firing his rifle or pistol three times in rapid succession, and calling, “Fire, stable, Battery .” (2) As soon as the guard is alarmed, he takes the necessary precautions by opening or closing doors to prevent the spreading of the fire and to make it possible to remove the animals. He drops the chains and bars and with the other members of the guard leads the animals out and secures them at the picket line or such other place as may have been previously designated. e. Sentinels over animals or guards in charge of prisoners working about stables or picket lines may receive orders from the stable sergeant insofar as the care of animals and the labor of prisoners are concerned. f. In field artillery, machine gun organizations, etc., the guard for the stables has charge of the guns, caissons, or carts with their ammunition and stores as well as the animals, harness, and forage. (34) 35. Park Guards. General. Motor parks and tank parks will ordinarily be guarded by elements of the main guard. When it is impracticable or uneconomical to guard the parks by sentinels of the main guard, special park guards will be posted when deemed necessary. (35) 36. Posts and Duties. a. Sentinels when required are posted at the motor or tank park. b. Neither the noncommissioned officer nor members of the park guard will absent themselves from the immediate vicinity of the park unless otherwise ordered. c. Smoking in the motor park is prohibited. No fire or lights other than electric lights or authorized lanterns will be permitted in the park. d. Park guards will not be employed for police and fatigue duties at the park except in an emergency. e. The instructions given for the park guard will be observed by the noncom- missioned officers and sentinels of the main guard when in charge of the motor or tank parks. (36) 37. Battery Park Guards. Battery park guards are under the immediate control of their respective battery commanders. (37) 38. Noncommissioned Officers of the Park Guard. a. The noncommissioned officer will receive orders from his battery commander. When relieved he will turn over all orders to his successor. He will instruct his sentinels in their general and special duties; exercise general supervision over his entire guard; exact order and cleanliness about the guardroom; check the motor vehicles, equipment, and property for the protection of which he is responsible. Immediately upon going on duty he will inspect his entire area for fire hazards and see that the keys are in the vehicles to permit their removal in case of fire. Before relieving his predecessor he will examine all locks, windows, and doors, and should any be found insecure, report that fact to his battery commander when he reports for orders. He will personally post and relieve each sentinel, taking care to verify the property responsibility of the sentinel who comes off post. He will see that the sentinel who goes on post is aware of the property responsibility that he assumes. b. That the noncommissioned officer may have knowledge of his specific respon- sibility, all vehicles returning will be reported to him except those from a regular formation. He will then notify the sentinel on post of the number of vehicles. (1) He will promptly report to the battery commander any unusual occurrence and any abuse of vehicles or property. (2) He will answer the sentinel's calls promptly. (3) In case of fire he will see that the requirements of paragraph 39 d are promptly carried out. r = • 4 400 INTERIOR GUARD DUTY (4) He will not permit any vehicles or equipment to be taken from the park except by proper authority. (5) Whenever it becomes necessary to leave his guard, he will designate a member of it to take charge and assume his responsibility during his absence. (38) 39. Sentinels of Park Guards. a. The sentinel is governed by the regulations for sentinels on main guard duty. b. The sentinel will receive orders from the commanding officer, the battery com- mander (the officer of the day and officers and noncommissioned officers of the guard when the sentinel is part of the main guard), and the noncommissioned officer of the park guard only. c. In the field or when so directed by proper authority, the sentinel upon being posted will verify the number of motor vehicles for which he is responsible, and upon being relieved will give the number to his successor. d. In case of fire, the sentinel will give the alarm by firing his rifle or pistol three times in rapid succession and will call, “Fire, park, Battery As soon as the guard is alarmed, he will take the necessary precautions by opening or closing doors to prevent the spreading of the fire and to make it possible to remove the vehicles. With the other members of the guard he will remove the vehicles from the park to a place of safety. (39) 40. Other Special Guards. Posts. Sentinels of train guards, boat guards, and other guards detailed as special guards are posted when it is impracticable to guard the areas or property involved by sentinels from the main guard. (40) 41. Duties. The duties of special guards will be prescribed by the commanding officer to fit the specific situation. (41) CHAPTER IV PRISONERS AND PRISONER GUARDS 42. Rules Governing Prisoners. AR 600-375 contains the general provisions for the administration and control of prisoners. In general, the prison officer is responsible for the employment, management, and rehabilitation of prisoners; the commander of the guard for their safekeeping and enforcement of discipline. (42) 43. Confinement and Release of Prisoners. a. A prisoner, after his first day of confinement and until his sentence has been duly promulgated, is considered as held in confinement by authority of the commanding officer. After promulgation of his sentence, the prisoner is held in confinement by authority of the officer who reviews the proceedings of the court awarding the sentence. b. No general prisoner will be released from confinement except on an order communicated by the commanding officer. Garrison prisoners will be released as provided in paragraph 13 h. (43) 44. Prisoner Guards. a. A guard over prisoners is detailed for the particular duty of guarding prisoners at work or otherwise outside of the prison or guardhouse. Members of the prisoner guard are normally detailed for a period of time in the same manner as members of the main guard. The number of sentinels detailed on prisoner guard will be kept to the minimum. b. When no prisoner guard has been detailed, the commander of the guard is responsible for guarding the prisoners. c. The commander of the guard is responsible for the security of prisoners not removed from the custody of the guard by proper authority. d. The detail of a separate prisoner guard under a commander other than the commander of the main guard may be necessary when the number of prisoners is excessive, when prisoners are engaged on a work project at a considerable distance from the prison or guardhouse, or when prisoners are being transferred to another station or otherwise removed from the immediate control of the post guard. The prison officer may be placed in command of said separate guard. INTERIOR GUARD DUTY 401 e. When prisoners are turned over to a separate guard, such guard is responsible for their safekeeping under its commander, and all responsibility of the main guard ceases until the prisoners are returned to the main guard. f. Before taking over prisoners, the prisoner guard will be inspected by the com- mander of the guard who will see that all of the members of the prisoner guard are properly armed and equipped, conversant with their orders, and in condition to perform their duties. g. The provost sergeant is the assistant to the prison officer for the employment and management of prisoners. He may also be detailed as sergeant of the prisoner guard and as such receives his orders from the commander of the prison guard. (44) 45. Sentinels on Prison Guard. a. A sentinel on guard over prisoners is on post within the meaning of A. W. 86. b. In the event of an outbreak, attempted escape, or any disorder, a sentinel over prisoners will take immediate action, using enough force to restore order or prevent escape. The force used in any case will be strictly limited to that which a person charged with the custody of prisoners reasonably believes to be necessary for the enforcement of duly authorized regulations and for the proper control of prisoners. c. If a prisoner attempts to escape, the sentinel or any member of the prisoner guard or the main guard who sees him will call: HALT! If the prisoner fails to halt when the call has been once repeated, and if there is no other effective means for preventing his escape the sentinel or member of the guard will fire at the prisoner. d. A sentinel placed over prisoners to perform hard labor will receive specific and explicit instructions governing the required work from the sergeant of the guard or the provost sergeant. Sentinels are responsible that prisoners under their charge work diligently at the assigned task and properly and satisfactorily perform the designated work. e. A sentinel placed over prisoners will strictly enforce the rules and regulations prescribed for the conduct and the proper control of prisoners. f. Whenever he returns prisoners to the guardhouse a sentinel over prisoners will halt them and call, “No. 1 (so many) prisoners.” He will not allow them to cross the post of the sentinel at the guardhouse until so directed by the corporal of the guard. g. A prisoner under charge of a sentinel does not salute. (45) CHAPTER V MISCELLANEOUS 46. Civilian Watchmen. Civilian watchmen will be used when authorized by com- petent authority. They will receive their orders and perform their duties as the commanding officer may direct. (46) 47. Raising and Lowering the Flag. a. Normally a detail consisting of one non- commissioned officer and two privates of the guard equipped with side arms or belts only raises or lowers the flag. The noncommissioned officer carrying the flag forms the detail in line, takes his post in the center, and marches it to the staff. The flag is then attached to the halyards and rapidly raised to the top of the staff. (See AR 260-10.) The halyards are fastened to the cleat on the staff and the detail marched to the guardhouse. When the flag is to be lewered, the halyards are loosened from the staff and made perfectly free. When lowered, the flag is neatly folded as pre- scribed in AR 260-10 and the halyards made fast. The detail is then re-formed and marched to the guardhouse where the flag is turned over to the commander of the guard. b. The flag should always be raised or lowered from the leeward side of the staff, the halyards being held by two persons. The flag should not be allowed to touch the ground. c. For occasions when the flag is raised and lowered see AR 600-25 and 600-30. (45) Note—Before being completely detached from the halyards, the flag should be folded into the shape of a cocked hat. (See Plate 28, “Military Courtesy and Discipline.”) When the national flag is displayed at half staff, it is first hoisted to the top of the staff and then lowered to the half-staff position. Before lowering the flag it is again raised to the top of the staff (Par. 2 (11) (a) AR 260-10). 402 INTERIOR GUARD DUTY 48. Saluting Gun. The morning and evening salutes, and other salutes prescribed specifically by the commanding officer to be fired by the guard, will be fired by a suitable detachment of the guard. After firing, the gun is sponged out. For instruc- tions concerning salutes to be fired with cannon and precautions to be taken, see AR 600-25 and TR 1370-B. (48) Note—Also see Par. 7, “Ceremonies,” and Par. 48, Section I, “Service of the Piece.” 49. Extra Orders to Commander of the Guard. All material instructions given to a member of the guard by an officer having authority to do so will be promptly com- municated to the commander of the guard by the officer giving them. (49) s APPENDIx I FORMAL AND INFORMAL GUARD MOUNT Notc-The following regulations serve as a guide where the commanding officer deems it neces- sary to establish a formal guard. 1. General. Guard mounting may be formal or informal and the uniform, arms, and equipment will be prescribed by the commanding officer. (1) 2. Formal Guard Mounting. a. Prior to Assembly, at the command of the first sergeant, the men going on guard fall in by detail on their battery parade ground as prescribed for the squad with the noncommissioned officers on the right flank. The first sergeant verifies the detail, inspects it, replaces those who do not present a creditable appearance, turns the detail over to the senior noncommissioned officer, and WHERE THE GUARD WILL FORM [...] [T] [T] [T] [] [] [I] [...] […] [T] [T] [] [T] D BAND —e—12 PACES —-LJ U […] [I] […] […] [T] SERGEANT MAJOR | 8 RACES ! | ADJUTANT | Plate 1. Formal Guard Mounting. retires. If there is no noncommissioned officer with the detail, the first sergeant turns the detail over to a noncommissioned officer of the battery previously designated for the duty of marching the detail on guard. At the sounding of Assembly, the detail is reported to the senior noncommissioned officer of the guard at a previously designated place off the parade ground. The guard detail is assembled and formed into a platoon. INTERIOR GUARD DUTY 403 The senior noncommissioned officers of the guard to be assigned posts as in c (3) below are formed as the rear rank in inverse order of rank from right to left. Remaining noncommissioned officers, if any, are formed on the left flank so as to equalize the number of men in each rank. After the platoon is formed, it is faced to the right. The band takes its place so that the left of its front rank is 12 paces to the right of the point where the right of the front rank of the guard is to be when formed. The adjutant signals to the band when Adjutant's Call is to be sounded. | | | ! [...] [...] [...] [...] [...] [I] [...] [...] E E E E L E E BAND Y A. E = E = E = E = D. D. D. […] [I] [...] [I] | | | | [m] & §3 5 FACES DOTTED LINE SHOWS ROUTE TAKEN BY THE SERGEANT MAJOR IN DIVIDING THE GUARD INTO TWO PLATOONS Plate 2. Formal Guard Mounting. b. Immediately following Adjutant's Call the band plays march music; the adjutant, with the sergeant major on his left, marches at the first note of march music from a position in front of the place where the center of the guard will be. The adjutant halts so as to take post 18 paces in front of and facing the center of the guard when formed. The sergeant major continues 18 paces, moves by the left flank, halts 12 paces to the left of the front rank of the band and faces about. See Plate 1. The guard, if armed with the rifle, is brought to the right shoulder at the first note of Adjutant's Call and marched in column in quick time to the parade ground by the senior noncommissioned officer. The post of the noncommissioned officer in command of the guard detail is 3 paces to the left and abreast of the center man of the left column of files. The guard is marched onto the parade ground from the left flank in column and sufficiently in rear of the line on which the guard is to form to permit the expeditious alinement of the guard. The guard detail is halted in rear of its position when the head of the column is abreast of the post of the sergeant major, and the band ceases to play. The com- mander of the guard detail, remaining at right shoulder (if armed with the rifle) executes Right face and commands: 1. Order, 2. ARMS, 3. Left, 4. FACE. Note—If armed with the pistol he executes the same movements and gives the same commands with the exception of 1. Order, 2. ARMS. He then faces to the right in marching and proceeds to a position 1 pace to the left front of the left file of the front rank, executes About face, and places himself on line with the sergeant major and the front rank of the band. He then commands: 1. Dress right, 2. DRESS. At the command Dress, the right flank man of the front rank places the middle of his chest against the left arm of the sergeant major so as to cause the fronts of the two men to be perpendicular. The guard dresses on the line thus estab- lished. The guard alined, its commander commands: 1. Ready, 2. FRONT, salutes, and then reports, “The guard is correct,” or “ privates or corporals absent.” The sergeant major then returns the salute. The commander marches parallel to the front rank until 2 paces beyond the sergeant major, then marches by the right flank past the rear rank of the guard, then by the right flank to a point 1 pace beyond the left flank man of the rear rank, then by the right flank and halts on line with the rear rank and, if armed with the rifle, executes Order arms. c. (1) When the guard has been reported, the sergeant major faces to the right, steps 2 paces to the front, faces to the left, and commands: COUNT OFF. If there are more than 14 men per rank, he divides the guard into two platoons. For this purpose he leaves his post, proceeds to and designates the dividing line between platoons, and from 404 INTERIOR GUARD DUTY this position commands: 1. Second platoon, 2. Left step, 3. MARCH, 4. Platoon, 5. HALT. The command Halt is given at the proper time to insure an interval of 5 paces between platoons. He then passes completely around the guard and takes his post 3 paces in front and 2 paces to the right of the front rank and facing the point of rest. THE GUARD IS AT OF EN RANKS [S] [S] [S] C3 C3 C3, CK! […] […] […] […] [...] [I] […] [T] [] [T] [...] [T] […] [I] [] BAND 2 PACEs El El Di El El El El El El E. E. E. E. E. C. [] [T] [T] [T] […] […] [I] DOTTED LINE SHOWS THE ROUTE TAKEN BY THE SERGEANT MAJOR IN REPORTING TO THE ADJUTANT. Plate 3. Formal Guard Mounting. In passing around the guard, the sergeant major executes By the left flank at every necessary turn. Upon taking his post he commands: 1. Open ranks, 2. MARCH, and proceeds as in (2) below. (See Plate 2) (2) The sergeant major alines the guard, whether consisting of one or two platoons, in a manner similar to that employed by a platoon leader in alining a platoon. After giving the command Front, he moves parallel to the front rank until opposite the center, a_OFFICER OF THE GUARD * *** s s s a tº a tº [] [I] D J D J E J D J tº [] [I] [...] [I] [] D [] D BAND El D El El C D DI D CI Ed tº E. E. Ed D 3 PACEs En E. E. E. E. E. E. E. E. E. E. E. E. G E tº e” e” 2’ 2° zy 2 * DOTTED LINE SHOWS THE ROUTE - T FOLLOWED BY THE SERGEANT MAJOR " IN TAKING H IS POST, Yº Plate 4. Formal Guard Mounting. executes By the right flank, and halts 6 paces in front of the adjutant, salutes and reports, “Sir, the guard is correct,” or “Sir, sergeants, corporals, or privates absent.” (See Plate 3) The adjutant returns the salute and directs the sergeant major: “Take your INTERIOR GUARD DUTY 405 post.” The sergeant major then faces about and moves by the right oblique directly to a point 3 paces beyond the left of the front rank halts on the line of the front rank, and faces to the front. When the sergeant major leaves his post to report to the adjutant, the officer of the guard takes his post 6 paces in rear of the right rear rank man of the guard. When there is a junior officer of the guard, he takes post on the left of the senior officer of the guard. (See Plate 4) After the sergeant major has reported to r--CŞ. S. DS Dº Pºs Cº. Sº D. D. D. C D D [...] [] […] […] [I] [T] [...] [I] [T] BAND | | | | | | = E E E E H = H [...] [...] […] […] [T] [T] […] | W H E E E E E E. E. I] […] […] [I] D [...] [T] DOTTED LINES SHOW THE ROUTES FOLLOWED BY THE NON-COMMISSIONED OFFICERS AT THE COMMAND: () officeF AND NON-COMMIssionED OFFICERs (2) FRONT AND CENTER (3)MARCH * * * same smº - m ºr sm. =>| – — — — — — -*. / | / A |4 |- — — — — — — — — / *: 74 COMMANDER OF THE GUARD J / DOTTED LINES SHOW THE ROUTE F- / FOLLOWED BY THE ADJUTANT IN | / ASSIGNING DUTIES To THE OFFICERS A / AND NON – COMMISSIONED OFF , CERS OF THE GUARD . Plate 6. Formal Guard Mounting. first platoon. If the guard has not been divided into platoons, the senior officer of the guard takes post, facing to the front, 6 paces in front of the center of the guard, and the junior officer of the guard (if there is one) takes post, facing to the front, 3 paces to the left of the senior. 406 INTERIOR GUARD DUTY (3) The adjutant then commands: 1. Officer (or officers, if present) and noncom- missioned officers, 2. Front and center, 3. MARCH. At the command Center, the officer or officers and the noncommissioned officers face toward the right and execute Right shoulder arms without further command. (Note—When the guard is armed with the pistol, noncommissioned officers at the command Center face toward the right.) At the command March, the officer or officers advance and halt 3 paces from the adjutant. In moving to the front and center, the junior officer of the guard (if there is one) marches forward with and takes position to the left of the senior. The non- commissioned officers, moving in column, pass beyond the right flank of the guard and execute two Column left movements so as to form column on a line parallel to the front 3 paces in rear of the officer or officers of the guard. They halt and face to the front on the command of the senior noncommissioned officer. They remain at Right shoulder. If there is no officer of the guard, the noncommissioned officers halt on a line and face to the front, 6 paces from the adjutant. (See Plate 5) When the officer or officers and noncommissioned officers have halted, the adjutant passes along the front of each rank from the right and assigns the officers and noncommissioned officers according to rank as follows: Commander of the guard, leader of first platoon, leader of second platoon, guide of first platoon, guide of second platoon, right file rear rank first platoon, right file second rank first platoon, right file front rank first platoon, or if the guard is not divided into platoons, commander of the guard, junior officer of the guard (if present), guide, right file rear rank, right file second rank, right file front rank. If the guard has been divided into platoons, the junior officer of the guard (if present) is assigned as leader of first platoon. (See Plate 6) (4) The adjutant then resumes his position in front of the guard and commands: 1. Officer (or officers) and noncommissioned officers, 2. Posts, 3. MARCH. At the command Posts, all face about. At the command March, they move by the most direct route and take the posts assigned them by the adjutant. The noncommissioned officers will execute Order arms and About face on the command of the guide. (See Plate 7) (Note—When the guard is armed with the pistol, the noncommissioned officers will execute About face on command of the guide.) ->{S U [] […] [T] [I] [...] [I] [I] [] [...] [I] [] [...] [I] [...] º QANO #S D C C D D D, D D [] [] D D, [] [I] [...] & *:::- • *s §§§ E D C C D D D D : D C G D G D D Sº Jºse *~ *S - Jº-J ~ o SSSS Jº- 5.” 6 PACſ5. b s: :º 6 PACCS * ... • *. * ~ w-r- ! }: * * * * t SSSSSSSS A. 2^ `SJSSSSSS ! ,” ^ SJ \, Nr. g a' * ~ * * * ! a' SS SSY- *~ tº y • SNSS S. * º * COff to UN&S SHOw RouTC3 SS Y-JN-J - • ," TARZºº BY NOºt-COMM133KONCO \s Jº-Jº-J . .” Off Kºſtø IN GOING TO THEIR PO373 N >< * ~J. S.3 \ SJ > S >] \ S- af *-ī- * \ × * * SSS 3 & & & S. S. S. Plate 7. Formal Guard Mounting. If the guard is not divided into platoons, the junior officer of the guard (if present) takes post abreast of the left flank man of the rear rank. The adjutant then directs the commander of the guard, “Inspect your guard, Sir.” The officer commanding the guard faces about, commands: PREPARE FOR INSPECTION and proceeds to inspect the guard. The commander of the guard may direct the junior officer of the guard to assist in the inspection. (5) During the inspection the band plays. The adjutant observes the general con- dition of the guard and causes to fall out and return to quarters any man who does not present a creditable appearance. He selects the necessary orderlies and standard INTERIOR GUARD DUTY 407 sentinels. Substitutes for the men fallen out report to the commander of the guard at the guardhouse. If there is no officer of the guard, the adjutant inspects the guard. A noncommissioned officer commanding the guard takes post as prescribed for an officer after he has been so designated by the adjutant. d. (1) The inspection ended, the adjutant places himself 36 paces in front of and facing the center of the guard. The new officer of the day takes post in front of and facing the center of the guard about 36 paces in rear of the adjutant. The old officer of the day takes post 3 paces to the right and 1 pace in rear of the new officer of the day. The officers of the day remain at attention. The commander of the guard takes his post in front of the guard. § U [...] [...] [I] [...] [...] [I] [...] D D C D D G D &ANO & D C) [] [...] [I] [...] D D [...] D C) [...] [...] [I] [I] | a s = B = B = B = F * B = a a G = a : $2 PacCŞ ! | º #~~~~ | © º PACCŞe ſ" - - - - - •l \ ſ ! * ---- ſ § - * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *@ -------------- QANO ſ | ! !------ -] POSTs of THE ADJUTANT, Nºw AND OUo of fictRs of THE DAY. AND Officia or THE &\lako AT sound off. THE borrro List Sºtows r ROUTE TAKEN BY THE BANo at Tºrs rººt H ADVUTANT JG º # Nºw officcº of THE DAY ! PACE -*- # OUD Offic tR or Trº OAY Hººi *Acts Plate 8. Formal Guard Mounting. (2) The adjutant then commands: 1. Parade, 2. Rest, 3. SOUND OFF, and executes Parade rest. (3) At the command Sound off, the band plays in place the Sound off of three chords, giving two beats in quick time to each chord, and at the conclusion of the third chord moves forward playing in quick time, passes to the left of the line between the officers of the guard and the adjutant and back to its post on the right where it halts and ceases to play, the Sound off again being played. (See Plate 8) (4) The adjutant then comes to attention and commands: 1. Guard, 2. ATTEN- TION, 3. Close ranks, 4. MARCH. (5) The ranks are closed without command from the platoon leaders. (6) The adjutant then commands: 1. Present, 2. ARMS, faces toward the new officer of the day, salutes, and reports, “Sir, the guard is formed.” (Note—When the guard is armed with the pistol, the adjutant faces toward the new officer of the day, salutes and reports “Sir, the guard is formed.”) The new officer of the day returns the salute with the hand and directs the adjutant, “March the guard in review, Sir,” or “March the guard to its post, Sir.” (7) The adjutant faces about, and brings the guard to the order. When directed to march the guard to its post, the adjutant repeats the command and 408 INTERIOR GUARD DUTY the commander of the guard marches the guard directly to the guardhouse in the most practicable manner. The band and field music are dismissed. Otherwise the adjutant commands: 1. Pass in review, 2. Right, 3. FACE. (8) At the command Face, the guard executes the movement and the band turns to the right and places itself so that the rear rank of the band is approximately 24 paces in front of the leading platoon. •=º- & Z [...] [I] [...] [I] [] [I] [I] [I] [3] [I] […] [I] [I] [...] [I] [] - Bano K—arges—-Z [] [] [] [] [] [] D D [] [T] [T] [T] [I] D [...] +-e C3 C2 [] [T] [I] [I] [I] [I] [I] D & D [...] [I] […] [...] [I] [...] ~~~ ºn ^. JROUTE OF MARCH - - - - - -> THE GUARD READY TO MARCH IN REVIEW * * Plate 9. Formal Guard Mounting. (9) The adjutant places himself 3 paces to the left of and on line with the com- mander of the guard. The sergeant major places himself 3 paces to the left of and on line with the rear file of left column of files. (See Plate 9) (10) The adjutant then commands: 1. Right shoulder, 2. ARMS, 3. Forward, 4. MARCH. (Note—When the guard is armed with the pistol, the adjutant then commands: 1. Forward, 2. MARCH.) (11) The guard marches at quick time with the band playing past the officer of the day, saluting according to the principles of review. After the command March has been given, the guide of the leading platoon will maintain the distance of 24 paces from the rear rank of the band. The adjutant and the commander of the guard salute together, leaders of platoons and drum major salute with their units, and the sergeant major salutes with the unit by which he is marching. (12) The band having passed the officer of the day, turns to the left out of the column, places itself opposite and facing him at a distance of 18 paces from where the left flank of the guard passes, and continues to play until the guard leaves the parade ground. The field music detaches itself from the band when the latter moves out of the column and, remaining in front of the guard, commences to play when the band CC2SCS. (13) Having passed 25 paces beyond the officer of the day, the adjutant halts. The sergeant major halts abreast of the adjutant and 1 pace to his left. The adjutant and the sergeant major then face toward each other, salute, and retire. The commander of the guard then marches the guard to its post. (14) The officers of the day face each other and salute. The old officer of the day turns over the orders to the new officer of the day. (15) While the band is sounding off and the guard is marching in review, the officers of the day stand at attention. (16) The new officer of the day returns the salutes of the commander of the guard and the adjutant. He salutes only once as the adjutant and the commander of the guard salute together. e. The new bugler of the guard forms and continues with the field music to the INTERIOR GUARD DUTY 409 guardhouse. When the new guard is divided into reliefs, the new bugler relieves the old bugler and with him reports to the new officer of the day for inspection and instruction. (2) 3. Informal Guard Mounting. a. Informal guard mounting is held on the parade ground of the organization from which the guard is detailed, or if the guard is de- tailed from more than one organization, at such place as the commanding officer may direct. b. Prior to assembly, guard details are formed, inspected as prescribed in paragraph 2 a, and reported to the commander of the guard at the point designated for the as- sembly. c. (1) The commander of the guard causes the guard to form as one platoon ir- respective of size as prescribed in paragraph 2 a. He takes post 6 paces in front of the center of the guard and faces to the front. The officer of the day takes his place 18 paces in front of and facing the center of the guard, and commands: 1. Officer and non- commissioned officers, 2. Front and center, 3. MARCH. The officers and noncommis- sioned officers then take their positions, are assigned and sent to their posts as pre- scribed in paragraph 2 c (3) and (4). The officer of the day directs, “prepare for in- spection.” The officer commanding the guard faces about and commands: 1. Open ranks, 2. MARCH. He then proceeds to the right flank of the guard, verifies the alinement, commands: 1. Ready, 2. Front, 3. PREPARE FOR INSPECTION, and takes post 3 paces in front of the right guide facing to the front. (2) The officer of the day then inspects the guard and selects the necessary orderlies and color sentinels. Any men who do not present a creditable appearance are caused to fall out, return to quarters, and are replaced. This fact is reported by the officer of the day to the adjutant after guard mounting. (3) When the inspection is completed, the officer of the day resumes his position and directs the commander of the guard to march the guard to its post. Ranks are closed and the guard marched, without music, in the most practicable manner. (4) The new bugler of the guard forms abreast of the left flank man of the front rank at the formation of the guard detail and reports to the new officer of the day with the old bugler after guard mount for instructions. (5) When a noncommissioned officer commands the guard, the officer of the day gives the commands for opening and closing ranks and verifies the alinement. (6) When the guard is commanded by a noncommissioned officer, he takes post as prescribed for an officer, except that in marching to the front and center, he takes post on the right of the line of noncommissioned officers in the most practicable man- ner. At the command of the officer of the day he returns to the post prescribed for the officer 3 paces in front of the right flank. (3) 4. To Relieve the Old Guard. a. March of new guard to guardhouse. (1) As the new guard approaches the guardhouse, the old guard is formed in line with its field music 3 paces to its right and on the same line. When the field music at the head of the new guard arrives opposite the old guard’s left flank, the commander of the new guard commands: 1. Eyes, 2. RIGHT, and the commander of the old guard commands: 1. Present, 2. ARMS. Note—When the guard is armed with the pistol, when the field music at the head of the new guard arrives opposite the old guard’s left flank, the commander of the new guard commands: 1. Eyes, 2. RIGHT, and the commander of the old guard commands: 1. Hand, 2. Salute. (This hand salute is held until the commander of the new guards commands: 1. Ready, 2. FRONT.) Commanders of both guards exchange salutes. The new guard marches in quick time past the front of the old guard. (2) When the commander of the new guard is opposite the field music of the old guard, he commands: 1. Ready, 2. FRONT. The commander of the old guard commands: 1. Order, 2. ARMS, as soon as the new guard has cleared the front of the old guard. Note—When the guard is armed with the pistol, when the commander of the new guard is op- posite the field music of the old guard, he commands: 1. Ready, 2. FRONT. (At the command Front, the Hand salute is completed by the old guard.) 410 INTERIOR GUARD DUTY (3) The field music having marched 3 paces beyond the field music of the old guard, changes direction to the right and followed by the guard, changes direction to the left when on line with the old guard. The changes of direction are without com- mand. The commander of the new guard halts on the line established by the old guard, allows his guard to march past him, halts it 3 paces to the right of the field music of the old guard, forms line, and dresses his guard to the left. The field music of the new guard halts 3 paces to the right of the new guard on the line of its front rank. b. Presenting old and new guards. (1) After the new guard is dressed, the com- mander of each guard, in front of and facing its center, commands: 1. Present, 2. ARMS, resumes his front, salutes the other guard, faces toward his guard and commands: 1. Order, 2. ARMS. Note—When the guard is armed with the pistol, after the new guard is dressed, the commander of each guard, in front of the center of his guard and facing the other guard, salutes the other guard, and faces towards his guard. (2) If the guard is commanded by a noncommissioned officer, he takes post and executes the facings as prescribed for an officer and renders the proper salute. c. Presenting guard to officers of the day. After the new guard has arrived at its post and the commanders of the guards have exchanged salutes, each guard is pre- sented by its commander to its officer of the day. Note—When the guard is armed with the pistol, after the new guard has arrived at its post and the commanders of the guards have exchanged salutes, the commander of each guard salutes the officer of the day for his guard. If there is but one officer of the day present, or if one officer acts in the capacity of the old and new officer of the day, each guard is presented to him by its commander. d. Dispositions of new guard. (1) After the salutes have been acknowledged by the officers of the day, each guard is brought to the order by its commander. The com- mander of the new guard then causes bayonets to be fixed, if so ordered by the com- manding officer. Bayonets are not thereafter unfixed during the tour, except in route marches, while the guard is actually marching or when especially directed by the commanding officer. (2) The commander of the new guard then causes to fall out members of the guard for detached posts, places them under charge of the proper noncommissioned of. ficer, and divides the guard into three reliefs. When the guard consists of troops of different arms combined, the men are assigned to reliefs, under rules prescribed by the commanding officer, so that a fair division of duty may be assured. e. Relief by new guard. The sentinels and detachments of the old guard are at once relieved by members of the new guard. The two guards stand at ease or at rest while these changes are being made. The commander of the old guard transmits to the commander of the new guard all his orders, instructions, and information concerning the guard and its duties. The commander of the new guard then takes possession of the guardhouse and verifies the articles charged to the guard. f. Dismissing old guard. If considerable time is required to bring in that portion of the old guard still on post, the commanding officer may direct that, as soon as the orders and property are turned over to the new guard, the portion of the old guard at the guardhouse be marched off and dismissed. In such cases the remaining detach- ment or detachments of the old guard are inspected by the commander of the new guard when they reach the guardhouse. The latter directs the senior noncommis- sioned officer present to march these detachments off and dismiss them in the prescribed II].3HTMI]CI. g. Salutes by guard. (1) If persons entitled to a salute approach while the old and new guard are in formation, each commander of the guard brings his own guard to attention if not already at attention and commands: 1. Old or new guard, 2. Present, 3. ARMS. When armed with the pistol the command, I. Hand, 2. SALUTE, is given. (2) A- the salute has been acknowledged, each guard is brought to the Order arms. (4 APPENDIX II FIXED POST SYSTEM Note—The employment of the fixed post system of sentinels is optional with commanding officers. 1. Duties of Personnel. The duties of all personnel concerned with the execution of a fixed post system of interior guard duty are as prescribed in paragraphs 12-19, ex- cept that in addition they will perform the following: a. Officer of the day. The officer of the day will report to the commanding officer or his representative immediately after guard mounting. b. Commander of the guard. When both guards are at the guardhouse, the com- mander of the guard senior in rank is responsible that the proper action is taken in case of emergency. He will see that all sentinels are relieved every 2 hours. c. Corporal of the guard. When the corporal while posting his relief is challenged by a sentinel, the corporal commands: 1. Relief, 2. HALT. To the sentinel’s challenge he answers, “Relief.” At the order of the sentinel, he advances alone to be recognized. When the sentinel says, “Advance relief,” the corporal commands: 1. Forward, 2. MARCH. 2. To Post Reliefs. a. (1) When directed by the commander of the guard, the cor- poral of the first relief forms his relief. (Note that this relief is already in formation from guard mounting and that the commands, FALL IN. INSPECTION ARMS and the report to the commander of the guard are omitted.) The men place themselves according to the numbers of their respective posts, as two, four, six, and so on, in front rank and one, three, five, and so on, in rear rank. Frequently there is doubt as to the position of the corporal's rifle, when so armed, while he is forming his relief. The following rule is general in application; a noncommissioned officer carries his rifle at the right shoulder when giving commands and making reports. Hence, the corporal's rifle is carried at the right shoulder. At the command Call off, the men call off numerically alternating rear and front rank, one, two, three, four, and so on. If in single rank, they call off from right to left. The corporal then commands: 1. Right, 2. FACE, 3. Forward, 4. MARCH. The cor- poral marches on the left and near the rear file in order to observe the march. The corporal of the old guard marches on the right of the leading file and takes command when the last one of the old sentinels is relieved, changing places with the corporal of the new guard. (2) When the relief arrives at 6 paces from a sentinel, the corporal halts it and commands, according to the number of the post: NO. —. The new sentinel approaches Corporal paces 2 [5] H Front rank [9] [7] [5] [T] Rear rank Plate 1. Forming a Relief. the old, halting about 1 pace from him. Both sentinels execute Port arms unless armed only with the pistol. In the latter case, during the time for challenging, they execute Raise pistol, and at other times leave pistols in holsters and stand at attention. (3) The corporals advance and place themselves facing each other a little in ad- vance of the new sentinel, the old corporal on his right, the new on his left, and re- main at right shoulder arms. Note—When the guard is armed with the pistol, the corporals advance and place themselves facing each other a little in advance of the new sentinel, the old corporal on his right, and the new on his left. They see that the old sentinel transmits correctly his instructions. 411 412 INTERIOR GUARD DUTY (4) The instructions relative to the post having been transmitted, the new corporal commands: POST. Both sentinels then resume right shoulder arms, face toward the new corporal, and step back to allow the relief to pass in front of them. The new corporal then commands: 1. Forward, 2. MARCH. The old sentinel takes his place in the rear of the relief as it passes him, his piece in the same position as those of the :-------------------- Ǻ ºr º em ºn º New Corporal [] [] [] [] [] New []- -D Old [] [] [] [] 5 entinel 5entinel Relief §------ -------Cºl Old Corporal Plate 2. Posting a Relief. relief. The new sentinel stands fast (at right shoulder arms), until the relief has passed 6 paces beyond him, when he walks his post. The corporals take their places as the relief passes them. Note—When the guard is armed with the pistol, both sentinels face toward the new corporal, and step back to allow the relief to pass in front of them. The new corporal then commands: 1. Forward, 2. MARCH. The old sentinel takes his place in the rear of the relief as it passes him. The new sentinel stands fast until the relief has passed 6 paces beyond him, when he walks his post. In the return of the old relief, the corporal of the new guard falls out when the relief halts. The corporal of the old guard forms his relief on the left of the old guard if it has been held at the guard house, salutes, and reports to the commander, “Sir, the relief is present,” or “Sir, (so-and-so) absent,” and takes his place in the guard. In case the old guard was not held at the guardhouse, the corporal marches his relief to the quarters of the members thereof and reports their presence to the noncommissioned officer in charge of such quarters. b. (1) To post a relief other than that which is posted when the old guard is relieved, its corporal commands: 1. Such relief, 2. FALL IN. If arms are stacked, they are taken at the proper commands. (2) The corporal standing 2 paces in front of the center of his relief, then com- mands: CALL OFF. The men call off as prescribed. The corporal then commands: 1. Inspection, 2. ARMS (PISTOLS); (if arms are to be loaded, the proper commands are here given), 3. Order, 4. ARMS (3. Return, 4. PISTOLS). The corporal then reports to the commander of the guard that his relief is all present and ready to be posted, or that (so-and-so) is absent. (3) When the commander of the guard directs the corporal, “Post your relief,” the corporal salutes and posts his relief as prescribed in a above. (4) The corporal of the relief on post does not go with the new relief except when necessary to show the way. c. If sentinels are numerous, reliefs may by authority of the commanding officer be posted in detachments. Sergeants as well as corporals may be required to relieve and post them. d. Mounted sentinels are posted and relieved in accordance with the same principles. (2) 3. To Dismiss Reliefs. a. To dismiss the old relief, it is halted and faced to the front at the guardhouse by the corporal of the new relief who then falls out. The corporal of the old relief then steps in front of the relief and dismiss it by the proper commands. b. If arms were loaded before the relief was posted, the corporal will see that no cartridges are left in the chambers or magazines before dismissing the relief. The same rule applies to sentinels over prisoners. (3) APPENDIX III DETAILS AND ROSTERS - 1. Detail of Personnel. The personnel required for the fixed posts of the main guard will be detailed daily. (1) INTERIOR GUARD DUTY 413 2. Detail of Officers. There will be an officer of the day and an officer of the guard detailed with each main guard unless in the opinion of the commanding officer the guard is so small that an officer of the guard is considered unnecessary. (2) 3. Rosters. a. A roster is a list of individuals or organizations on which is recorded the performance of a specific duty so that those next available may readily be determined. b. Approximate methods of distributing guard duty among members of the com- mand will serve for short periods of time or where detail for guard duty is not heavy. c. For an accurate and equitable distribution of guard duty, rosters should be kept. d. AR 345-25 explains the rosters for detail of individuals. e. When a single organization furnishes the guard, a roster of organizations will be kept. When details for guard are made from a single organization, no account will be taken of a very small disproportion in the strength of the companies. When the disproportion is considerable, a roster will be kept as follows: The proportion of privates each battery would be required to furnish will be determined as in f below. In the RosTER I. Privates Guard furnished A Battery B Battery C Battery º *# a É a É 5 B- *> --> tº ##|# | # | g | f | # | g | f | # a # | ##|| 3 || 5 || 3 || 5 || 3 || 3 || 5 || 3 | # 13 B P. 5 $– £ § $– § +: $– ſº £ 3 24 QQ P- O Qº Pi4 O CO P- O Jan. 1 ------ A | 13 || 47 3.39 || +9.61 29 2.09 || –2.09 || 34 2.46 —2.46 Jan. 2 ------ A | 13 || 47 || 3.39 +19.22 || 29 || 2.09 || —4.18 || 34 2.46 —4.92 Jan. 3 ------ E | 13 || 47 || 3.39 || +15.83 || 29 || 2.09 | —6.27 || 34 2.46 —7.38 Jan. 4 ------ E | 10 47 2.51 | +13.32 31 | 1.65 —7.92 || 36 | 1.93 —9.31 Jan. 5 ------ D | 10 || 47 || 2.51 | +10.81 31 | 1.65 —9.57 || 36 | 1.93 –11.24 Jan. 6 ------ C | 10 || 47 | 2.51 | +8.30 || 31 | 1.65 |–11.22 || 36 | 1.93 —3.17 Jan. 7 ------ B | 10 || 47 2.51 | +5.79 || 31 | 1.65 | –2.87 || 36 | 1.93 | —5.10 Jan. 8 ------ D | 10 || 47 2.51 | +3.28 || 31 | 1.65 —4.52 || 36 | 1.93 —7.03 Jan. 9 ------ C | 10 || 47 || 2.51 +.77 || 31 || 3.65 —6.17 | 36 | 1.93 +1.04 Jan. 10 ----- R 10 || 47 | 2.51 | —1.74 || 31 | 1.65 | +2.18 || 36 | 1.93 —.89 Jan. 11 ----- A | 10 || 47 | 2.51 | +5.75 || 31 | 1.65 | +.53 || 36 | 1.93 || –2.82 Jan. 12 ----- A 10 || 47 | 2.51 | +13.24 || 31 | 1.65 –1.12 || 36 | 1.93 | —4.75 Jan. 13 ----- T) | 10 || 47 2.51 | +10.73 31 | 1.65 —2.77 || 36 | 1.93 | –6.68 Jan. 14 ----- 9 || 10 || 47 | 2.51 | +8.22 31 | 1.65 —4.42 || 36 | 1.93| +1.89 Jan. 15 ----- E | 10 || 47 | 2.51 | +5.71 31 | 1.65 —6.07 || 36 1.93 +3.32 credit column charge each battery except the one furnishing the guard with its pro- portion, that is, with the number of men it was due to furnish, but did not furnish. Enter this number or proportion with a minus sign. Then credit the battery fur- nishing the guard with the number of men furnished less the number it was due to furnish. The difference is the number of men it furnished in excess and is entered in the credit column with a plus sign. Whether the same or different batteries furnish the guard on conservative days, the debits and credits will be determined for each day and added algebraically to the credit, or debit brought forward from the preceding day. The result will then be entered in the credit column for the day. When a new battery is to relieve the one furnishing the guard, that one will ordinarily be detailed which has the largest minus number in the credit column. The table below indicates the form of the roster. The order in which batteries are shown in this table as furnish- ing the guard has no special significance, as many reasons may enter into the determina- tion of this matter. | f. When the guard is detailed from several organizations, roster will be kept as fol- OWS: (1) By the adjutant: of officers of the day and guard by name. (2) By the sergeant major: of sergeants, corporals, buglers, and privates by number or organization, and of special duty men by name. (3) By first sergeants: of sergeants, corporals, buglers, and privates by name. 414 INTERIOR GUARD DUTY g. (1) The details due from several batteries will be determined as follows: Take the number of privates for duty in each battery from its morning report for the day next preceding that on which the tour of duty is to commence, deducting details for D Battery Battery a É a É sº Guard furnished # É # # 3. # g O Ǻ £ 2 à § 5 à P+ § Jan. 1 34 2.46 –2.45 86 2.6(). –2.60 Jan. 2 34 2.46 —4.92 3 2.60 —5.20 Jan. 3 34 2.46 —7.38 3 2.60 +5.20 Jan. 4 37 1.98 —9.36 26 1.93 +13.27 Jan. 5 - 37 1.98 —1.34 36 1.93 +11.34 Jan. 6 37 1.98 —3.32 3 1.93 +9.41 Jan. 7 37 1.98 —5.30 36 1.93 +7.48 Jan. 8 37 J.98 +2.72 36 1.93 +5.55 Jan. 9 37 1.98 +.74 36 1.93 +3.62 Jan. 10 37 1.98 —1.24 36 1.93 +1.69 Jan. 11 37 1.98 —3.22 36 1.93 —.24 Jan. 12 ---------------------| 37 1.98 —5.20 36 1.93 —2.17 Jan. 13 37 1.98 +2.82 56 1.93 —4.10 Jan. 14 37 1.98 +.84 36 1.93 —6.03 Jan. 15 37 i.98 —l.14 36 1.93 +2.04 detached service of over 24 hours, made after the morning report has been received. The total is the number of privates available. The total strength of the command is to the strength of a battery as the total detail is to the detail from the battery. Multiply the total detail by the strength of the battery and divide the result by the total strength of the command. Carry out to two decimal places, disregarding all smaller fractions. This rule is applied for each battery. The whole numbers in the results thus obtained First Day *3rº Sº ### ### E a 5 ſº ſº bº C & ſ: A || 3 |#| É Çº $8 #| || 3 ºf tº 3 || 3 || 5. 3 || 5 †: # | ##5 & | 3 || 8 sº g ſº a P- 8-1 || A4 § 5 A 25 × 14 + J60= —2.18 + 2 –.18 B 25 × 14 + 160= —2.10 -- 2 –.10 C 30 x 14 + 160= —2.62 + 3 + .38 D 22 × 14 + 160= +1.92 + 2 +.08 E 22 × 14 -- 160= +1.92 -- 2 + .08 F (Cav) 37 × 14 + 160= —3.23 + 1 3 —.23 160 II 14 * Troop F furnishes three stable guards and no other guard. NOTE:-The proportion due from a battery is always given a minus Sign and the detail furnished given a plus sign. are added together and if the total is less than the total detail required, add one to the whole number in the result that has the largest fraction, and so on for each battery until the required total is obtained. Thus there will be a difference between the exact proportion and the number detailed from each battery. This difference is entered in the credit column and the next day is carried forward and added or subtracted from the first proportion. INTERIOR GUARD DUTY 415 Second Day 'Eri. Sº $4 3 & ##3 5 || 3 || 5 bo.5 an .º. ey st b0 sº ~$º * * * Šišk º: over Saddle saddlebag, off horse. 8D, Ket. Suspenders ............ Attached to belt a .... Attached to belt a .... Attached to belt a ...... Attached to belt a .... Attached to belt.” Tº. genuncation, With || Arº neck, under Aºi. neck, under | Around” neº, under | Around neck, under | Around neck, under shirt. * ShirlG. Sºllfö. Shirt. Shirt. Tent, shelter half, com- || In pack carrier, cover- || Covering (pole), rope, | Covering (pole, rope, | Covering (pole, rope, Covering (pole, rope, and plete with pole, rope, "ing" (pole, rope, and and pins within) blan. and pins "within) and pins within) blan- ; pins within) blanket and pins. Towel Underclothing © º e º e º e º 'º Whistle (chain hooked to left shoulder loop buttonhole). pins within) blanket roll, carried on back Or in Vehicle. In haverSack -** **sa ~, In blanket roll . . . . . . . . In left pocket, shirt or coat. **. *** ** ... º. º ºr a ga as sº- ket roll, on cantle or in/on cargo vehicle. ra, near (left) saddle- In near (left) saddlebag or in blanket roll. In left pocket, shirt or Coat. blanket roll, carried on seat of Saddle, Off horse, or on ber. In near (left) saddlebag, Off horse. In near (left) saddlebag tº horse. or in blanket TOll. In left pocket, shirt or coat. ket roll, carried in/on vehicle. In haversack, in bag, canvas, field, or in saddlebag. In blanket roll, in bag, canvas, field, or saddlebag, In left pocket, shirt or coat. roll, carrier on back or in/on vehicle. In haversack, or in bag, canvas, field. In blanket roll. In left pocket, shirt of coat. 1 Alternative methods for carrying equipment of men mounted in vehicles are prescribed for the reason that types of vehicles, nature and lengths of march, etc., vary so greatly that the description of only one method for one type of vehicle will not suffice. * See paragraph 11. INDIVIDUAL EQUIPMENT AND TENT PITCHING 429 £iº | | meat can pouch —º- a- haversack ºfront suspender º magazine pocket and magazines pistol belt hook binding straps first aid pocket and pouch pistol and holster Plate 5. Haversack Attached to Pistol Belt. holed edge of pack carrier, lettered side of pack carrier up, under button-holed edge of haversack. Superimpose button holes of haversack upon corresponding ones of pack carrier. Lace the pack carrier to haversack by passing the ends of coupling strap down through corresponding button holes of haversack and pack carrier nearest the center, bringing the ends up through next button holes and continuing to the right and left, respectively, to the sides. (16 b) 14. To Make the Roll. (Plate 8.) Note—This is what is termed the “short roll” in the Field Artillery. Spread shelter half on the ground and fold in triangular end so that shelter half Front belt ſº? FAOuter flap / jºr % ~~. Aºſest º +, Sºap hook ** ºzº pouch Packsuspen ** * * l C '%'. J 's. Ž Suspender &\ * Binding Straps Ž -- ~~ /. Ž% ! iſ lººk: ) * Z { A. 2. w Haversack %2. ~~~~ 2:eº-º-º-º: fi e & U. 2. End strap º lower haversack Eºſ Binding strap TV, E A - Inside flap-H H \ º Plate 6. The Haversack Without Pack Carrier. 430 INDIVIDUAL EQUIPMENT AND TENT PITCHING forms a rectangle. Make a second fold by carrying folded edge to opposite edge. Fold the blanket twice parallel to its longer axis so that blanket is now one-fourth its previous width, and then fold once at the middle so as to bring the ends together. Place blanket symmetrically in center of folded shelter half; place underwear, socks, and handerchief between folds of blanket. Place tent pole on that end of the blanket Lººs º Tool Attachmént- * * *-* ---s--- s = ~lºš – QeerBeltSuspender =/Coupling 5trap fºre {} Plate 8. The Roll. from which the rolling is to begin. Place pins as shown in Fig. C, Plate 8. (An alternate method is to place pins next to and parallel with pole.) Fold sides and then the near end of shelter half snugly over the blanket; fold ten inches of far end of shelter half toward the blanket and, beginning at near end, roll tightly into folded end of shelter half, thus making an envelope roll. (16 f) CHAPTER IV TO PACK DISMOUNTED EQUIPMENT 15. To Pack the Haversack. (Plates 9 and 10.) a. Place equipment on the ground, inside of haversack up, haversack spread out, inside flap extended to full length. Place rations in the center of haversack in front of and touching line of attachment of inside flap. Place toilet articles in front of rations. Fold inside flap of haversack over these articles. Fold sides of haversack over rations and toilet articles. Pass upper two binding straps through loop opposite point of attachment of the strap to haver- sack body. Fasten each strap by passing end of strap through the opening of its opposite buckle next to the buckle attachment, over center bar and back through opening of buckle away from attachment. Pull strap tight and make fastening secure. Fold over outer flap of haversack and fasten it by means of the lower haversack bind- ing strap passed through the buckle on inside of outer flap. Pull strap towards the right, drawing outer flap snugly over filled haversack. The haversack is now packed and the carrier is ready for reception of the roll. (16 g) Plate 9. To Pack the Haversack (First Step). f Plate 10. To Pack the Haversack (Second Step). 431. 432 INDIVIDUAL EQUIPMENT AND TENT PITCHING l J # ** lfil X. Z Q Q © - * *s = ge. s * ; : ; ; ; ... •- º, I./ Š ©e * as # sº Plate 12. To Fold the Overcoat, INDIVIDUAL EQUIPMENT AND TENT PITCHING 433 b. When rations are not carried, roll toilet articles in inside flap so that top of toilet articles will be on line with top of haversack body. Then fold up lower haver- sack strap against the roll thus formed. (16 g) The mess kit is inserted in the haversack pouch and the flap strap buckled. 16. To Assemble the Pack. (Plate 11). Place roll in pack carrier and haversack with one end against bottom of packed haversack. Grasp lower suspension rings, one in each hand. Place right knee against bottom of roll. Pull carrier down and force roll up close against bottom of packed haversack. Without removing the knee, fasten lower pack carrier binding strap over the roll and secure it by passing, from below, its end up through the opening of its corresponding buckle away from the buckle attachment, then over center bar and down through opening of the buckle next to buckle attach- ment, then back underneath the standing end of strap. In a similar manner secure middle haversack binding strap and then upper carrier binding strap. Engage snap hooks on pack suspenders in lower suspension rings. In order to obtain the maximum benefit from the shoulder loops in suspending the pack on the wearer, each pack should be so assembled that when the roll is carried the length of the assembled haver- sack and pack carrier is at least twenty-seven inches. This may be done by placing clothing or equipment ordinarily carried elsewhere in the ration space in the haver- sack so that the assembled pack will be the same length as when rations are carried. When this method is used, the pack carrier will not be folded under. (16 h) Plate 13. Full Equipment With Overcoat and Raincoat. 17. To Fold and Attach the Overcoat. (Plates 12 and 13.) Turn sleeves inside out, place overcoat on the ground, outside down, coat smooth, collar extended, sleeves smooth and extended toward pockets; move inside flap of tail under outside flap about six inches and gather the slack in the coat thus caused in one fold along middle seam, tapering toward the collar. Fold bottom of front edges of coat about twelve inches toward center seam, forming an approximate parallelogram, the side of which across the coat will be forty-two inches. Fold collar end down about fifteen inches at the top and roll smoothly and tightly toward the tail; turn tail up to a depth of about nine inches, and roll entire coat into this pocket. Place the overcoat thus rolled, open side of roll down, on top of haversack so that center back seam is over center of top of haversack. Secure coat at the top with a shelter half rope. Bind the ends of overcoat down and along the sides of haversack. Lash the ends of roll to haversack with the rope, using a half hitch near each end of overcoat and passing the rope around haver- sack over outside flap. (16 i) 434 INDIVIDUAL EQUIPMENT AND TENT PITCHING 18. To Attach the Raincoat. Fold raincoat neatly into a rectangle about 10% inches long by 8% inches wide, with outside of raincoat out. Place raincoat between inner and outer haversack flaps. Secure it with lower haversack binding strap by passing the latter under bottom haversack binding strap and fastening it tightly to the buckle on under side of outer haversack flap. (16 j) 19. To Attach the Helmet. Attach and secure the helmet by placing chin strap over meat can pouch. (16 k) 20. To Adjust Full Equipment. Put on equipment, slipping the arms through pack suspenders as through sleeves of a coat. By means of adjusting buckles on belt suspenders, raise or lower the belt until it rests well down over hip bones and below pit of abdomen. Raise or lower it in rear until adjusting strap lies smoothly across small of the back. By means of adjusting straps on pack suspenders, raise or lower the load on the back until the top of haversack is on level with top of shoulders, so that pack suspenders from their point of attachment on the haversack to the shoulders will be horizontal. The latter is essential to proper adjustment of the load. (16 1) 21. To Discard the Roll Without Removing Equipment From the Body. Unsnap pack suspenders from suspension rings and snap them into eyelets on top of belt. Support bottom of pack with left hand, with right hand grasp coupling strap at its middle and withdraw first one side and then the other. Pull down on the roll with both hands and remove it. When the roll has been removed, lace coupling strap through buttonholes along upper edge of carrier. (16 m) CHAPTER V METHOD OF PACKING INDIVIDUAL EQUIPMENT WHEN MOUNTED ON HORSE 22. General. a. The method of packing the saddle of the mounted enlisted man has a decided bearing on the mobility of a command. To maintain this mobility and to prevent sore backs, care must be exercised to insure even distribution of weight on the horse's back. The pressure due to an uneven distribution of arms and equipment on the horse may cause injury to its withers and back. Therefore, weight of articles attached to one side of the saddle should be balanced as nearly as possible by weight of articles attached to the other side. Weight is better borne by the pommel than the cantle. b. The saddle pack of specialists varies from the prescribed basic saddle pack only to the extent required by differences in the equipment carried by each individual on his riding horse. (17 a) 23. To Assemble and Pack the Cantle or Blanket Roll. Note—In the Field Artillery this is known as the “long-roll.” a. The shelter tent half is spread flat on the ground, buttons up. The triangular flap is folded over shelter tent half, making the latter a rectangle. The blanket is folded once through the center, parallel to short side, and again through the center perpendicular to short sides. The blanket is then laid on shel- ter tent half, the longer folded edge parallel to and one inch from long side of shelter tent half, opposite the buttons, the shorter folded edge toward triangular flap, the blanket equidistant from ends of shelter tent half. b. The tent pole, folded, is inserted in double fold of blanket, end of pole flush with shorter folded edges, the pole parallel to and fitting snugly into the double fold. The tent pins are inserted in double fold of blanket, near loose edges, placed alternately head and point and overlapping each other so as to occupy about the same space as the tent pole, the pins parallel to and fitting snugly into double fold of blanket. This leaves a “break” at center of completed roll which allows it to fit the saddle. c. The free ends of shelter tent half are folded over corresponding portions of the blanket, the ends of shelter half throughout their length being parallel to its center line. As a prevention against the ends of completed roll pulling out, the free (loop) end of tent rope is passed several times through tent pin loops on the two opposite. INDIVIDUAL EQUIPMENT AND TENT PITCHING 435 corners of button side of shelter tent half, stretched flat and tied with a single bow- knot. The button side of roll is folded back about 6 inches (as far as second button) in order to form a pocket when roll is completed, edge of pocket being parallel to edge of blanket. \u/. "4_ • 4 {.. Tºº' -- * * * * * Plate 14. Equipment of Individually Mounted Man, Packed. d. Using the hands and knees the blanket and shelter tent half are rolled tightly from side opposite buttons into pocket at button side, making a tightly bound roll. The roll is then “broken” or curved to fit the cantle of saddle, with free edge of pocket uppermost and to the rear, so that this edge fits snugly against the roll and prevents entrance of rain or snow when roll is on the saddle. It is advisable for two men to work together in making up the roll. (17 b) 24. To Fold the Raincoat and/or Overcoat. The raincoat inside out, with collar extended is folded once lengthwise. It is rolled tightly from folded edge toward buttons, making length of roll the same as full length of garment. If the overcoat is carried, it is rolled in the same manner as the raincoat. (17 c) 436 INDIVIDUAL EQUIPMENT AND TENT PITCHING 25. Feed and Grain Bag. The grain bag, with or without grain, is secured inside the feed bag. (17 d) 26. To Pack Feed and Saddle Bags. To pack feed bags fill the grain bags; tie mouths securely and place a filled grain bag in each feed bag, mouths of grain bags down. Roll feed bags, securing closed ends by means of web straps at ends of feed bags. The snap ends of the straps are either snapped in the rings on feed bags or tucked under turns in straps. The open ends of the two feed bags are closely secured together to prevent lower ends from rubbing against traces. When grain is not carried, fold empty grain bags and place them inside feed bags. Roll feed bags along their longer edges and secure as above. (17 f) Saddlebags. The saddlebags are packed as follows: e The off saddlebag contains the toilet set and clothing; currycomb, horse brush, and grooming cloth in the patch pocket. The near saddlebag contains the mess kit and one-day's ration; horseshoes, horseshoe nails, saddle soap, and sponge in the patch pocket. The second ration, if carried, is distributed between the two saddlebags. Any unconsumed portion of a reserve ration will be placed in the near saddlebag with the mess kit, other articles being shifted from one bag to the other to balance the weight of the two bags as the rations are consumed. 27. To Pack the Saddle of the Riding Horse. a. The saddle, off the horse, is placed on the ground, or otherwise as is most convenient for packing. The saddlebags are placed on the cantle and secured thereto by the attachments provided. The cantle roll is strapped to the cantle by means of the cantle strap which are wrapped three times around the roll. The straps are securely buckled and the loose ends, falling to the front, are tucked under the straps. The buckles should be far enough to the rear to prevent injury or discomfort to the rider. The ends of the roll are pressed forward and down toward the saddlebags. The two outside straps should pass over the roll well down toward its ends in order to keep the roll curved to the shape of the cantle. b. The feed bag and grain bag are strapped on top of the pommel bar (under the raincoat or overcoat), regardless of whether grain is carried. The loose ends of the straps, falling to the rear, are tucked under the straps. The raincoat, and/or overcoat, collar to the left, is placed on top of feed and grain bag and strapped on by means of the pommel straps. The ends of the roll are pressed in toward the horse's shoulders. All buckles should be far enough forward to prevent injury or discomfort to the rider. c. The canteen and cup, in their cover, are snapped to the right cantle ring. The cover is fastened tight to the saddlebag by buckling the two rear saddlebag cover straps over the canteen cover strap where it passes under the bottom of the canteen COWer. d. Attach helmet to near (left) saddlebag by buckling the three straps of saddlebag flap through the chin strap. e. Wherever possible, two men work together in placing the packed saddle on the horse's back. In case only one man is available, it may be found advisable to attach saddlebags, canteen, cup and cover, after the horse has been saddled. (17 e) In saddling with the packed saddle, great care should be exercised to adjust the saddle properly. In case only one man be available, he should grasp the packed saddle at the pommel with the right hand, place the left hand under the front edge of the right side bar, and swing the saddle into place on the horse's back. 28. Drivers (Artillery). a. General. In order to equalize loads on the two horses, certain articles, as prescribed by Table II, may be placed on saddle of the off horse instead of on riding horse. b. To pack saddle. To pack the saddle of the off horse, the near stirrup being passed over seat of saddle, the procedure is as follows: (1) The saddlebags are placed on cantle and secured by attachments provided. (2) Place surcingles under straps of saddlebag flaps above the loops in saddlebag flaps through which the straps pass. The surcingle is folded to a length equal to the width of the flap of a saddlebag pocket, and is secured, buckle down, to the flap above the loops of the flap straps. The outer flap straps are passed through the surcingle folds, the center flap strap over the folds; flap straps are then run through their loops and buckled. INDIVIDUAL EQUIPMENT AND TENT PITCHING 437 (3) Attach mounted canteen cover to left rear cantle ring by the snap of canteen Stra D. **) Attach helmet to off (right) saddlebag by buckling the three straps of saddle- bag through the chin strap. (5) Extend center cantle strap. Place roll on top of buckle end of cantle strap in the center of seat of saddle so that open edge will be down. Place the two feed bags, secured together at their open ends, across seat of saddle in front of roll. Bring tongue end of cantle strap to the front over center of roll and junction of the two feed bags; take one turn around the junction of the two feed bags; pass strap to rear under roll, bring it forward over center of roll, and buckle it. Each coat strap is passed under rear quarter strap and once around feed bag about 4 inches from the lower end, punching a throat in feed bag to prevent strap from slipping; pass each strap to rear and once around roll about 6 inches from end of roll; bring strap from under roll, over itself at the interval between feed bags, roll and buckle. The ends of roll are drawn close to ends of feed bags before being secured. The coat straps are attached to saddlebag side—strap rings about saddlebag side straps to avoid twisting the rings. Plate 15. Driver's (Artillery) Off Horse. (6) Place overcoat, collar to the left, across seat of saddle in front of feed bags and secure by two pommel coat straps. When raincoat and overcoat are both carried, place raincoat on top of overcoat. When overcoat is not carried raincoat is packed as provided for overcoat. (See Plate 15.) c. To pack saddle of the off horse when blanket rolls and feed bags carried on limber. To pack the saddle of the off horse, the near stirrup being passed over seat of saddle, the procedure is as follows: (1) Place the saddlebags on the seat of the saddle and secure them by passing the saddlebag strap throught the cinch rings and drawing them tight. (2) Place the overcoat on top of the saddlebags, collar to the left; place the rain- coat on top of the overcoat. Take a couple of turns with the middle cantle strap around the two coats. Then take several turns around each end of the coats, using a coat strap on each end. Place the free end of each strap through the cinch ring on each side and pull the coats down firmly against the saddle. (3) Secure end of halter tie rope of off horse to off pommel ring of off saddle, and that of near horse to near pommel ring of near saddle. (17 f) * 29. Method of Attaching Equipment to Vehicles. a. To limber. Extend the four blanket straps and place the blanket rolls across the top of ammunition chest in rear of bucket brackets, feed bags on top of blanket rolls; then buckle blanket straps. b. To motor vehicles. When carried on tanks, scout cars, tractors, trucks, motor- 438 INDIVIDUAL EQUIPMENT AND TENT PITCHING cycles, and passenger cars, the disposition of rolls will depend upon the particular con- struction of the vehicle. Vehicles of strictly commercial type are not provided with straps or other fastenings for securing the rolls. It is then necessary to utilize the straps pertaining to the rolls themselves or to use ropes or special straps. It will often be preferable to dispose the rolls within the vehicles, thus reducing danger of loss and affording better protection from weather. (18) CHAPTER VI DISPLAY OF BASIC EQUIPMENT, ENLISTED MEN, FOR FORMAL INSPECTION 30. Shelter Tents Not Pitched. a. With haversack and pack carrier or similar equip- ment. When shelter tents are not pitched the relative position of basic articles of equipment is as indicated in Plate 16. (19) b. Individually mounted men. When shelter tents are not pitched, the relative posi- tion of basic articles of equipment is as indicated in Plate 17. (20 a) c. Drivers of Artillery pairs. When shelter tents are not pitched, the relative position of basic articles of equipment is as indicated in Plate 18. she ſter haſ f *—" --- -ſl- F-shelter helter t & + N ^- º | tent poles shelter ten ** - * pins | “ º il | : | undershirt raincoat :* à Brr and drawers (overcoat) | % 2 He-1}-handkerchief WOOK-E .2 ſº * blanketwodjillº…iſ 2% % lzamºs!–14– h sºlent ( tº * = & * * rºl laces(Shoe) i ify == º Tºumſ/ firstad packet ºf 2. & - | | t midºleen in pouch * | | < 2) ..] : “º Ša.) | * * || Gº, SQ., - ^-pistol belt S-SN magazines in pocket # s * § /T) - # Alº-Canteen cup meat Can COver WT j | *: > HE Hä $º Š socks | % | - º, ºs § \ E32-is º Spoon §se-shºg SO8.p TF- ha Ving brush —4 T-#~ tooth powder(paste) *: |[Lºſ Yl ===#-E r & Z.Or meat Côn — viuſ ºf-ºf- razor blades \ SOAP l \º NZ-tooth brush * Fºscº ſ}} - SO 3 O helmet ºfen OWe gas mask emergencu rations Plate 16. Equipment of All Enlisted Men Except Drivers of Artillery Pairs and Those Individually Mounted on Horses. d. Special items. Special items of equipment not shown in Plates 16, 17, and 18, are added to the display without disturbing the relative positions of basic articles. (206) 31. Shelter Tents Pitched. When shelter tents are pitched, the blanket remains in the position shown for shelter half and blanket in Plate 16. Rear edge of blanket is on line with front (entrance) edges of shelter tent as shown in Plate 25. (20 c) Note: In the field the saddles of individually mounted men and artillery drivers are arranged on the limber and pole as shown in Plate 4, “Driving and Draft.” INDIVIDUAL EQUIPMENT AND TENT PITCHING 439 For all inspections, whether indoors or in the field, equipment is arranged for in- spection as shown in Plates 16, 17, and 18. a. When the equipment is displayed with shelter tents pitched, the blanket is folded as in making up the pack (paragraph 14.) The blankets (of the two men to whom the tent belongs) are placed outside of and in front of the tent, with the rear edges of the blankets in line with the front of the tent, the inner rear corner of each blanket touching the front pole. shelter hºol F. shelter tert pins. —shelter tent pole raincoat j-ºrt. rawerS. (overcoat). \ Hardkerchleſ shelter tert rope. \ SO C. K.S. blanket, w.o.d >/E—5 m ta.corbeer pistol and holster. 2- J Y- rºß r2es istol belt. H. : pſ : : A\c. v. Kll"! !” irz pockets §d packet & © spurs. in pouëh. § ~9 t irz. —O conteer cup. dubbirz —saddlebag. F-l surcirzqle. rneot corn cover.— corateer? . laces, shoe. knife ºgº §§ leqqir, breeches. Or & * : g toothpowder(paste) shºggººp.– | \ |\ \ shaving brush. razor. | —gas mask carrier toothbrush —/~~ \\ tº { } {t — qas mask. corn b. ddleb soo P. SCI 6 OOO . helmet. - .” = e t 9 emergency ** — artigas gloves. ro bio ra. . |-rºm ba9. os rro sk, Feed bod. 92°32; • Wºlfsº H. 9 horseshoes 42 &XAR horseshoe horse brush. ridi is. 3. currycomp. grooming cloth. Plate 17. Equipment of Individually Mounted Enlisted Men. b. When tents are not pitched the blanket is folded within the shelter half exactly as it is folded for rolling the pack, in the case of dismounted soldiers. (Note. The description below is for soldiers not mounted.) Individual equipment of mounted men is displayed generally as prescribed for dis- mounted men, except the equipment is displayed on the shelter half (if tents are not pitched.) (See Plates 17 and 18). The shelter half is laid out, buttons up and to the left, triangular end to the rear and folded on top of the shelter half. If tents are pitched, the blankets are laid out on the ground in the same manner as if the shelter half was being used. c. If both overcoat and raincoat are carried, the raincoat is displayed on top of the overcoat, and folded in the same manner as shown in the plates. If the raincoat only is carried, it is placed as shown for the overcoat. The overcoat is placed on the right side of the blanket, underwear on the left side, folded exactly as shown, drawers on top (handkerchief on drawers). Shoe laces are placed on top of handkerchief. d. The belt is placed parallel to and just in front of the blanket, canteen cover and first-aid pouch resting on the blanket. e. The pack carrier is then folded under the haversack and the lower edge of the haversack placed against the belt. The haversack is spread evenly on the ground and the inside flap folded back. Contents of the haversack are removed for display. 440 INDIVIDUAL EQUIPMENT AND TENT PITCHING f. The meat can, knife, fork and spoon, canteen and cup, are displayed on the ground as shown, knife, fork and spoon on the meat can, in order from left to right, handles to rear, cup separated from canteen, tops of both to front. g. All articles carried on the belt remain attached thereto. The flap of the maga- zine pocket is opened. The flaps of the canteen cover are opened. The cover of the first-aid pouch is opened, and the packet is turned up as shown, exposing the ring. h. The towel is folded to the size of the outer flap of the haversack and placed upon it. The toilet articles, soap, comb, tooth brush, razor blades, razor, are placed upon the towel in the order named, from front to rear, as shown in Plates 16, 17, and 18. The socks are placed in rear of the razor, so folded that heels and toes are exposed. The shaving brush, shaving cream and tooth paste are placed upon the socks, shaving brush in the center, tops to the front. s', elter h aſ Q. shelter tent pins.A Y. # * ==n- shelter tent pole. | 27 undershirt , drowers, ratrºcodt socks. (overcoot). | | Chandkerchieſ. sheſtertent rope. t { f pistol and holster #75). " ſ — * COV6 r. first aid packet-HHHT. magazines º #. :a::= * º-ET 3. pockets. p is rot pett. * & - a spurs. dubbirº ——O |- Corzteer? cup. surcingle. —4: —saddlebag. rrnedt corn cover. * T Corztee rºl. * Z º negt carz with – s—ſ g ( & O =º. knife, ſork, spoor. il tº *-ā- surcººſe'. shaving soap.– ! || 6- ? ºf::::::::::::) ge smsº gas mask carrier. **ºn * sº §h g º i * OO ruS & towel – l corrºb. helmet.—NN ſ 5od p. * * a rºtiqas qloves. emergency ration; --- |- jś whº p. gos mask, horse S *zºsé 3. p Feed bag. ºš qos rrosk, horse. qra in bad *m-- §§§ E feed bag. g ** qra in bdg. t horseshoes. Horsebrush horseshoes, nails. * S COrº C. e. rºd I ls. cºrry. r O O nºt rº 9 Çiğ. Plate 18. Equipment of Driver of Artillery Pair. i. The helmet and gas mask are placed as shown, mask displayed to view. j. The emergency ration is placed immediately in front of the outer flap of the haver- sack, as shown. k. All other articles of equipment issued to individuals, such as field glasses, field message book, pencil, watch, compass, signal kit, are displayed in the space between the overcoat and the tent pins, the space being widened as necessary. l. If the tents are not pitched, the poles, pins and rope are placed as indicated in the plates. m. Display of officers' equipment. Officers' equipment is laid out in the same manner as prescribed for enlisted men. CHAPTER VII TO PITCH SHELTER TENTS 32. General. The purpose of this instruction is to enable the unit commander to establish his unit expeditiously in shelter tents. Except at inspections, alinements and intervals of the tents will be subordinated to the employment of the available ground for the concealment and comfort of the men. 33. Formations. a. The battery commander indicates the area for each section or the line on which its tents are to be pitched. b. For instruction and for inspections, the sections are formed for pitching tents as prescribed in “Dismounted Drill.” All men, so far as possible, pitch tents under the direction of the first sergeant as soon as the drivers have completed their work. At the command Form for shelter tents, given by the first sergeant, each man takes his blanket roll, carries it over his left shoulder, and falls in with his section. Sections form in column of squads, the squads of each section facing each other at five yards distance, each rear squad facing toward the kitchen flank of the battery and forming on the right of its chief of section; chiefs of section are alined and spaced by the first sergeant. Squads having been formed as indicated above, intervals are taken as described in “Dismounted Drill.” The first sergeant then commands: PITCH TENTS. º Plate 19. Shelter Tent Formation. 34. Formal Shelter Tent Pitching. a. When directed by the chief of section odd- numbered men mark their positions by marking with their left heel, points alongside the outside of their left heels, near their insteps. The locations marked indicate the positions of the front tent poles. Odd and even numbers (numbers one and two; numbers three and four; etc.) pitch tents together. Plate 20. Buttoning the Halves. b. At the command, PITCH TENTS, all men unsling equipment and place their rolls (or packs) on the ground in front of them, haversacks (saddlebags or field canvas bags) up and to the front, the rolls two paces in front of their positions. They then open their rolls and remove their shelter halves, poles, and pins. Each odd-numbered man places a pin in the ground on the spot which he previously marked with his left 441 442 INDIVIDUAL EQUIPMENT AND TENT PITCHING heel. The men of each pair spread their shelter halves on the ground which the tent is to occupy, triangle to the rear, buttons to the center, the even-numbered man's half on the left. - c. They then button the halves together. The odd-numbered man adjusts his pole through the eyelets in the front of the tent and holds the pole upright in position beside the pin. The even-numbered man pins down the front corners of the tent in line with the tent pins. He then drives the front guy pin in front of the front pole, measuring the distance with his tent rope by taking the distance from the base of the front tent pole to one of the front tent pins. He places the loop of the guy rope over the front guy pin, runs the other end of the rope through the loops of the shelter Plate 23. Placing the Rear Pole. halves and ties it, making sure that the pole is vertical when the rope is taut. The even-numbered man then adjusts the rear tent pole through the eyelets in the rear of the tent. The odd-numbered man pins down the rear of the tent and drives the rear guy pin two and a half tent pin lengths from the rear triangle pin. He then adjusts the guy rope. The even-numbered man then drives the remaining pins on the left of the shelter tent and the odd-numbered man drives them on the right. INDIVIDUAL EQUIPMENT AND TENT PITCHING 443 d. Each man displays the contents of his pack as described in paragraph 31. After the equipment of all men is displayed, the section reforms in single rank with normal interval in front of their equipment, the right flank man taking position about one foot in front of the front guy pin of his tent. (23) Plate 24. Pinning Down the Rear Corners. ...~~~. Tº cº- "Xy- —£T | t ''g º % f 5. Y2.cº." º -3. º r -º- * ſº >. º. . * * * lºg ~ : º ºn , T T ~ 2.5% º § Wºź s § y \\ t 0. # # Shºº º º 4 - º §§* \\ Q º Tºjº & ſº Eºs, º - = jº ! \ * * º Plate 25. Equipment Displayed for Inspection. 35. Pitching Double Shelter Tents. a. The double tent camp is preferable to the single tent camp in cold or inclement weather because of the added shelter it affords. It is useful in restricted areas because of its greater concentration of personnel. The double tent is composed of two single tents buttoned together at the square ends. The tent is supported by three poles, one in the center and one at each end. b. The sections are formed for pitching tents as prescribed in “Dismounted Drill,” except that, after all squads are in line, the section is formed at close interval. 2 ^ Y º * º ſ\ sº-º-º: \s-2\\ s \ %). * \ : & V x * -sm- —s, | sºJºl lº º ſ Plate 26. Double Shelter Tents Pitched with Men at Attention. c. On direction of the chief of section number one and every fourth man thereafter mark the spot alongside the outside of their left heels, near their insteps. This indicates the positions of the front tent poles. Numbers one, two, three, and four pitch and occupy one double tent. Numbers five, six, seven, and eight the next double tent, and so on. d. At the command, Pitch double shelter tents, all men unsling equipment and place their rolls on the ground in front of them, haversacks, (saddlebags or canvas field bags) up and to the front, the packs two paces in front of their positions. They then open 444 INDIVIDUAL EQUIPMENT AND TENT PITCHING their rolls and remove their shelter halves, poles, and pins. Each odd-numbered man places a pin in the ground on the spot which he previously marked with his left heel. The four men of each group pitching tents together spread their shelter halves on the ground which the tent is to occupy as follows: the lower odd-numbered man at the right front, the lower even-numbered man at the left front, the higher odd- numbered man at the right rear and the higher even-numbered man at the left rear. e. They then button together the four shelter halves of each tent, the ridge first, then the square ends so that the center eyelets of the shelter halves will be in the following order; the lower half of the front tent on the bottom, the lower half of the rear tent next, the upper half of the front tent next, and the upper half of the rear tent on the top. The odd numbers insert and support the front and rear poles, respectively, the front pole in the location marked, the rear pole in a line with it perpendicular to the line of front poles. The even numbers pin the front and rear corners of the tent. One even number then enters the tent with his pole and, assisted by the other, inserts the pole through the center eyelets of the shelter halves. f. The even numbers then drive two guy pins at each end of the tent. Guy pins are about a yard from the corner pins of the tent and on line with the side pins. They then adjust the guy ropes through both loops at once at each end of the tent. The even numbers then fasten the guy ropes and all drive the remaining pins. The occupants turn back the triangular ends, and, for inspections, display the contents of their packs as prescribed in Paragraph 30. Each man stands at attention in front of his own shelter half, toes on line with the guy pins. If equipment is not to be displayed the section reforms in single rank with close interval, the right flank man taking position so that his left foot is on line with the tent poles of his tent. (241) 36. To Strike Shelter Tents. The men are directed to fall in at their own tents. At the command, Strike tents, the men pull the pins, unbutton the shelter halves, and make their rolls. When rolls are ready they are placed on the ground one foot in front of the toes. The men stand at ease in the positions they occupied before the command to pitch tents. Rolls are not picked up until directed by the chief of section. (25) ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF BALLISTICS, DISPERSION, AND GUNNERY AND EFFECT OF PROJECTILES CONTENTS Paragraphs Chapter I. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5 Chapter II. Interior Ballistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . s e s s e º ºs e s tº w tº e º 'º & 6-10 Chapter III. Exterior Ballistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-21 Chapter IV. Elementary Dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22–27 Chapter V. Elementary Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28–40 Chapter VI. Elementary Gunnery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-85 Chapter VII. Effect of Projectiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86-89 CHAPTER I GENERAL 1. Introduction. This chapter is a basic treatise on the construction of cannon (pieces), the functioning of ammunition, the fundamentals of ballistics, the rudiments of dis- persion, mathematics as applied to calculation of firing data, elementary gunnery, and a discussion of the effects of projectiles. Other chapters on materiel, ammunition, and gunnery give a more exhaustive study; this is only for the beginner. 2. Definitions. A piece is a firearm, as a rifle or a cannon. In this text the term piece is used to indicate a gun, howitzer, or mortar, together with the carriage of the weapon. (Plate 1) Differences in design and appearance among guns, howitzers and mortars are due to differences in the purposes for which each is intended. a. A gun is a piece of comparatively flat trajectory and high muzzle velocity. Modern guns are designed to fire at a maximum elevation of 45°. b. A howitzer, in general, has a shorter tube than a gun of the same caliber, a more curved trajectory, and a lower muzzle velocity. It is able, therefore to reach targets which can not be reached by a gun, and correspondingly to occupy positions behind a hill or other natural cover which would be impracticable for a weapon of flatter trajectory. Modern howitzers are designed to fire at a maximum elevation of ap- proximately 65°. c. A mortar is a piece with a still shorter tube, a lower muzzle velocity, and a more curved trajectory than a howitzer of the same caliber. It is designed for firing with angles of elevation greater than 45 degrees, thus giving fire with a very large angle of fall, the range decreasing as the angle of elevation is increased. 3. Construction. All modern pieces have strong tubes with a means of making a gastight seal at the rear end (breech). The hollow part of the tube is the bore. The rear portion of the bore is a chamber to hold the propellant. The rifling consists of spiral grooves cut along the interior of the bore, the raised portions being called lands. The caliber of the piece is the diameter of the bore, between lands, expressed in inches or millimeters. When the projectile is inserted in the piece, it moves forward until the rotating band on the projectile encounters the forcing come of the tube. This cone is that tapered portion of the rifling from its origin forward to the point at which the bore reaches a true caliber. 4. Ammunition. a. Projectile. (Plate 2). The projectile is essentially cylindrical and is shaped at the ends so as to reduce air resistance during flight. Near the rear end of the cylindrical part is a band of soft metal, called the rotating band, which projects beyond the surface of the projectile. This band centers the projectile in the bore, closes the grooves to prevent escape of gasses, and forces the projectile to follow the rifling. At the front end of the cylindrical part of the projectile is a slightly raised surface which is carefully machined to fit closely in the bore. This surface, known as the bourrelet, centers the forward part of the projectile in the bore. 445 446 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF BALLISTICS GUN: Long, tube Flat trajectorg , , High mizzle velocitg W S W W W - Ü S2 Y. Sº SS =m. - - - * assº N HowITZER_ Mediurn § tºube Curved trajëctorg Lower muzzle velocit Subject to deeper deſilade / MoRTAR_: / Short tube , / #. h curved trajectorg 7 muzzle velocitg 5ubject to verg deep deſilade and emplacement in trenches / s / / / S Qſ / 4| / ſi aſſi / .resºl" º º ºntº/ S’ſ Ş 3 x/l <=&S RZNZS Plate 1. The Piece—Comparison of Gun, Howitzer, and Mortar. Pasz cover Adaptºr ‘-v-/ *——º- Pas 2. Roteting (taper bar, d. Or, boat tail) Plate 2. A Projectile of Pourro lot, Ogive Modern Type. ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF BALLISTICS 447 b. Charge. The propelling charge is made up of a number of grains of a relatively slow-burning explosive, the size and shape of the grains being designed to control the rate of burning. A device known as a primer is used to start the burning, and a small amount of quick-burning powder, called the igniter, is used to insure rapid and uni- form ignition of the charge. 5. Kinds of Ammunition. a. Ammunition is fixed, semifixed, or separate-loading (also called unfixed), depending upon the method of assembly for transportation and for loading into the piece. b. In fixed ammunition (as for the 75-mm gun) each round is complete except that nearly all shell are shipped unfuzed. The primer and propelling charge are assembled in a brass cartridge case which is attached to the projectile. The complete round is loaded in the bore as a unit. c. In semifixed ammunition (as for the 105-mm howitzer) the primer and propelling charge are assembled in brass cartridge case, but the cartridge case is loosely attached to the projectile. The propelling charge is usually in sections to permit variations in muzzle velocity. The projectile and the cartridge case are loaded in the bore separately. d. In separate-loading ammunition (as for the 155-mm howitzer) no cartridge case is used. The projectile, propelling charge, and primer are separate units. The charge is put up in bags of a material which burns without residue; it is subdivided as for semifixed ammunition. The projectile is loaded in the bore and rammed until seated firmly. Then the propelling charge is placed in the powder chamber, the breechblock is closed, and the primer inserted in the firing mechanism. Questions 1. How do guns, howitzers and mortars differ? 2. Are explosives slow or quick burning? 3. What are the three kinds of ammunition? CHAPTER II INTERIOR BALLISTICS 6. Ballistics. The ammunition (projectile and charge), while it is within the bore of the piece and after the projectile leaves the piece are affected by a great many things. Ballistics treats of the motion of the projectile and the conditions affecting it. Interior ballistics. Interior ballistics treats of the motion of the projectile while it is in the piece. 7. Functioning. (Plate 3.) a. The primer is ignited by a blow from the firing mechanism. This starts the igniter sending flame quickly through the propelling charge, which burns rapidly, generating a large quantity of gas. b. When the gas has developed sufficient pressure to force the rotating band into the rifling, the projectile moves along the bore. The rotating band fills the grooves of the rifling, and forms a gastight seal. The twist of the rifling causes the projectile to spin as it leaves the piece. c. The expanding volume of gas continues to accelerate the projectile as long as it is in the bore and for a very short distance beyond the muzzle. In order to keep the pressure, and consequently, the acceleration of the projectile, more nearly uniform throughout its travel in the bore, the rate of burning of the propelling charge is regulated by the size and shape of the grains. The permissible pressure at any point of the travel is limited by the strength of the gun. d. Extreme care is necessary in handling and using the piece and ammunition. The principal factors affecting their action are discussed in the following paragraphs. 8. Piece. a. Wear of the bore. In its early stages, wear of the bore (erosion), if uniform does not affect accuracy greatly but does reduce muzzle velocity. Uneven and excessive erosion causes variation in pressure and, therefore, muzzle velocity, which results in excessive dispersion. When the lands have worn so much that they do not 448 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF BALLISTICS = (1) The firing mechanism and primer.—The percussion hammer (1) strikes the firin in (2), Which forces the percussion cup (3) against the anvil (4), :aſ; the Composition §e; (5). The pellet detonates, Shooting a flame into the black powder of the primer (6) and igniting it. (2) The primer, vent, and igniter.—The flame from the black powder in the primer melts the wax wad (7), shoots through the vent (8), and ignites the black powder of the #: (9). 22 % (3) The chamber.—The flame from the igniter (9) shoots through the entire propellant (1 covering all of the exposed surfaces of the powder grains, and causing them to #. (10), % SN - NSSS Gºzºz º: sº FYº Yº J Jº I s2.2×-ºs-2 E- * * #2 e i-º-º-F-3 **: Ş $4) The bore.—The burning of the propellant generates a proportionately great amount of gas in a very short space of time, building up a pressure of 29,150 pounds per Square inch (when the full charge is used.) The mushroom head of the breechblock is forced back on the obturator pad, expanding it radially against the breech recess and thus checking the rearward escape of gas. The rotating band is caused to take hold on the rifling, and the projectile is forced through the bore. The projectile turns to the right through about one half of a complete revolution as it moves down the rifled portion of the bore. Plate 3. Progress of Propelling Impulse, Unfixed Ammunition. ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF BALLISTICS 449 bite into the rotating band sufficiently, they shave away the band and give the projectile insufficient spin. This makes the projectile unstable in flight and causes erratic re- sults. Erosion is not uniform throughout the bore; the greatest erosion occurs at the forcing cone. The result is to advance the forcing cone in the bore. This may have one of two effects. In the case of separate-loading ammunition, the projectile is rammed farther forward in loading, until the rotating band engages the forcing cone. This has the effect of increasing the capacity of the powder chamber and results in lower pressures and lower muzzle velocity. In the case of fixed and semifixed ammunition, the position of the projectile being determined by the length, of the cartridge case, the chamber capacity is unchanged, but the rotating band does not engage the forcing cone at the instant of firing. This results in the escape of gases past the projectile, causing still more erosion and more serious inaccuracies than in the case of separate-loading ammunition. b. Coppering. Copper from rotating bands is deposited in the bore; this deposit has relatively little effect on accuracy. Its removal is not warranted. c. Cleanliness. If the bore is not kept clean, it becomes corroded; erosion increases, and the projectiles may be prevented from being centered properly. 9. Projectile. a. Ramming. Ramming must be hard and uniform. If the projectile is not seated firmly, there will be no gastight seal at the junction of rotating band and forcing cone, and escaping of the gases at this point will reduce the pressure and velocity and will cause increased erosion. Incomplete ramming may prevent the projectile from being centered properly in the bore. If ramming is not uniform large variations in velocity may result. b. Cleanliness. If the projectile, especially at the rotating band and bourrelet, is not clean, it may not be centered properly, and increased erosion will result, c. Rotating band. Injuries to the rotating band may allow escape of gas, causing in- accuracy and greater erosion. d. Weight. If projectiles are not of uniform weight, velocities are not uniform. 10. Propelling Charge. a. Lot number. Each lot of powder has a certain quality of quickness, dependent upon the percentage of volatiles left in the powder during manufacture. No two lots can be made exactly alike; consequently, with different lots, muzzle velocities vary slightly. For accurate results the same powder lot for separate- loading ammunition, or the same ammunition lot for fixed and semifixed ammunition, should be used throughout any one firing. b. Ignition. To obtain uniform velocities with separate-loading ammunition, it is necessary to insure complete and uniform ignition of the propelling charge. It is im- portant, therefore, that the propelling charges be placed carefully in the powder chamber, adjacent increments in contact, and the igniter pad in contact with the face of the breech block before firing. c. Temperature. The rate of burning of the powder varies with the initial tempera- ture of the propelling charge. Thus, to obtain uniform velocities, all powder charges used during one firing must be at the same temperature. d. Moisture. The absorption of moisture affects the ballistic qualities of powder. Propelling charges should not be exposed to the air until immediately before firing. Questions 1. Define ballistics and interior-ballistics. 2. Does erosion of the bore, under certain conditions, greatly reduce (a) muzzle velocity; (b) affect velocity? 3. Does moisture affect the ballistic qualities of powder? FA1 (1) CHAPTER III EXTERIOR BALLISTICS 11. Definitions. a. Exterior ballistics deal with the motion of the projectile after leaving the piece. b. The trajectory. (Plate 4). The trajectory is the curve described by the center of gravity of a projectile in flight. (1) The origin is the center of the muzzle of the piece. (2) The level point is the point on the descending branch of the trajectory at the same altitude as the origin. (3) The base of the trajectory is the straight line joining the origin and the level point. Practically, this is a horizontal line. (4) The ascending branch of the trajectory is that portion described by the projec- tile while going up. (5) The descending branch is the portion of the trajectory described by the pro- jectile while coming down. (6) The summit of a trajectory is the point separating the ascending and descend- ing branches. Moximum'ordi & $º. L º Afte r ion elevotion ine of Slºr—i. 1 i ! . levotion ------ Site impoct/$ Height Origi Horizontol A \ 19 D —l F- Honge -l Point levation S-4v. - Corresponding to - ronge settin Horizontal–º- Linear !-- Burst range height of burst Plate 4. The Trajectory. (7) The maximum ordinate is the difference in altitude between the base and the summit of the trajectory. (8) The plane of fire is the vertical plane containing the axis of the bore when the piece is laid. (Plate 5.) (9) The line of site of a point is the straight line connecting the origin with that point (the point considered). (10) The plane of site is the plane containing the line of site and a horizontal line perpendicular to it. º (11) The site (also called the angle of site) is the angle between the line of site 450 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF BALLISTICS 451 and the base of the trajectory. It is positive for points above the base and negative for points below the base. (12) In the preparation of fire, the height of a point is the difference in altitude between the point and the piece. (13) The line of elevation is the axis of the bore prolonged when the piece is laid. (14) The line of fire is the trace of the trajectory on the ground. (15) The elevation is the angle between the line of the elevation and the line of site. (16) The quadrant elevation is the angle between the line of elevation and the horizontal plane at the origin. It is positive when measured upward. 05C=TRAJECTORY IN AIR HOSC-PROJECTION ON PLANE OFriN-- 08C=PROJECTION ONHORIZONIALPLANE. MM =DRIFT. O Plate 5. The Trajectory Projected on Horizontal and Vertical Plane. (17) The line of departure is the tangent to the trajectory at the origin. (18) Jump. It is the vertical deviation between the line of departure and the line of elevation. It is the algebraic difference between the quadrant angle of departure and the quadrant elevation. (19) Quadrant angle of departure is the angle from the horizontal to the line of departure. It is positive when measured upward. (20) Angle of departure is the algebraic difference, quadrant angle of departure minus angle of site. The symbol is the Greek letter Phi (d5). -- (21) Drop at any point on the trajectory is the vertical distance from the line of departure to that point. OT-IGIN 1PLANE OF F Iſ...F. Plate 6. Trajectory Viewed from Above. (The Drift is Exaggerated in the Figure.) (22) Drift (Plate 6). The deviation of a projectile from the plane of fire, caused by air resistance, rotation, and gravity, is termed drift. For pieces rifled to the right (with a right-hand twist) as the French 75-mm gun, the drift is to the right. For a left-hand twist, it is to the left. (23) The point of impact or point of fall, is the point on the descending branch of the trajectory at which the projectile first strikes the ground or other material object. (24) The line of impact is the tangent to the trajectory at the point of impact. (25) The line of fall is the tangent to the trajectory at a point level with the origin. (26). The angle of fall is the angle between the base of the trajectory and the tan- gent to the trajectory at the level point. 452 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF BALLISTICS (27) The angle of impact is the angle between the tangent to the trajectory at the point of impact and the plane tangent to the surface of the ground at that point. (28) The slope of fall is the tangent of the angle of fall and is expressed as 1 on 10 (or so much). c. Other Pertinent Definitions. (1) Laying is giving a piece the desired direction and elevation or giving the 0-3200 line of an instrument the desired direction, and its line of sighting the desired elevation. (2) Cant is the vertical angle between the axis of the trunnions and the horizontal plane. It usually is due to the carriage being on uneven ground. (3) The range, for practical purposes, is the horizontal distance from the origin to the target or to the point of impact. (4) Map range is the range from the piece to any point as scaled or calculated from a map. (5) Range or elevation setting, with materiel having laying instruments graduated in yards, meters, or mils, is the number at which those instruments are set. (6) Muzzle velocity (or initial velocity) is the velocity the projectile is assumed to have at the origin. It is measured in feet per second. (7) Terminal velocity is the velocity of the projectile at the point of fall or point of impact. It is also called striking velocity. (8) Time of flight is the time in seconds required for the projectile to travel from the origin to the point of impact or point of burst. - ANGLE OF ELEVATION W ORIGIN C Plate 7. Comparison of a Trajectory in a Vacuum and One in Air. - (Note the tremendous decrease in range caused by air resistance.) 12. Form of the Trajectory. a. In a vacuum. If there were no air to offer resistance to the projectile, the form of the trajectory would be determined entirely by the eleva- tion, the muzzle velocity, and gravity. The form would be a symmetrical curve (ap- proximately a parabola); the angle of fall would equal the angle of elevation, and the maximum ordinate would be at the point halfway between the origin and the level point. * b. Effects of air resistance. (1) Resistance of the air tends to retard the projectile from the instant it leaves the piece. This makes the trajectory a more complex curve than that in a vacuum; the angle of fall is greater than the angle of elevation, the maximum ordinate is closer to the level point than to the origin, and the range is reduced. (2) Air resistance depends upon the cross sectional area of the projectile, upon its shape or form, upon its velocity and upon the angle of inclination of its axis to the trajectory. (Plate 8.) In general, air resistance varies as follows: (a) It increases with the velocity. (b) It is approximately proportional to the cross-sectional area. (c) It is much greater for certain shapes than for others. (3) The retardation or effect of air resistance on a projectile depends on the weight, ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF BALLISTICS 453 size and shape of the projectile. Retardation varies directly as the cross section of the projectile and inversely as its weight. Since, in general, cross section is proportional to the square of the caliber, while weight is proportional to its cube, retardation for large projectiles will be less than that for small ones of the same shape and sectional density. ſº i Sphere Cylinder Slug Standard Shepe Long Ogive 25 1 S5 ! O , ” 71 r = 2 Calibers.” r =5 Cz, liber 3 – .." Direction of Flight s –2– Eaº Boattailed Lonº O<ſive .55 Plate 8. Shapes of Projectiles. 13. Types of Trajectories. a. Conditions determining the trajectory. The general shape of a trajectory, under standard conditions, depends largely upon the following elements; The caliber, weight, and shape of the projectile; muzzle velocity; and quadrant elevation. The trajectory for a given projectile and piece varies with the muzzle velocity and quadrant elevation. By varying one or both of these elements, a variety of tra- jectories may be obtained. Accordingly, range flexibility increases with the number of different propelling charges designed for the weapon and the possible variations in quadrant elevation. Plate 9. Constant Muzzle Velocity, Variable Elevation. b. Constant muzzle velocity. (Plate 9). At ordinary velocities as the quadrant eleva- tion increases from zero, the maximum ordinate, angle of fall, and time of flight in- crease. The range increases to a maximum at a quadrant elevation of about 800 mils, 454 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF BALLISTICS and then decreases to zero at a quadrant elevation of about 1600 mils. Any point short of the maximum range can be reached with two trajectories, one above and one below that giving the maximum range. c. Constant quadrant elevation. (Plate 10). As the muzzle velocity increases, the range, maximum ordinate, angle of fall, and time of flight increase. Muzzle velocity is limited by the strength of the piece. Increase of muzzle velocity may be obtained principally by increasing the propelling charge, by varying the size of powder grains, or by decreasing the chamber capacity. & g Plate 10. Constant Quadrant Elevation, Variable Muzzle Velocity. d. Variable muzzle velocity and quadrant elevation. (Plate 11). By suitable varia- tions of quadrant elevation and muzzle velocity, a point may be reached with a number of different trajectories. The lowest muzzle velocity which can be used just to reach the point is the one that requires a quadrant elevation for maximum range; about 800 mils. Plate 11. Variable Muzzle Velocity, Variable Quadrant Elevation. (Note—The 155-mm howitzer can reach the target with four trajectories.) (1) Flat trajectory. (Plate 11). To reach the same target with increased muzzle velocity and a flatter trajectory, the quadrant elevation must be decreased; the maxi- mum ordinate and time of flight decrease. * * o Plate 12. Curve of Security. (2) Steep trajectory. (Plate 9). To reach the same target with increased muzzle velocity and a steeper trajectory, the quadrant elevation must be increased; the maximum ordinate, angle of fall, and time of flight increase. ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF BALLISTICS 455 14. Curve of Security is the curve tangent to all trajectories which are possible when firing with a fixed muzzle velocity and direction. Every point under this curve can be reached by two trajectories and no more. Points above the curve cannot be reached. (Plate 12.) 15. Standard Trejectory is one obtained with standard conditions of materiel and atmosphere; that is, conditions adopted as standard in the preparation of Firing Tables. These conditions are assumed to be as follows: (a) Weight of projectile as given in the appropriate Firing Table. (b) Temperature of powder, 70° F. (c) Air density, that corresponding to 29.53 inches of mercury at 59° F. at the battery, considered as 100 percent. (d) Air temperature 59° F. at the battery. (e) No wind. 16. Variation from Standard Conditions given in Paragraph 15 above have the fol- lowing effects on projectiles: (a) Weight of projectile. A projectile heavier than standard causes a decrease in the range for the lower elevations, but an increase in range for the higher elevations. A projectile lighter than standard has the opposite effect. (b) Temperature of powder. A powder temperature higher than standard causes an increase in muzzle velocity and consequently an increase in the range; a powder temperature lower than standard similarly causes a decrease. (c) Air density. Air density above normal (over 100 per cent) offers more resistance to the projectile and consequently causes a decrease in range; lower than normal, an increase. (d) Air temperature (elasticity). Air temperature higher than normal causes an increase in range; lower than normal, a decrease. (e) Wind. A head wind causes a decrease in the range, a rear wind an in- crease; a cross wind from the right (left) forces the projectile to the left (right); an oblique wind, having components both parallel and perpendicular to the direction of fire, effects both range and deflection. burst El 2ve tº or, Nº Esºm- †< corrøspor, di nº to __{x : & Høght of burst º ~~~~ stee | ºil near * Florizontal —º- As height 2:$ * of Burst rang? -> bl_i r S t Plate 13. Elements of The Trajectory in Time Fire. 17. Time Fire. (Plate 13). Time fire with projectiles which burst in air or are in- tended to burst before impact by reason of appropriate settings. The following defini- tions are pertinent. a. The point of burst for a time-fuzed projectile is the point at which the burst takes place, or at which it would take place if not obstructed by the ground or other object. b. The burst range is the horizontal distance from the origin to the burst. c. The height of burst is the vertical angle, measured at the piece, between the plane of site and the point of burst. d. The linear height of burst is the vertical distance of the burst from the plane of S1te. e. The burst interval is the distance in the plane of site from the point of burst to the target. f. Normal corrector is the corrector setting which gives a normal height of burst. The normal heights of burst for field guns are as follows: 75-mm guns. 2 to 4 mils above the base of the trajectory. * 456 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF BALLISTICS 2.95-inch and 105-mm howitzer. 4 to 6 mils at the shorter ranges; 6 to 8 mils at the mid ranges; 8 to 10 mils at the longer ranges. 155-mm howitzer and gun. 4 to 6 mils at the shorter ranges; 6 to 8 mils at the mid ranges; 8 to 12 mils at the longer ranges. g. Air burst is a burst in air. h. Graze burst is burst at point of impact or on the ground. i. Angle of opening is the greatest angle at the point of burst between the trajectories of the expelled shrapnel. (Plate 13.) 18. Action of the Fuze Setter. a. The fuze setter for the light weapons sets the time of burning of the fuze by two independent means; the fuze range or time scale, and the corrector scale. b. The fuze range or time scale sets a time of burning corresponding to the time of flight for the range setting. c. A change of one point on the corrector scale changes the time of burning so that the height of burst is changed approximately 1 mil. 19. Effect of Range, Corrector, and Site Changes. (Plate 14). a. Range changed, corrector and site constant. Usually the command to change the range setting of a piece is also the command to change the fuze-range setting. Hence, the corrector and site remaining constant, the time of burning is set to correspond to the ranges fired, and changing only the range would cause no change in the height of burst. The burst range is changed. * _ — - TT = * -----> = * ºmmsº *-- = * * _-- = - - 2. Plate 14. Range Changed, Corrector and Site Constant. The Height of Burst Remains the Same. Plate 15. Site and Range Remaining the Same, Corrector Changed. For example 10 mils changes the height of burst approximately 10 mils up or down depending upon the direction of change. Plate 16. Site Changed, Corrector and Range Constant. Height of burst is changed by the amount of site change. b. Corrector changed, site, and range constant. (Plate 15). If the corrector only is changed, the burst is either drawn back or advanced along the trajectory, causing a change in heighth of burst and the burst range. e. Site changed, corrector and range constant. (Plate 16). When the site only is ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF BALLISTICS 457 changed and no change is made in the corrector and range, the time of burning is not canged. Raising or lowering the site raises or lowers the burst, practically in a vertical line. The burst range is not changed but the height of burst and the trajectory are changed. d. Change of site and corrector. (Plate 17). A change of corrector and a compensating change in site do not change the height of burst. The range and the burst range are changed. Plate 17. Compensating Changes of Site and Corrector. Example: With the burst at A, raising the site 10 mils brings the burst to B; then lowering the corrector 10 points moves it to C, which gives the same height of burst as A. 20. Rigidity of the Trajectory. (Plate 18). The theory of the rigidity of the trajectory is the assumption that the trajectory may be tilted up or down through small vertical angles about the origin without materially affecting its shape. The flatter the tra- jectory, the more nearly is the assumption correct. The assumption is utilized primarily in bracket fire to correct for the altitude of the target by applying the angle of site to the range or elevation, thus tilting the trajectory up or down about the origin. In other words, a trajectory remains rigid as to form and extent while it and its chord are revolved in a vertical plane about the origin (the muzzle) as a center through the relatively small angles ordinarily required in field artillery firing. Horizont-el. Plate 18. Rigidity of the Trajectory. Assuming the correctness of this hypothesis, it would be possible, by changing only the site, to fire with the same elevation at targets at the same range situated above, below, and on the same horizontal plane containing the muzzle. This principle is applied in both direct and indirect laying. The chord of the trajectory is directed at T, T1, T2, as the case may be by the horizontal cross hair in direct laying and by the site scale of the range quadrant or range drum in indirect laying and by the site scale of the range quadrant or range drum in indirect laying. The piece is elevated above the chord by the range scale of the sight, drum, or quadrant. This elevation is obviously the same regardless of the position of the chord. When using large elevations with large angles of site, errors may be introduced by this assumption, and, in carefully prepared fire, elevation corrections should be de- termined from the complementary angle of site tables giving in Firing Tables. Instead of complementary angle-of-site tables, some Firing Tables have position-effect tables which combine the site and the complementary angle of site into one range effect. 21. Firing Tables. Information necessary for the practical handling of trajectories is given in Firing Tables. These tables are divided into two general parts; an in- troduction, and the firing tables proper. 458 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF BALLISTICS a. Introduction. The introduction contains information of the matériel, and in- structions for the use of the firing table. Included in this part are tables giving informa- tion applying to all types of projectiles. b. Firing tables proper. (1) The firing tables proper give the elements of a standard trajectory which are of practical use, for each type of projectile change, and (when necessary) fuze. (2) The conditions of atmosphere and materiel under which a standard trajectory is obtained are given in Firing Tables. (3) In addition to each standard table, there are tables giving the range and de- flection effects of conditions not standard. Questions 1. What is the trajectory? 2. Upon what does retardation or effect of air resistance on a projectile depend? 3. What is the curve of security? CHAPTER IV ELEMENTARY DISPERSION 22. The Dispersion Pattern. If several rounds were fired from a piece under con- ditions as nearly identical as possible, the points of impact of the projectiles would be dispersed about a point called the center of impact (Plate 19). The following are characteristics of the dispersion pattern: A 2--T →--> : º — ... • Tºss Direction S-- : • e e ". ... " º :*:#" © * e e • ? --" of fire T--——— e e & *——-T Center of impact is at the point where AB intersects the line of fire. Plate 19. The Dispersion Pattern. a. The pattern is roughly elliptical; its center is the center of impact, and its long axis lies along the line of fire. b. Shots are scattered more in range than in deflection. c. Shots are grouped more closely toward the center than toward the edges of the pattern. d. If a sufficient number of rounds are fired, as many will fall beyond the center of impact as short of it, and as many to the right as to the left. 23. Dispersion Errors. a. Dispersion errors are errors that are inherent to the dis- persion patterns; they are the result of variations of certain elements, from round to round, even though conditions are as nearly identical as possible. Dispersion errors are generally beyond control, except that they can be reduced in size by careful laying and loading. Dispersion errors should not be confused with mistakes or constant errors; these are not inherent to the dispersion patterns. Mistakes (blunders) can be eliminated by care and training; constant errors can be compensated for by appropriate corrections. b. For practical purposes, the dispersion error of a shot is the distance from that shot to the center of impact; a dispersion error may be resolved into its range and de- flection components. 24. Range Probable Error. a. In Plate 20, AB is a line through the center of im- pact perpendicular to the line of fire. CD is drawn parallel to AB so that there are as many shots beyond CD as there are between AB and CD. The distance between these lines (depth of the 25% zone) is the range probable error, because this error is exceeded as frequently as it is not. The value of the probable error is given in the firing tables and may be taken as an index of the accuracy of the piece. ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF BALLISTICS 459 b. If lines are drawn parallel to AB at distances of one probable error, the per- centages of shots falling in each subdivision will be approximately as indicated in Plate 20. Four applications of this interval, on each side of the center of impact, will include the dispersion pattern. 25. Fork. The fork is the change in elevation necessary to move the center of impact four probable errors. It is sometimes used as a unit of range change in con- duct of fire. Its value is given in the firing tables as a function of the elevation. 26. Miscellaneous Errors. Dispersion in deflection follows the same laws as disper- sion in range but is usually much less; values are given in firing tables. Dispersion on •" | *~ g - K | | #25%| 16% 7% |2: Splºsiºn T--i- | | L-T of fire B D Plate 20. Dispersion Diagram. a horizontal plane may be projected on a vertical plane or on forward and reverse slopes by considering the angle of fall of the projectile. In time fire, the projection of the bursts (for any particular time setting) on any plane will give the dispersion pattern. 27. Application of Dispersion. a. Location of target with reference to the center of impact. Consider the pattern of six shots fired under identical conditions (Plate 21). Four of these (66.2/3%) have been sensed short of a target and two of them over, the exact location of the target within the pattern being unknown. For a very large number of shots, 50% can be expected to fall short of the line AB, and 75% short of the line CD (Plate 20); therefore (assuming linear interpolation to be correct) 66 2/3% can be expected to fall short of the line MN, which is two thirds of the way from AB to CD. The line MN then represents the most probable location of the target. The rule of computation for precision fire is based on the foregoing principle. = * isºsºs mºm ºº -à– MC __-----TTL H TTTTT----- e - - < 0 Q of Cà e G X*." `-- ; T : C L-- of fire T - - - - - - — — — -i- - - - $ N D MN represents most probable location of the target. Plate 21. Determination of Location of Target by Dispersion Diagram. b. Dispersion as seen by a lateral observer. When an observer conducting fire is dis- placed from the gun-target line, the deviations caused by range dispersion are very apparent. It is often advantageous to know the deviations caused by normal dispersion. These can be computed quickly by the mil relation. Plate 22. Rectangle of Dispersion. c. Probability of hitting an area. Considering that range and deflection errors are measured at right angles to each other, the dispersion pattern may, for purposes of com- putation, be considered as a rectangle (Plate 22). The distribution of shots throughout this rectangle can be obtained by applying the dispersion scale along both dimensions. The probability of hitting a certain area within the rectangle can then be quickly de- 460 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF BALLISTICS termined as the product of two probabilities; also, the expenditure of ammunition neces- sary to obtain a given number of hits in this area, the settings on the piece remaining unchanged, can be computed. d. Probabilities related to conduct of fire. The following probabilities are listed for reference: (1) Probability that target is within bracket. Number of Sensings Probability (%) At One At the One-Fork Two-Fork Four-fork Limit Other Bracket Bracket Bracket I I 7o 85 92.3 I 2 75 89 96 I 3 76 90 97 2 2 85 94.5 99-H 3 3 2 92.5 98 99-H (2) A one-fork bracket having been obtained with one sensing at each limit, the probability that the target is within the zone of dispersion of rounds fired at the center of the bracket is 96.8 percent. This probability is increased as additional verifying sensings are obtained. (3) Probability that center of impact is within a given distance of the target. Number of Sensings Distance in Probable Errors In One Sense In the Other One Two Three Four Probability (%) I I 54 86 98 99-H I 2 51 86 98 99-H I 3 44 : 96 99-H. 2 2 7o 9 99 99 3 3 99-H 99-H 99-H 99-H Questions 1. What are dispersion errors? 2. Draw rough diagram of the dispersion pattern. 3. Can dispersion errors be controlled? CHAPTER V ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS 28. General. This section embraces those mathematical methods employed in com- puting angles and distances used in gunnery. This is not a special branch of mathe- matics; it is merely a discussion in simple language, without adherence to exact technical terms, of a few geometrical principles with particular application to the mil system of angular measure. It may be mastered by any one having a knowledge of simple fractions. 29. Angles Defined. An angle is measured by the included arc of a circle, the center of which is at the vertex of the angle. It makes no difference how large the circle is or how long the sides of the angle, because angular measure is not a measure of distance or area, but is an expression of the proportion between the part of the circle included within the angle and the whole circle. This proportion remains the same for any given angle, whatever the size of the circle. Simply stated, an angle is the difference in direction between two intersecting straight lines as in Plate 23. It is the amount of spread between the two lines forming the angle and is independent of the length of the two lines forming it. The angles shown in Plate 24 are all of the same ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF BALLISTICS 461 value, that is they have the same amount of spread, yet the pairs of lines forming them are unequal in length. Two lines which are different in direction and in the same plane will form an angle if sufficiently extended. (Plate 25). Thus the lines AB and CD do not meet as drawn, but if extended they will meet and form an angle. Hence the difference in direction between two lines may be shown by prolonging them sufficiently to cause them to meet and form an angle. Two lines in the same plane which do not meet, no matter how far they may be prolonged, are parallel and there is no angle between them because there is no difference in direction. Plate 23. Angles 30. Determining the Size of an Angle. Two angles are formed by the intersection of the lines OA and OB for the reason that if OA is rotated to the right, a certain amount of movement is required to make OA coincide with OB. However, OA may also be made to coincide with OB by rotation toward the left. Therefore in measuring an angle care must be taken to determine which measurement is desired. 2 & 2 Plate 24. Angles 27 * * * same me * * * * = - * - - - *_*- ºsmº º - - - - - * * T - as * * * * as sºme * * sº- C Plate 25. Angles Showing Difference in Direction of Two Lines. 31. Kinds of Angles. (Plates 27 and 28). By dividing the circle into a convenient number of equal parts, a system of angular measure is obtained. This is sometimes called Circular Measure, as it is used to measure the relative size of arcs of circles as well as angles. The artilleryman is more concerned with angles than with arcs, so the term angular measure is preferable. In all systems use is made of the main divisions of the circles and the classification of angles based thereon. The circle is divided into four equal parts or quadrants, each of which is included within a right angle. Two right angles make a straight angle or semicircle. Four right angles make a round angle or a complete circle. Any angle less than a right angle is an acute angle. An angle greater than a right angle and less than a straight angle is an obtuse angle. An angle greater than a straight angle and less than a round angle is a reflex angle. All forms will be met frequently in artillery work. 462 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF BALLISTICS 32. Angles and Parallel Straight Lines. a. Intersecting lines. When two straight lines intersect, the opposite angles are equal. (Plate 29.) b. Parallel lines cut by a transversal. When two parallel straight lines are cut by another straight line, the following equations are true: (1) Angle AGF=Angle GFD Angle BGF=Angle GFC 147 Plate 26. Two Angles Formed by the Same Sides and Same Vertex. (2) Angle HGB=Angle GFD Angle AGH=Angle GFG (3) Angle BGF-HAngle GFD=3200 mils Angle AGF--Angle GFC=3200 mils A-RIGHT ANGLE,GUADRANT 5- STRAIGHTANGLESEMICIRCLE C. ROUND ANGLE CIRCLE. Plate 27. Angles. All the angles marked (1) are equal to each other. The angles marked (2) are also equal to each other. c. Parallel lines and equal angles. (Plate 31). If lines AB, CD, EF, GH are parallel, angles A, C, E, G are equal. - Conversely, if angles A, C, E, G are equal, lines AB, CD, EF, GH are parallel. If straight lines are parallel they will still be parallel if all are turned in the same direc- tion through the same angle. ; * * * * * * * * * * * Acute Angle Obfuse Angle \ U Reflex Angles Plate 28. Angles. A. A //?AT-Z25C 2 AAE/2=A Zºº" / / 2 Aſ C Plate 29. Opposite or Vertical Angles. // 2.4/ Af A / 2 23 C £2% Z2 f /2 25" Plate 30. Angles Formed by Parallel Lines and a Transversal. 464 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF BALLISTICS B D F H ^ º \ º Q Q ſº Plate 31. Parallel Lines Cut by a Tränsversal. A C A C // cº" Ar 2. . AS 2 º' ºf Plate 32. Parallel Lines Turned Through Equal Angles. Z z 2 Z 2 3 2. Plate 83. Angles of a Triangle. ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF BALLISTICS 465 If the lines AB, CD, EF, GH are parallel and if the angles B, D, F, H, are equal, then lines BM, DJ, FK, and HL will be parallel (Plate 32). 33. Triangles. Any plane figure that is bounded by three straight lines is a triangle. The word triangle means three-angled figure. The three sides of a triangle meet each other so as to form three angles. The sum of the three angles formed by the three sides of a triangle equal a straight angle or two right angles. This is so no matter what may be the shape or size of the triangle. If the three angles are placed side by side (Plate 33) with their vertices at the same point, the combined angle formed will be equal to a straight angle, or, two right angles. This fact enables the third angle of any triangle to be computed if the other angles are known or can be measured. 34. Units of Angular Measure. The units of angular measure are: a, the mil, (abbreviated m) which is one sixty four hundredth part of the circumference of a circle. This is the unit of angular measure which is the basis of gunnery. Practically, a mil is the angle subtended by one yard of a distance of 1000 yards. b. The degree, which is one three hundredth and sixtieth of the circumference of a circle. One degree–60 minutes. One minute=60 seconds. c. The grade, which is one four hundredth of the circumference of a circle. d. The value of an angle may also be expressed by its tangent. 35. The Mil. a. General. The mil system of measuring angles was introduced by the artillery of the Swiss Army in 1864. It was copied by the French in 1879 and thereafter by most other nations. The United States adopted it about 1900. The British have not changed from the degree system of angular measurement. Their in- struments and guns are graduated in degrees. The use of the words “artillery”, “in- fantry” or “true”, as terms modifying the word “mil” was prohibited in our Army by paragraph 5, GO No. 17, WD 1923. | B B P. ? + ! A Plate 34. Angle of 400 Mils. b. Derivation. An angle whose arc is equal to its radius is called a radian. If the radius of a circle is known its circumference can be computed by multiplying 2Xzr XR where ºr is the factor 3.1416 and R is the radius. Therefore, if a circle has a unit radius that is a radius of one, its circumference is equal to 2X3.1416X1, or 6.2836 radians. Now instead of a circle with unit radius consider one with a radius of 1000 units and call these units yards. Substitute 1000 yards for the unit 1 in the above equatation. 2×3.1416X1000–6286.2 yards, which is the circumference of a circle with a radius of 1000 yards. Therefore if we take 1/1000 of the radius (which is 1) and apply it as many times as it will go into the circumference it will be found that it will go as many times as there are yards in the circumference (or 6286.2 times) since 1/1000 of R equals 1 yard. This is the mathematical exact mil because it is the angle subtended at the center of a circle by exactly 1/1000 of the radius applied to the circumference. But 6286.2 is an odd number 466 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF BALLISTICS which can not be conveniently divided into semicircles, and quadrants. The nearest number that does afford easy division is 6400 and therefore it is considered that a circle has 6400 mils and it is assumed that one mil subtends a distance of 1/1000 of the radius or 1 yard at 1000 yards. Strictly speaking if a circle with a radius of 1000 yards is divided into 6400 equal parts the exact value of the arc measured along the circumference of one of the di- tº e º 2Xzr X1000 6283.2 - & visions will be 6400 * Tāj) X.001.=.0009817 of the radius and therefore an angle of 1 mil at 1000 yards will subtend .981 yards instead of 1 yard. The error made by disregarding this mathematical truth is so small that for all practical purposes it is considered that an angle of 1 mil subtends 1 yard at 1000 yards. In small angles (not greater than about 400 mils) the arc AB, the chord AB (the straight line connecting A and B), and the tangent AB" (the line perpendicular to the line OA at A) are so nearly equal in length, than any one of them may be taken to measure mils for military purposes. In Plate 34 the angle is actually drawn to scale to correctly represent an angle of 400 mils. loooyds. Plate 35. Mils. (Greatly Exaggerated). In Plate 35 each angle is one mil and each angle of one mil subtends one yard at 1000 yards; six mils will subtend six yards. In Plate 36 one mil subtends one yard at 1000 yards, at 2000 yards it will subtend two yards, and at 3000 yards, three yards. Also if the angle is doubled and made two mils, it will subtend two yards at 1000 yards, four yards at 2000 yards, and six yards at 3000 yards. With the same angle the width varies as the range. AT R (in thousands) + p^ _T _T GA 9 ~ſ #. _-T f +4 3 i W. W. Y ! Y 1ooo —- ~ 35COO zº- W W (2) Angle in mils. Distance in terms of any unit of length. () mils = R (The angular scale is greatly exaggerated for purposes of clarity). Plate 36. The Mil Relation, ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF BALLISTICS 467 36. Trignometric Relations. The relations used in solving problems by mils are the same that are used to solve right triangles with trignometry. For example, in trigno- metry if an acute angle and an adjacent side are given, or two sides, the value of the side opposite or of the angle A can be found. (1) Tangent A= . or Tangent= *#. (2) BC=AB x Tan. A, or, Vertical = Base x Tangent. BC Vertical (3) AB = Tan. A or Base TTangent 37. Mil Relation. a. Formula. In computation of firing data the base of the triangle is the range (R) the value of the Angle A is the firing angle and the distance BC is the width of the target expressed in yards, or, its vertical distance above or below the horizontal. Keeping in mind that the arc or tangent always has a value of 1/1000 of the range, the mil relation is expressed by / X R = W when: % is the width of an object in mils (angle) W, the width of the object in yards (arc), and R, the range or distance (radius) in thousands of yards. Examples: (1) what is the width of an object which appears 5 mils wide at a distance of 3000 yards? % is 5, R is 3 W = m x R = 5 x 3 = 15 yards. or, W = % x 1/1000 R, or, Width or Target = 1/1000 range x angle in mils. C Plate 37. Right Triangle. An object 20 yards wide appears 40 mils in width. How far away is it? W is 20, h is 40. W 20 R –7-15- 0.5 thousand yards = 500 yards. c. 1 mil—3’ . 375 (exactly). 19–18 mils (approximately). W _ Width of the target Or, 1/1000 R ---, or, 1/1000 of the range = Angle in mils What is the width in mils of an object 20 yards wide, at a distance of 5000 yards? W is 20, R is 5. W 20 tº wh =-F—-5-– 4 mils. __W ... ...a, Width of Target Or, ºft -TVIDO), or, Angle in mils = Range 38. Advantage of the Mil System. The advantage of the mil system for rapid cal- culation of firing data in the Field Artillery is that angles in mils, within the limits shown above, can be calculated directly from linear distances. The tangent, as a straight line, can be used in connection with the radius as a measure of the angle, instead of the arc. For all practical purposes the range can be assumed to equal to the base of the right triangle. The problem is then reduced to an easy and practical solution of the right triangle. 468 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF BALLISTICS Also if the value of two angles are known or can be measured, the value of the third angle can be calculated. In Plate 38 angle ABC is known to be 1000 mils and the angle ACB is known to be 1300 mils, then the third angle BAC must be of such size as to make up the difference between 3200 mils and 2300 mils. The angle BAC must, therefore, be an angle of 900 mils. 39. Problems. (Plates 39, 40 and 41). The following problems illustrate the three relationships in the mils system. A/ _-- ~ 7 5O! Miſs 900 yds Plate 39. Problem, Height of Tower. Plate 40. Problem, Range. 40. Measuring Angles. (Plate 42). The angle measuring instruments issued to the Field Artillery measure both horizontal and vertical angles. Horizontal angles are meas- ured in the plane of the horizon. Firing angles and deflections are horizontal angles. Vertical angles are measured in a plane perpendicular to that of the horizon. They may be either angles of depression, or angles of elevation. A horizontal plane through the point at which the measurement is made is taken as the origin of the vertical angle. Angles of site are vertical angles. ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF BALLISTICS 469 Plate 42 shows a circle divided into quadrants and with several angles laid off as ex- amples. It is important that the location of the quadrants be fixed in mind. Modern angle measuring instruments and the panoramic sights, etc. are graduated in two half circles of 3200 mils each so that there are two reading possible for each angle. However, some of the older instruments are graduated in a complete circle of 6400 mils. Care should therefore be taken, before calculating firing data, to ascertain the graduations of the particular instrument being used. All reading are made clockwise on any instru- ment. On an instrument graduated in two half circles of 3200 mils each, if you make a reading of 5000 mils starting at zero an angle will be measured to 3200 mils, then start at 0 again and measure to 1800 mils. sº -, * * as: __éſ. 15OO yds Plate 41. Problem, Angle. O 64oo ºf 5 (6 O O eOO ºf 48 OO 1600 Tf 4 OOO 2400 ſh 3200 ſh Plate 42. Angles and Quadrants. 470 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF BALLISTICS Questions 1. Define angles. 2. When two straight lines intersect are the opposite angles equal or unequal? 3. What are the advantages of the mil system? 4. Are firing angles and deflections horizontal angles? CHAPTER VI ELEMENTARY GUNNERY 41. Terms Used. a. Gunnery is the practical handling of artillery fire. It consistts of two phases: The preparation of initial data and the conduct of fire. b. Conduct of fire is the technique of placing artillery fire upon the selected target. c. Officer conducting fire is referred to as such, regardless of the number of assistants he may utilize. Note. Gunnery is based on practical experience. No manual can cover all possible situations. There- fore, when selecting gunnery methods, the officer must use initiative and judgment, as opposed to blind adherence to routine or drill. 42. Definitions. a. Fire commands are commands which convey all the information necessary for the commencement, conduct, suspension, and cessation of fire, and activi- ties incident thereto. º b. Firing data are the elements of fire commands which prescribe the settings for instruments, sights, angle-of-site scales, fuzes, range (elevation) scales, or gunners’ quadrants. A | l i | Gun Instrument Angle 1, the reading on the instrument, is equal to angle 2, the deflection. On the sight. Plate 43. Reciprocal Laying. c. The base piece is the piece (usually No. 1) for which initial data are computed and with reference to which data for other pieces are determined. d. The base point is a well-defined point, in the target area, whose location relative to the pieces is accurately or approximately known. e. The base line is the line passing through the base piece and the base point, or is a line of known direction passing through the base piece, used as an origin for shifts. f. An orienting line is a line of known direction materialized on the ground and selected conveniently near the firing batteries of the battalion. g. The base angle is the clockwise angle from the base line to the orienting line, or orienting line extended; it is never greater than 3200 mils. h. A sheaf consists of the planes of fire (Par. 109 d) of two or more pieces of a battery considered as a group. - i. Reciprocal laying is the operation by which the 0-3200 lines of piece sights and ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF BALLISTICS 471 instruments are laid parallel. A piece may be laid reciprocally on an instrument as follows: The 0-3200 line of the instrument having been established in direction, the operator, using the upper motion, turns the vertical hair to the sight of the piece, reads the azimuth and micrometer scales, and (subtracting 3200 mils if necessary) announces the reading. Using this reading for a deflection, the gunner lays on the instrument as an aiming point. The 0-3200 lines of both instrument and piece are now parallel. By this method an instrument may be laid reciprocally on a piece or on another instrument; a piece may be laid reciprocally on another piece. (See Plate 43). 43. Sequence. The sequence for transmission of fire commands is: a. Special methods of adjustment and particular missions. b. Projectile. c. Charge. d. Fuze. For time fire: Corrector, corrector and time, or corrector and fuze range. e. Direction. f. Distribution. g. Site. h. Pieces to fire. i. Method of fire. j. Use of quadrant or elevation scale. k. Elevation or range. 44. Origin and Transmission. Fire commands originate with the officer conducting fire. They are sent to the executive by telephone, radio, signal flags, signal lamps, voice, voice relay, or messenger. The executive, or the telephone operator (Par. 24), repeats to the gun squads all commands received, except as specifically noted in this manual. 45. Numbers. Numbers are announced as illustrated in the following examples: 10—One zero 25—Two five 300–Three hundred 1400—One four hundred 6000—Six thousand 3925—Three nine two five 4050—Four zero five zero 10,300—One zero three hundred 11,000—One one thousand 100.7—One zero zero point seven 245.4—Two four five point four. 46. Opening Fire. a. The command to the executive to fire is the command for range or elevation, the command FIRE, or the command RESUME FIRING. b. The executive's command to the chiefs of section to fire is the command FIRE or RESUME FIRING. c. The command to fire a normal barrage is BARRAGE (Par. 77). 47. Resuming Fire. See paragraph 49b. 48. Holding Fire. a. The officer conducting fire may command DO NOT LOAD before giving the command for range or elevation. The command to the executive to fire is a repetition of the range or elevation, or a new command for range or elevation. b. The officer conducting fire may give at my command before the command for range or elevation. The executive does not repeat the command. When pieces are ready to fire, he reports Battery is ready and fires at the command fire. At my com- mand continues in effect until a command is given for a method of fire not followed by at my command. 49. Cease Fire. a. The command Cease firing normally is given by the executive, but in emergencies anyone present may give the command. At this command, regard- less of its source, firing will cease immediately. If a piece is loaded, the executive reports to the officer conducting fire No. 1 (or other piece) loaded. The executive resumes firing at the announcement of the range or elevation. b. The command Suspend firing is given only when the battery is firing on a pre- arranged schedule and a temporary halt in the firing is desired. At this command, 472 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF BALLISTICS firing is stopped, but settings continue to be altered in conformity with the schedule. If a piece is loaded, the executive reports to the officer conducting fire No. 1 (or other piece) loaded. Firing in accordance with the schedule is resumed at the command Resume firing. c. If firing is stopped by someone at the position, the executive reports that fact to the officer conducting fire. 50. Signals. (Plate 44). The commands Fire and Cease firing usually are given by arm signals as well as by voice. The signal for Fire is to drop the right arm from a vertical position sharply to the side, or to point with the right hand at the piece to be fired, extend the arm vertically, and drop it sharply to the side. The signal for Cease firing is to raise both arms vertically and hold them in that position until the signal is understood by the battery. Another signal for Cease firing is one long whistle blast. 51. Pieces to Follow Commands. a. All pieces follow fire commands unless the officer conducting fire commands NO. (S)—ADJUST. The command is the first of the fire commands given. b. Pieces that have not been following fire commands begin to follow when the officer conducting fire commands BATTERY ADJUST, OR RIGHT (LEFT) AD- JUST. 52. Repetition. a. Chiefs of section repeat the commands Fire and Cease firing. b. Any other fire command given by the executive is repeated by a member of the firing battery only when requested by a subordinate or when it has obviously been misunderstood or not heard. The request for repetition is a question, for example: Deflection? Elevation? The repeated command, given by the executive or a chief of section, is preceded by The command was. 53. Initial and Subsequent Commands. a. The initial fire commands include all data necessary for laying, loading, and firing the pieces. Subsequent commands include only such data as are changed, and a range or elevation. (\@ }º ſ” º WYS-ºx: \ Ž. ‘READY TO PIRE” * FIRE” *CEASE FIRING” Plate 44. Arm Signals. b. When a change is made in pieces to fire or the method of fire, or both, the commands for both elements are given. Decreasing or increasing the number of rounds in a method of fire does not constitute a change of method. 54. Change for Individual Piece. When more than one piece is being fired, a change for an individual piece is preceded by the command No. 1 (or other piece). A change for an individual piece is announced and set after any change of the same element is given for all pieces. 55. Projectile. The command for shell is Shell HE (smoke) (gas). If more than one ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF BALLISTICS 473 type of HE (smoke) (gas) shell is available at the position, the command is Shell HE (smoke) (gas), Mark I (or other type designation). 56. Charge. . a. With ammunition of numbered charges, the command is Charge 4 (or other number). When both green bag and white bag powder are at the position, and it is necessary to specify which is to be used, the command for charge is folk,wed by Green (white) bag. b. With ammunition of supercharge, normal charge, and reduced charge, the com- mand for charge is Supercharge or Reduced charge. No command for normal charge is given except to indicate a change from supercharge or reduced charge. 57. Fuze. a. The command for percussion fuze is Fuze quick (delay). When two types of quick fuze are available, the command Fuze quick is given for the type of fuze generally used. For the other type of fuze, the command Fuze quick M 54 (or other designation) is given. b. The command for time fuze is Corrector (so much); Corrector (so much), time (so much); or Corrector (so much), Fuze range (so much). The command for a change in corrector, time setting, or fuze-range setting is a new command for corrector time, or fuze range. 58. Direction. The battery may be laid initially by: A Y-azimuth; a base angle; an aiming point and a deflection; a target and a deflection; airplane; or high air-burst. 59. Y-Azimuth (Compass). a. The command to the executive is Compass (so much). The executive does not repeat this command. b. If he has previously laid or adjusted the pieces parallel in a direction of known Y-azimuth he need command only a deflection shift (Par. 64). The amount of shift is the difference between the known Y-azimuth and the Y-azimuth commanded. º # 3. d smº 2. 3. §§ tº E { O k jk ºf SSS Y ~ `s \s \ KV- `ss SSSS \ | g-sº \\ `ss N. S. N \\otº Plate 45. Laying the Battery on Y-Azimuth, Using the Aiming Circle. c. If he knows or can quickly determine the Y-azimuth from any piece to an aim- ing point he need give only a command for aiming point and the deflection (Par. 61). The deflection is determined from the difference between the two Y-azimuths. d. If he does not use either of the above methods, he sets up an aiming circle away from magnetic metals and in a place where it can be used as an aiming point for all pieces. The executive (Plate 45): (1) Subtracts the announced Y-azimuth (Angle 1) from the declination constant of the aiming circle (adding 6400 to the declination constant if necessary). (2) Sets the remainder (Angle 2) on the azimuth and micrometer scales of the aiming circle. 474 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF BALLISTICS (3) Releases the compass needle and centers it with the lower motion. (The 0-3200 line of the instrument now coincides with the announced Y-azimuth.) . (4) Lays each piece reciprocally (Par. 42 i). His commands are, for example: Aiming point, this instrument, deflection No. 1, 3091; No. 2, 2738; No. 3, 2369; No. 4, 2045. (5) If time permits, repeats the reciprocal laying until the same reading for each piece is obtained on two successive trials. O 32OO line oſ alming circle parallél to the Ease Ll ſlo. N SS N \ N \ * N N \ N. N \ N. N \ \ N \ circ\e N N <\\ N - & \ N *\ \ \ & \ \ S$ & N \ \ N \ wº N \ \ \ N N \ \ N N \ N \ \, \ S N \, \ S \,\ \ & T-. NN \ \ *% 3% fo T- N \ \ * A/87/. CVAC/// T- N\\\ }~ &e cºerºny Zºne. of isºs. SSS. º NT, NG- sº Qo \ r) * }cº EX T- * T- %. 5/ % & sets up alming *: - circle on the /e/28//? * - orzeſzczng 4//ze N_7' orienting, line 1. The executive sets up his aiming circle on the orienting line and establishes its 0-3200 line parallel to the base line by setting off the base angle on the instrument and then sighting along the orienting line. 2. He then reads and announces the deflection of each piece, subtracting 3200 when necessary. All pieces are laid parallel to the base piece by the gunners laying on the instrument With the deflections announced. 3. The gunners refer to aiming stakes or some other fixed point, and record their base deflec- tions when so directed. Plate 46. Laying on the Base Line by Means of an Orienting Line. (6) Commands, for example: Aiming point, aiming stakes, refer. 60. Base Angle. (Plate 46). The command to the executive is Base angle (so much). The executive does not repeat this command. He sets up an instrument on the orienting ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF BALLISTICS * 475 line where it can be seen by all pieces. The executive sets the base angle on the azimuth and micrometer scales of the instrument and, using the lower motion, sights along the orienting line. The 0-3200 line of the instrument is now parallel to the direction º which the pieces are to be laid. He then lays the pieces reciprocally Par. 42 i). ( 61. An aiming Point and a Deflection. (Plate 47). a. The command to the executive is Aiming point (so and so), Deflection (so much). The executive does not repeat this command, except as noted in subparagraph e, below. b. If he has laid the battery on a Y-azimuth and can quickly determine the Y- azimuth to the aiming point, he need command only a deflection shift. To determine the amount of shift the executive— (1) Computes the difference between the Y-azimuth of the aiming point and the Y-azimuth of laying. (2) Applies this difference, in the appropriate direction, to the deflection com- manded. c. If he has laid the battery parallel on another aiming point, he need command only a deflection shift. To determine the amount of shift, the executive— (1) Has a gunner measure the deflection to the new aiming point. 2^ / \ / Târget ~~\ _--—24–4, / / / / “ — Aurs point / / 23-yo. Plate 47. Common Aiming Point. (2) Finds the difference between this measured deflection and the deflection commanded. d. When neither of the above methods can be used, he— (1) Sets the announced deflection on an instrument. (2) Using the lower motion, sights on the aiming point. (3) Lays the pieces reciprocally. e. In the rare case when he has no instrument at the position, the executive repeats the command received. He then computes the commands the deflection shifts to lay all pieces parallel to No. 1. The amount of each shift is found by the mil relation % = W/R. W is the perpendicular distance in yards from No. 1 to the line joining No. 2 (or other piece) and the aiming point, and R is the distance in thousands of yards from No. 1 to the aiming point. If the aiming point is in front of the position, the shifts are left; if in rear, the shifts are right. f. When the executive has no instrument and the aiming point is visible from only one piece, the executive lays that piece on the aiming point at the designated deflec- tion, and commands, for example: On No. 1 (or other piece) lay parallel. The gunner on No. 1, without disturbing the laying of his piece, turns his sight to each of the other pieces and lays them reciprocally (see Plate 48). 62. A Target and a Deflection. (Plate 49). The command is Target, (so and so), if 476 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF BALLISTICS the announcement of the target is necessary. The command Deflection (so much) follows. In case the target is stationary and the executive is not to conduct the fire of the battery as a whole, the executive indicates to each chief of section the part upon which his piece is to fire. The chiefs of section then point these out to their gunners and conduct the fire of their sections. The method of fire against tanks is prearranged by the executive and chiefs of section; the announcement of a target and a deflection is generally unnecessary. 63. Airplane or High Air Burst. a. No specific command is prescribed. The execu- tive may lay the battery initially for direction by sighting with an instrument on an airplane or high burst over the target area. b. The executive sets up an instrument (usually in rear of the base piece) where the instrument can be used as an aiming point by all pieces. He sets its azimuth and micrometer scales at zero. Using the lower motion, he places the vertical hair on the - A | A º º O $-- - º sº gº dº - º º º gº gº sº * * Nº. N.eº PL & Dr 179 No. 2 (Base piece) The base piece (No. 2, in this example) having been laid for direction. t X - Imands ON NO 2 LAY PARALLEL. ) g r , the executive com At this command, the other pieces are traversed to their centers and pointed approximately parallel to No. 2. The gunner of No. 2 refers (turns his sight) to each of the other piece sights in turn, and announces for each the deflection reading thus obtained; for example, No. 1, DEFLECTION 1190, No. 3, DEFLECTION. 2270, and No. 4, DEFLECTION. 1450. Each gunner sets, as deflection, the deflection announced for his piece, and, using the sight of No. 2 as an aiming point, lays his piece for direction. All pieces will then be laid parallel. When time permits, the procedure is repeated, to obviate small errors. When the pieces have been laid, the executive announces an aiming point (usually the aiming Stakes) and causes the pieces to be referred. Plate 48. To Form a Parallel Sheaf, Using Reciprocal Laying. ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF BALLISTICS 477 airplane or burst at the proper instant. Using the upper motion, he lays the pieces reciprocally. - c. If the pieces and the 0-3200 line of the instrument are already laid parallel, the executive, using the upper motion, places the vertical hair on the airplane or burst. Reading from the instrument, he commands a deflection shift. 64. Changes in Direction. The command is Right (left) (so much), or Base deflec- tion right (left) (so much). 65. Distribution. The command for distribution is On No. 1 (or other piece) open (close) (so much). The amount opened or closed is known as deflection difference. 66. Site. (Plate 50). The command for site is Site (so much). The command for change of site is Up (down) (so much). Plate 49. Direct Laying. 67. Pieces to Fire. The command to fire the battery is Battery. The command to fire one platoon is Right (left), indicating the right (left) platoon. The command to fire any other combination of pieces is Number (S) (so and so). The command Fire at will (Par. 86) directs all pieces to fire. 68. Methods of Fire. Methods of fire are: salvo fire, volley fire, continuous fire, by piece at my command, fire at will, ladder fire, and zone. 69. Salvo Fire. a. The command for a salvo is Right (left), and indicates the flank from which the pieces are to be fired successively. Fire is opened at the executive's command Fire, pieces being fired at the command of chiefs of section, in order from the right (left) at intervals of 2 seconds. b. The command to change the interval of 2 seconds is At (so many) seconds, 478 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF BALLISTICS given after the Right (left). The At (so many) seconds continues in effect until the method of fire is changed or another interval commanded. c. The executive gives the command Fire when he sees that the pieces will be ready to fire in turn. If a piece is obviously in error or is very slow, he calls the piece out, has the remaining pieces fire, and reports to the officer conducting fire, for example: No. 2 did not fire. 70. Volley Fire. a. The command for volley fire is (so many) rounds. Fire is opened at the executive's command Fire, given immediately after the range or eleva- tion. Each designated piece fires the specified number of rounds, as rapidly as is con- sistent with accuracy, without regard to other pieces. Each round is fired at the command of the chief of section No. (so and so) fire. b. When firing at a moving target with direct laying, each piece is fired at the command of the gunner. (See FM 6-series on service of the piece.) c. The command for a specific time interval in the firing of a single piece is (so many) rounds at (so many) seconds. Each round is fired at the executive's command. 71. Continuous Fire. The command for continuous fire is Continuous fire right (left) at (so many) seconds. If fire is by a single piece, Right (left) is omitted. Con- Tardet v3.5 exe Traiector - 3 º Tºulº. sº sº º * * 3th Cº. * * f | o: eye-ſº 2. *TQuadrant Trajectory wi | Văne ievåtº - elevation -t: E35°ES*Y w §ºg t § Height \ ------ Site y asſiºS-J egº; sam&ll :- cy/S/WIS º º º Mº sº Sy Wy º º s º L - S º wº t S/S/SW/AS WS7S77NYS///s Range - Plate 50. Site and Range Setting. tinuous fire, when executed by more than one piece, is a succession of salvos, the pieces being fired consecutively at the interval designated in the command. The continuous fire remains in effect until the method of fire is changed or until the command Cease firing is given. Changes of data are applied so as not to stop the fire or break its continuity. 72. By Piece at My Command. The command is By piece at my command. The executive repeats this command. When the battery is ready to fire, he reports Battery is ready When each command to fire is received, he commands No. (so and so) fire. 73. Fire at Will. The command is Target, (so and so), fire at will. If a method of close defense has been prearranged, the command is simply Fire at will. 74. Ladder Fire. The command to the executive is Ladder. It is followed by three ranges, or by Elevation (quadrant) and three elevations. The executive has the designated piece fire one round at each of the three ranges or elevations, in the se- quence of their announcement. At the command Repeat ladder, the same ranges or elevations are fired. 75. Zone. a. When the elevation scale or gunner's quadrant is to be used, the com- mand is Zone (so many) mils. It is followed by Elevation (quadrant) and the eleva- tion for the center of the zone. The executive has the designated pieces fire at five elevations, in the sequence: The center elevation; the elevations differing from the center elevation by the announced number of mils; and the elevations (to the nearest mil) midway between the center elevation and the other two. For example, if the command is Zone 10 mils, quadrant 190, the executive has the designated pieces fire at 190, 200, 180, 185, and 195. b. When the range scale is to be used, the command is merely Zone. It is followed by the range for the center of the zone. The executive has the designated pieces fire at the center range, the ranges 100 yards over and short of the center, and the ranges 50 yards over and short of the center. ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF BALLISTICS 479 c. The executive may give the command for each elevation or range, or (except during time fire) he may repeat the entire zone command and let the chiefs of section give the elevations or ranges. 76. Quadrant, Elevation Scale, Range Setting. (Plate 51). a. The command for the use of the gunner's quadrant is Quadrant; for the use of the elevation scale, Elevation. The command for range is, for example: 4800. Quadrant or elevation continues in effect until a different method of laying for range is announced. b. The command for elevation is, for example: Elevation 178. The command Same elevation may be given, but only when more than one piece is firing and the pieces are laid at different elevations. 77. Prearranged Fires. a. Written data for prearranged concentrations and barrages usually are sent to the executive by data sheet. The arrangement of entries on this sheet is such that the executive can announce his commands in proper order by reading from it. Frequently, the executive will find it necessary to furnish each chief of section written data for each mission to be fired on a time schedule. b. Data for barrages are furnished on section data sheets. Any special instructions regarding the firing, such as shifts, fires to be repeated, and rates of fire, appear in - ;** * * $ºs SLIDING LEVEL CLAMP J |->s on the ground £º º †...] =-->== #TT/TTS- Nose spray pottern :- - --> ~~- -— — — — — 2 Impoct -- ~ :-. pottern of fuze Tºx Plate 57. Diagram of Air Burst. b. The fragments of a bursting shell are divided, according to the direction in which they are projected, into three general groups: Side spray, base spray, and nose spray. Plate 57 shows a diametral cross section of surfaces of equal density of fragments. The shading of the figure indicates the decrease in density of fragments as they move from the point of burst. The main effect is from the side spray; the base spray is negligible. If an air burst is too high, its effect is small. The effect of a ricochet burst is similar to that of an air burst of the same height. For a burst on percussion, the area covered by the fragments depends upon the angle of fall, nature of the soil, and con- figuration of the ground. Average areas covered by effective fragments may be taken as follows: Area Covered Effectively ge Caliber Radius of Depth Width Large Fragments Yards Yard; Yard; 75-mm . . . . . . . . . . . . . IO 30 I5o IO5-mm . . . . . . . . . . . . . I5 50 300 I55-mm . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 8 60 550 c. (1) With a delay fuze, the shell tends to penetrate before bursting. If it ricochets, it will burst later in the air unless impact with the ground has failed to arm the fuze. With a quick fuze, the shell usually bursts before it penetrates. If it ricochets, a shell with a combination superquick and delay fuze bursts as a result of the delay action; with a point-detonating fuze only, the shell may burst on second impact or fall as a dud. d. Shells (ricochet or time) which burst in the air at the proper height are effective against personnel in the open, in fox holes, or in trenches; shells which burst on per- cussion are generally effective only against personnel in the open. Against a material object, the delay fuze is used, unless the object—for example, wire entanglements—is such that fragmentation above the ground will give the greater effect. ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF BALLISTICS 489 89. Chemical Shell. a. In general, a chemical shell is a shell designed to carry a filler of gas or smoke. The body of the shell is approximately the same as that of an HE shell, but is designed to have maximum carrying capacity. The bursting charge, called the booster, is designed to rupture the shell and distribute the contents in the desired manner. It is contained in a booster casing into which the fuze is screwed. b. Since it usually is desired to distribute the filler of the shell in the air rather than in a crater, a quick fuze is used when the shell will not ricochet. If the angle of impact gives a large proportion of ricochets, a delay fuze should be used. c. The standard type of smoke shell is filed with white phosphorus (WP), a solid. The burst gives a dense cloud of white smoke, which is hot and tends to rise. Frag- ments of phosphorus which are not burned at the time of burst give off small trails of thinner smoke. WP has a marked incendiary effect and inflicts severe burns on personnel. Questions 1. After striking the ground, upon what does the path of a projectile depend. 2. Which is the more quick and violent, a detonation or an explosion? 3. How many types of fuzes in general use? 4. Side, base and nose spray refer to what? SERVICE OF THE PIECE SECTION 1 75-MM GUN, M1897 (HORSE-DRAWN), AND 75-MM GUN, M1897A4 (TRUCK-DRAWN) CONTENTS Paragraphs Chapter I. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3 Chapter II. Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5 Chapter III. Posts; Mounting and Dismounting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-11 Chapter IV. Movements of the Carriages by Hand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-13 Chapter V. Uncoupling and Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-15 Chapter VI. Preparation for Action and March Order (Truck-drawn Units) 16-18 Chapter VII. Unlimbering and Limbering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-20 Chapter VIII. Preparation for Action and March Order (Horse-drawn Units) 21-23 Chapter IX. Duties in Firing (Truck-drawn and Horse-drawn Units) . . . . . 24-31 Chapter X. Additional Information on the Service of the Piece . . . . . . . . . . 32-51 Chapter XI. Care and Maintenance of Materiel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52-65 CHAPTER I GENERAL 1. Purpose and Scope. This manual prescribes the duties to be performed in the service of the piece by the personnel normally assigned to one gun (howitzer) section of the firing battery. 2. References. Note AR is the abbreviation for Army Regulation; FM, for Field Manual; SNL, for Standard Nomenclature List; TR, for Technical Regulation. a. General. (Applicable to all models of 75-mm guns). (1) Ammunition. TR 1355-75A; TR 1370-A; SNL R-1; SNL R-3. (2) Cleaning and preserving materials. TR 1395-A; SNL K-1. (3) Maneuvers of the battery. Part Two, FM 6-5. (4) Safety precautions in firing. AR 750-10; Chapter 1, (M-1916, M-1916A1, M-1917A1), Chapter 4, (M-1897, M-1897.44, M-2) FM 640. (5) The firing battery. Chapter 1, FM 6-40. (6) Gunnery. FM 6-40. (7) Reconnaissance, occupation, and organization of position. Part One, FM 6-20. b. Description, operation, functioning, and care of matériel. (1) 75-mm Gun, M1897A4, (Truck-Drawn) TR 1305-75A (Now TR 320.95); SNL C-4; SNL C-25. (2) 75-mm Gun, M1897 (Horse-Drawn) TR 1305-A; SNL C-5. (3) 75-mm Gun, M2, (Truck-Drawn) TR 1305-75A (Now TR320–95); SNL C-12. (4) 75-mm Gun, M2, (Horse-Drawn) TR 1305-A; SNL C-5. (5) 75-mm Gun, M1916A1 (Truck-Drawn) TR 1305-75B; SNL C-30. (6) 75-mm Gun, M1916 (Horse-Drawn) TR 1305-A; SNL C-2. (7) 75-mm Gun, M1917A1, (Truck-Drawn)—SNL C-27 and Handbook of the 75-mm Gun Materiel, M1917 (British), February 9, 1918, revised September 6, 1918. c. Description and operation of fire-control and sighting equipment. (1) For all models—TR 1320-C (Now TR 310-20). (2) For specific models. (a) 75-mm gun M1897 and 1897A4; SNL F-11, SNL F-28. (b) 75-mm gun M2—SNL F-22; SNL F-166. (c) 75-mm gun, M1917A1—SNL F-22. 491 492 SERVICE OF THE PIECE 3. Definitions and Terms. a. Piece. A firearm, as a rifle or a cannon; specifically, in these chapters, a gun (howitzer) and its carriage. b. Firing battery. That portion of the battery normally at the position of the pieces when the battery is in position prepared for action. c. Section. In these chapters, this term is frequently used to designate a section of the firing battery. In this restricted sense, a gun (howitzer) section is composed of one piece and the additional matériel and the personnel required to serve that piece. d. Limbered. A piece (caisson) is said to be limbered when its lunette is attached to the pintle of its limber. e. Unlimbered. A piece (caisson) is said to be unlimbered when its lunette has been detached from the pintle of the limber and the trail (caisson prop) rests on the ground. f. Coupled. A piece is said to be coupled when its lunette is attached to the pintle of a truck or other prime mover. g. Uncoupled. A piece is said to be uncoupled when its lunette is detached from the pintle of a truck or other prime mover and the trail rests on the ground. h. Front. The front in a section, carriages limbered or coupled, is the direction in which the trail points; carriages unlimbered or uncoupled, the direction in which the muzzle of the piece points. i. Right (left). The direction right (left) is the right (left) of one facing to the front. j. In battery. The term “in battery” is used to designate the position of the gun when it is in its normal firing position. CHAPTER II ORGANIZATION (Common to all models) (NOTES: The organization of the gun squad applies to both truck-drawn and horse- drawn batteries. Hereafter whenever the word “GUN” appears it pertains equally to the term “HO WITZER.”) * 4. Composition. a. Gun (howitzer) squad. A gun squad consists of the gunner and five cannoneers numbered from 1 to 5. The remaining cannoneers of the gun section act as reliefs or are assigned such other duties as the chief of section may direct. When the battery unlimbers or uncouples for drill or for firing, the chief of section remains at the firing position and commands the gun squad. b. Ammunition squad. (1) An ammunition squad consists of an ammunition corporal and cannoneers as prescribed in Tables of Organization. These cannoneers are num- bered consecutively, beginning with No. 1, and are assigned to the ammunition ve- hicles of the ammunition (fifth) section. In organizations equipped with caissons, the cannoneers are equally divided between the two caissons, the lower-numbered cannon- eers being assigned to the first caisson. (2) Posts and movements prescribed hereinafter for the gun squad apply, with obvious modifications, to an ammunition squad. 9 5. Formation. a. Order of formation. A gun squad is formed as shown in Plate 1. Higher-numbered cannoneers, if present, form in order on the left of No. 5. b. To form. (1) The place of formation is indicated and the command given thus for example: 5 1. In front (rear) of your pieces (caissons), or 1. On the road facing the park, 2. | 5 || 4 || 3 || 2 || 1 |G| Plate 1. Formation of the Gun Squad (All Models). SERVICE OF THE PIECE 493 FALL IN. Each gunner repeats the command Fall in and hastens to place himself, faced in the proper direction, at the point where the right of his squad is to rest. The cannoneers move at the double time and assemble at attention in their proper places. For the first formation of the gun squads for any drill or exercise, the caution, “As gun squads,” precedes the command. The chief of section, if present, supervises the formation. (2) In case the front or rear of the carriages is designated, each squad falls in at its post (par. 6). (3) (3) Fig. 1. M-1897. Fig. 2. M-2. º Fig. 3. M-1916. Plate 2. Posts of the Cannoneers, Carriages Limbered (Section Column). Note. Each cannoneer is two feet outside of the wheels and facing to the front. Note. In a horse-drawn battery, when both gun and ammunition squads are present at a forma- tion, the command In front (rear) of your pieces causes an ammunition squad to take post in front (rear) of that caisson of their section which is on the line of guns extended. c. To call off. (1) The command is: CALL OFF. The cannoneer on the left of the gunner calls off “One”; the cannoneer on the left of No. 1, “Two’’; and so on. (2) After having called off, if a subsequent formation is ordered, the cannoneers fall in at once in their proper order. CHAPTER III POSTS; MOUNTING AND DISMOUNTING 6. Posts of the Gun Squad. a. Carriages (pieces) limbered or coupled. (1) In front of the piece or caisson. The squad is in line facing to the front, its center two paces from the front of the truck, from the end of the pole or from the heads of the lead horses. (2) In rear of the piece or caisson. The squad is in line facing to the front, its center two paces from the muzzle of the piece or from the rear of the caisson. b. Carriages (pieces) unlimbered or uncoupled. The squad is in rear of the piece, in line facing to the front, its center two paces from the end of the trail of the piece. 7. To Post the Gun Squads. The squads having been marched to the vicinity of the carriages, are posted at the command Squads in front (rear) of your piece (caissons). Each gunner marches his squad to its carriages and posts it in the position indicated. 8. Posts of the Cannoneers. a. Carriages coupled or limbered. The cannoneers of the gun squad are posted as shown in Plates 2, 3, 4, and 6. All are 2 feet outside the wheels and facing to the front. Note. The distance of two feet necessarily is modified for men standing within a two-yard car- riage interval. Higher-numbered cannoneers, if present, are posted as prescribed by the chief of section. b. Carriages uncoupled or unlimbered. See paragraphs 17 and 22. 9. To Post the Cannoneers. a. The command is: 1. Cannoneers, 2. POSTS. Each gunner repeats the command Posts. The cannoneers leave the ranks, if formed, and move at the double time to their posts. b. For preliminary instruction, the squads on entering the park are first posted with their carriages, and the cannoneers are then sent to their posts by the foregoing com- mand. The command is general, however, and is applicable when the cannoneers are in O 㺠(3) GSEE(E) (5) (5) | • * º m * (5) (3) @ (3) | style" || || @) (3) @ G) | Fig. 1. M-1897A4. Fig. 2. M-2. Fig. 3. M-1916A1. Fig. 4. M-1917A1. Plate 3. Posts of the Cannoneers, Carriages Coupled. Note. Each cannoneer is two feet outside of the wheels and facing to the front. 494 SERVICE OF THE PIECE 495 or out of ranks, at a halt or marching, and when the carriages are limbered (coupled) or unlimbered (uncoupled). 10. To Mount the Cannoneers. a. (1) Truck-drawn batteries. In each squad the per- sonnel is seated in the body of the truck in the order prescribed by the battery com- mander. The chief of section is seated beside the driver. (2) Horse-drawn batteries. In each gun squad the personnel is mounted as shown in Plate 6. Higher-numbered cannoneers are mounted as prescribed by the chief of SeCt1OIl. Plate 4. Posts of the Cannoneers, Carriages Limbered (Double Section Column) (M-1897). Plate 5. 1. Cannoneers, Prepare to Mount, 2. MOUNT ( Note. This latitude is necessary because of the different sizes and models of trucks used as prime In OVerS. M –1897). 496 SERVICE OF THE PIECE b. The command is: 1. Cannoneers, prepare to mount, 2. MOUNT. (1) Truck-drawn batteries. At the first command, the cannoneers move at the double time to positions on the ground convenient for mounting the truck. At the second command, all mount as prescribed by the battery commander. (2) Horse-drawn batteries. At the first command, the cannoneers who mount the limber chests and those who mount the caisson chests move at the double time to the rear and front of those chests, respectively. Each cannoneer who mounts the limber chest, except No. 2, places the foot nearest the wheel on the step, grasps the chest tº e º e g º e º 'º º ºs e e e - - © 4 º' º º * s & º ºs e º e º e s 6 • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * g e º a gº & & e º º . . . . . . . * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Fig. 1. M-1897. Fig. 2. M-2. Fig. 3. M-1916. Plate 6. Cannoneers Mounted, Horse-drawn. handle with the hand nearest the wheel, and with the other hand grasps the hand of the cannoneer opposite him. Each cannoneer who mounts the caisson chest places the foot farthest from the wheel on the caisson trail, and grasps the chest handle with the hand nearest the wheel and the hand of the cannoneer opposite him with the other hand. At the second command, all except No. 2 spring up and seat themselves, faced to the SERVICE, OF THE PIECE 497 front. No. 2 then mounts and seats himself between the gunner and No. 1. Higher- numbered cannoneers, if present, mount as prescribed by the chief of section. c. If the command is: 1. Cannoneers, 2. MOUNT, the cannoneers execute, at the com- mand Mount, all that has been prescribed for the commands Cannoneers, prepare to mount and Mount. 11. To Dismount the Cannoneers. a. The command is: 1. Cannoneers, prepare to dis- mount, 2. DISMOUNT. (1) Truck-drawn batteries. At the first command, the cannoneers assume positions º, ºn * Vºy Plate 7. 1. Cannoneers, Prepare to Dismount, 2. DISMOUNT (M-1897). 498 SERVICE OF THE PIECE from which they can dismount promptly; at the second command, they jump to the ground and take their posts at the double time. (2) Horse-drawn batteries. At the first command, the cannoneers seated on the chests stand up on the footboards; at the second command, all jump to the ground and take their posts at the double time. Plate 8. 1. Pieces Forward, 2, MARCH (Carriage Limbered) (M-1897). b. If the command is: 1. Cannoneers, 2. DISMOUNT, the cannoneers execute, at the command Dismount, all that has been prescribed for the commands Cannoneers, prepare to dismount and dismount. CHAPTER IV MOVEMENTS OF THE CARRIAGES BY HAND 12. Coupled or Limbered. a. Truck-drawn batteries. The carriages are not moved by hand when coupled. b. Horse-drawn batteries (all models). (1) To the front. The command is: 1. Pieces (caissons) forward, 2. MARCH, 3. HALT. In each squad at the first command the gunner and No. 1 hasten to the end of the pole; Nos. 2 and 5 to the limber wheels; Nos. 3 and 4 to the piece (caisson) wheels; higher-numbered cannoneers, if present, to posts as directed by the chief of section; the gunner and the even numbers working on the right side of the carriage, odd numbers on the left. When the piece is to be moved, No. 3 releases the brake. When the caisson is to be moved, No. 4 releases the brake; when the brake is released, Nos. 3 and 4 raise and secure the caisson prop. At the command March, all assist in moving the carriage to the front. At the command Halt, the carriage is stopped. In the case of the piece, No. 3 sets the brake. In the case of the caisson, Nos. 3 and 4 lower the caisson prop and No. 4 sets the brake. All can- noneers resume their posts. (2) To the rear. The command is: 1. Pieces (caissons) backward, 2. MARCH, 3. SERVICE OF THE PIECE 499 HALT. Executed as prescribed above, except that at the command March the cannon- eers move the carriage to the rear. 13. Uncoupled or Unlimbered. (All models). The command is: 1. Pieces (caissons) forward (backward), 2. MARCH, 3. HALT. a. Piece. (1) First command. (a) Truck-drawn batteries. 1. (M-1897,44). At the first command, No. 2 places the trail handspike, for those carriages thus equipped, in the firing position if it is not already there; Nos. 2 and 3 grasp the trail handles, No. 3 on the right, No. 2 on the left; No. 5 grasps the trail handspike for those carriages thus equipped; the gunner places himself where he can operate the brakes; No. 1 places himself on the right of the breech, No. 4 at the muzzle; higher-numbered cannoneers, if present, are employed as directed by the chief of section. Plate 9. 1. Pieces Backward, 2. MARCH (Carriages Unlimbered (M-1897) ). 2. (M-2). At the first command, Nos. 3 and 4 grasp the trail handles, No. 3 on the right and No. 4 on the left; No. 2 grasps the left wheel and No. 5 the right wheel; the gunner and No. 1 place themselves adjacent to their posts, in rear of the axle in moving forward and in front of the axle in moving backward; higher-numbered cannoneers, if present, are employed as directed by the chief of section. 3. (M-1916A1). At the first command, Nos. 3 and 4 close the trail flasks, if opened, and latch them together. Nos. 2 and 5 assist in removing the trail spades. Nos. 3 and 4 then grasp the trail handles, No. 3 on the right and No. 4 on the left; No. 2 grasps the left wheel and No. 5 the right wheel; the gunner and No. 1 place themselves so as to work advantageously at the breech of the piece in moving forward, at the 500 SERVICE OF THE PIECE muzzle in moving backward; higher-numbered cannoneers, if present, are employed as directed by the chief of section. 4. (M-1917A1). At the first command, No. 2 places the trail handspike in the traveling position if it is not already there; Nos. 2 and 5 grasp the trail handles, No. 2 on the left, No. 5 on the right; Nos. 1 and 4 place themselves at the breech in moving forward and in front of the shield in moving backward, No. 1 on the right; No. 3 goes to the muzzle; the gunner places himself where he can operate the brakes; higher-num- bered cannoneers, if present, are employed as directed by the chief of section. | º == (4) Plate 10. 1. Pieces Forward, 2. MARCH (Pieces Uncoupled). (b) Horse-drawn batteries. 1. (M-1897). At the first command, Nos. 3 and 4 grasp the trail handles, No. 3 on the right, No. 4 on the left; No. 2 grasps the left wheel and No. 5 the right wheel; the gunner and No. 1 place themselves so as to work advan- tageously at the breech of the piece in moving forward, at the muzzle in moving back- ward; higher-numbered cannoneers, if present, are employed as directed by the chief of SeCt1OI). 2. (M-2). At the first command, Nos. 3 and 4 grasp the trail handles, No. 3 on the right and No. 4 on the left; No. 2 grasps the left wheel and No. 5 the right wheel; the gunner and No. 1 place themselves adjacent to their posts, in rear of the axle in moving forward and in front of the axle in moving backward; higher-numbered cannoneers, if present, are employed as directed by the chief of section. 3. (M-1916). At the first command, Nos. 3 and 4 close the trail flasks, if opened, and latch them together. Nos. 2 and 5 assist in removing the trail spades. Nos. 3 and 4 then grasp the trail handles, No. 3 on the right and No. 4 on the left; No. 2 grasps the left wheel and No. 5 the right wheel; the gunner and No. 1 place themselves so as to work advantageously at the breech of the piece in moving forward, at the muzzle in moving backward; higher-numbered cannoneers, if present, are employed as directed by the chief of section. (2) Second command. (a) Truck-drawn batteries (M-1897A4, M-2, M-1916A1, 1917A1). At the command March, all working together move the piece forward (back- ward) under the direction of the chief of section. When moving up or down steep slopes, the gunner assists by alternately setting and releasing the right and left brakes, thus permitting the piece to be pivoted about the locked wheel. At the command Halt, they stop the piece, the gunner sets the brake, and all resume their posts (pars. 17 and 22). . (b) Horse-drawn batteries (M-1897, M-2, M-1916). At the command March, all working together move the piece forward (backward) under the direction of the chief of section. At the command Halt, they stop the piece, the gunner sets the brake, and all resume their posts (par. 22). b. Caisson. (M-1897, M-1897.44, M-2, M-1916A1). Executed as explained for the piece, except that No. 4 releases the caisson brake and No. 3, when the trail is raised, raises and secures the caisson prop. The gunner and No. 1 are at the footboard when moving forward and at the front of the caisson chest when moving backward, the gunner on the left. At the command Halt, No. 3 lowers the caisson prop and No. 4 sets the caisson brake. All take their posts (par. 22). CHAPTER V UNCOUPLING AND COUPLING tº; 14. Uncoupling. a. General. (All models.) At drills, trucks are posted as directed by the battery commander. In active service and in instruction simulating it, the trucks are conducted by the first sergeant to a place previously designated by the battery commander, where they are disposed so as to take the best advantage of cover and concealment. If no cover and concealment are available, they are located in rear of either flank, faced to the front with wide intervals between them. O O (3) AEA Oño 5 #|#n pſ Li- *— Q ES 13 [80 @ | G) Plate 11. ACTION FRONT (M-1897A4). b. To fire to the front. (Plate 11). The command is: ACTION FRONT. If march- ing, the trucks halt at the command or signal. The cannoneers, if mounted, dismount after the trucks have halted. (1) The piece. (a) (M-1897A4). The gunner and No. 1 hasten to the wheels nearest their respective posts. Nos. 2 and 5 hasten to the trail handles, No. 2 on the right; No. 3 hastens to the muzzle. No. 2 unlatches the pintle and, assisted by No. 5, raises the trail from the pintle; Nos. 2 and 5, assisted by No. 1 at the wheel and No. 3 at the muzzle, swing the piece 180° clockwise. Prior to the turn, the gunner sets the brake on the pivot wheel (the wheel adjacent to the gunner's post) and when the turn is com- pleted, sets the other brake. Assisted by No. 3 at the muzzle, Nos. 2 and 5 raise the trail and place the lunette in the firing position, then lower the trail to the ground. No. 4 starts unloading ammunition, tools, and accessories from the truck, and places them to the left of the piece as directed by the chief of section. When the trail has been lowered to the ground, the gunner and Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 5 assist No. 4 in completing the unloading. When the unloading has been completed, the chief of section commands or signals Drive on. The gunner and all cannoneers take their posts (par. 20). (b) (M-2). The gunner and No. 1 hasten to the wheels nearest their respective posts. Nos. 2 and 5 hasten to the trail handles, No. 2 on the right. No. 2 unlatches the pintle and assisted by No. 5 raises the trail from the pintle; Nos. 2 and 5, assisted by No. 1 at the wheel, swing the piece 180° clockwise. No. 5 releases the drawbar lock and turns 501 502 SERVICE OF THE PIECE the drawbar 180°, latching it in the firing position; Nos. 2 and 5 then lower the trail tº the ground. Prior to the turn, the gunner sets the brake on the pivot wheel (the wheel adjacent to the gunner's post) and when the turn is completed sets the other brake. Nos. 3 and 4 unload the ammunition, tools, and accessories from the truck and place them to the left of the piece as directed by the chief of section. When the trail has been lowered to the ground, the gunner and Nos. 1, 2, and 5 assist Nos. 3 and 4 in completing the unloading. When the unloading has been completed, the chief of section commands or signals Drive on. The gunner and all cannoneers take their posts. (c) (M-1916A1). The gunner and No. 1 hasten to the wheels nearest their respective posts. Nos. 2 and 5 hasten to the trail handles, No. 2 on the right. No. 2 unlatches the pintle and assisted by No. 5 raises the trail from the pintle; Nos. 2 and 5, assisted by No. 1 at the wheel, swing the piece 180° clockwise and lower the trail to the ground. Prior to the turn, the gunner sets the brake on the pivot wheel (the wheel adjacent to the gunner's post), and when the turn is completed No. 1 sets the other brake. Nos. 3 and 4 unload the ammunition, tools, and accessories from the truck and place them to the left of the piece as directed by the chief of section. When the trail has been lowered to the ground, the gunner and Nos. 1, 2, and 5 assist Nos. 3 and 4 in completing the unloading. When the unloading has been completed, the chief of section commands or signals Drive on. The gunner and all cannoneers take their posts. O O (3) º-s, EP ſºn, ºl, _*@ | Plate 12. ACTION RIGHT (LEFT) (M-1897A4). (d) (M-1917A1). The gunner and No. 1 hasten to the wheels nearest their respective posts. Nos. 2 and 5 hasten to the trail handles, No. 2 on the right; No. 3 hastens to the muzzle. No. 2 unlatches the pintle and assisted by No. 5 raises the trail from the pintle; Nos. 2 and 5, assisted by No. 1 at the wheel and No. 3 at the muzzle, swing the piece 180° clockwise. Prior to the turn, the gunner sets the brake on the pivot wheel (the wheel adjacent to the gunner's post) and when the turn is completed sets the other brake. Nos. 2 and 5 swing the lunette and secure it in the firing position, then lower the trail to the ground. No. 4 starts unloading ammunition, tools, and accessories from the truck and places them to the left of the piece as directed by the chief of section. When the trail has been lowered to the ground, the gunner and Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 5 assist No. 4 in completing the unloading. When the unloading has been completed, the chief of section commands or signals Drive on. The gunner and all cannoneers take their posts, SERVICE OF THE PIECE 503 (2) The trucks. At the command Drive on, the trucks move out and are conducted by the first sergeant to their previously designated position. - c. To fire to the rear. The command is: ACTION REAR. The movement is executed according to the principles of Action front except that the piece is not turned after un- coupling. d. To fire to the flank. (Plate 12.) The command is: ACTION RIGHT (LEFT). The movement is executed according to the principles of Action front, with the following modifications: After uncoupling, the trail is turned 90° away from the direction of fire, and the piece is run forward sufficiently to clear the track made by the truck; articles unloaded from the truck are placed on the ground so as to clear the track made by the truck. 15. Coupling. (All truck-drawn models.) a. The pieces being in position and in march order, the command is: COUPLE. The 'trucks, under the command of the first sergeant, approach the position from the right (left) flank. As each truck approaches its piece, it turns to the left (right) and halts in prolongation of the trail of the piece. b. (1) (All models). All cannoneers working together under the direction of the chief of section load the tools, accessories, and unexpended ammunition. Then Nos. 2 and 5 hasten to the trail handles. (2) (a) (M-1897.44, M-2, M-1917A1). The gunner releases the brakes. (b) (M-1916A1). The gunner and No. 1 release the brakes. (3) (All models). The truck, upon signal from the chief of section, is maneuvered backward until the pintle is almost over the lunette. (4) (a) (M-189744, M-1917A1). Nos. 2 and 5, assisted by No. 3 at the muzzle, raise the trail and place the lunette in the traveling position and over the pintle. (b) (M-2, M-1916.41). Nos. 2 and 5 raise the trail and place the lunette in the traveling position and over the pintle. (c) (M-191741). Nos. 2 and 5, assisted by No. 3 at the muzzle, raise the trail, swing the lunette to the traveling position, and place it over the pintle. (5) (All models). No. 2 latches the pintle. All cannoneers take their posts. CHAPTER VI PREPARATION FOR ACTION AND MARCH ORDER (TRUCK-DRAWN UNITS) 16. To Prepare for Action. a. (1) (a) (M-1897.44, M-1916A1). The pieces being in position, uncoupled, the command is: PREPARE FOR ACTION. (b) (M-2, M-191741). The carriages being in position, uncoupled, the com. mand is: PREPARE FOR ACTION. (2) (M-189744 only). The gunner and Nos. 1, 2, and 5, working together under the supervision of the chief of section, remove the gun cover. No. 5 folds it neatly and places it on the ground 1 yard to the right of the right piece wheel. b. Duties of individuals. The duties of individuals are as follows: (1) Chief of section. (a) (All models). 1. Supervises the work of the cannoneers. 2. Inspects the matériel. (b) (M-189744, and M-2). Verifies the fact that the recoil mechanism contains the proper amount of oil (TR 1305-75A (now TR 320.95). (c) (M-1916.41). Makes certain that the recoil cylinder contains the proper . of oil, that the cylinders are properly closed, and that the filling and drain plugs are tight. (d) (M-191741). Pays special attention to the recoil mechanism. (e) (All models). When the operations have been completed, reports to the executive, “Sir, No. (so and so) in order,” or reports any defects which the section can. not remedy without delay. (2) Gunner. (a) (M-189744). 1. Removes the sight-support cover. 504 SERVICE OF THE PIECE 2. Receives the sight from No. 1, seats it, and sees that the deflection setting is plateau 0, drum 100. (Plateau O, Drum 100 is known as the “deflection constant”). With this deflection the axis of the bore and the plane of site are parallel. The only field piece on which this constant has to be taken into consideration is the French 75-mm gun. 3. Releases the elevating latch; operates the elevating and the traversing mechanisms, leaving the piece in the center of its traverse on the axle. 4. Sets the site at zero and levels the bubble. 5. Opens the sight-extension-bar case. 6. Takes his post. - (b) (M-2). 1. Removes the left brake cover and places it on top of the caisson (horse-drawn units), or places it on the ground outside the left wheel (truck-drawn units), and sets the brakes. 2. Removes the left trail pin and, assisted by No. 2, sets the pin in the 90° position (or in the 45° position when specifically so ordered by the executive). 3. Assists Nos. 1, 2, and 5 in removing the gun cover. 4. Removes the sight bracket cover and places it on the caisson (horse-drawn units), or on the ground outside the left wheel (truck-drawn units). 5. Releases the sight-bracket traveling lock and raises the sight and bracket to the firing position. 6. Removes the sight from its case and seats it in the sight bracket. 7. Engages the sight-bracket gears by means of the throwout lever; uncovers the sight-bracket leveling bubbles; sets the tilting head at zero, the deflection at zero, and levels the bubbles. 8. Assists No. 2 in releasing the traveling lock by releasing the pressure on the pin by means of the traversing handwheel, and leaves the gun in the center of the traversing arc. 9. Takes his post. (c) (M-1916A1). 1. Working with Nos. 1, 2, and 5, removes the piece covers. 2. Assists No. 1 in unlocking the traveling lock. Seats the lock bar and stands clear of the trail flasks. 3. Steps inside the trail flasks and unstraps the left trail spade, passing it to No. 2. 4. Working with No. 1, raises and secures the top shield. 5. Sets the hand brake on his side. 6. Removes the panoramic sight from its case and seats it on the sight bracket. 7. Sees that the sight scales are set at zero and that the elevation micrometer is set at 300. Levels the cross-level bubble. 8. Equips himself with a lanyard. 9. Takes his post. (d) (M-1917A1). 1. Assists No. 1 in removing the breech cover. 2. Removes the panoramic sight from the sight case and secures it on the sight bracket. 3. Traverses the piece to the center of traverse, sets the deflection at zero and the site at 300, and centers the bubble. 4. Assists No. 1 in raising and securing the top shield. 5. Receives the lanyard from No. 4 and lays it on the axle. 6. Sets the brakes. 7. Takes his post. (3) No. 1. (a) (M-1897A4). 1. Removes the sight from its case and passes it to the gunner. 2. Operates the range-crank handle; sets the range at 3000. 3. Operates the breech mechanism; sets the safety piece in the firing position. 4. Examines the breechblock, chamber, and bore, cleaning any parts requir- ing it; leaves the breech open. 5. Removes the sponge-and-rammer staff from the traveling position, assembles it, and places it on the gun cover. SERVICE OF THE PIECE 505 6. Takes his post, (b) (M-2). 1. Removes the right brake cover and places it outside the right wheel. 2. Removes the right trail-pin and assisted by No. 5, sets the pin in the 90° position (or in the 45° position when specifically so ordered by the executive). 3. Assists the gunner and Nos. 2 and 5 in removing the gun cover. 4. Assists No. 2 in unlocking the firing jack from the cradle by elevating the gun slightly. 5. Removes the range-quadrant cover and places it outside the right wheel. 6. Sets site 300 and levels the bubble. 7. Sets range 3000 and matches the elevation pointers by means of the elevat- ing handwheel. 8. Removes the breech cover and places it outside the right wheel. 9. Operates the breech mechanism; sets the safety piece in the firing position. 10. Examines the breechblock, chamber, and bore, cleaning any parts requiring it; leaves the breech open. 11. Removes the sponge-and-rammer staff from the traveling position, assembles it, and places it to the right of the piece. 12. Takes his post. (c) (M-1916A1). 1. Working with the gunner and Nos. 2 and 5, removes the piece covers. 2. Assisted by the gunner, unlocks the traveling lock. Stands clear of the trail flasks. . Steps inside the trail flasks and unstraps the right trail spade, passing it to No. 5. . Working with the gunner, raises and secures the top shield. . Sets the hand brake on his side. . Sets site 300, range 3000 and levels the bubble. . Opens the breech and examines the bore. . Takes his post. (d) (M-191741). 1. Assisted by the gunner, removes the breech cover and places it on the top shield on the right. 2. Unlocks the traveling locks and lowers the piece apron. 3. Operates the breech mechanism, examines the breechblock and bore; sets the safety lock at fire; leaves the breech open. 4. Assisted by the gunner, raises and secures the top shield. 5. Sets the range at 3000. 6. Takes his post. (4) No. 2. (a) (M-1897,44). 1. Lowers the left piece apron. 2. Removes the breech cover and places it on the gun cover. 3. Places the trail handspike, for those carriages thus equipped, in the firing position. 4. Distributes waste to the cannoneers. 5. Takes his post. (b) (M-2), 1. Releases the trail lock and swings the left trail into the 90° position (or into the 45° position when specifically so ordered by the executive), while the gunner sets the trail pin. 2. Removes the left trail handspike, carries it around the left side of the gun, and places it conveniently beside the firing jack. 3. Unbuckles the left side gun cover straps and assisted by the gunner and Nos. 1 and 5, removes the gun cover. 4. Assisted by No. 1 who elevates the piece, and by the gunner who traverses the piece slightly, releases the traveling lock and unlocks the firing jack from the cradle. 5. Depresses the firing-jack pedal and swings the jack forward and downward, locking it in the firing position. 6. Using the two trail handspikes, elevates the firing jack. :3 506 SERVICE OF THE PIECE 7. Sets the traversing control plunger for 90° traverse (or for 45° traverse when specifically so ordered by the executive). 8. Removes the handspikes from the jack, leaves the right handspike on the right side of the jack where it is convenient for lowering the jack, and returns the left handspike to its firing position in the trail. 9. Takes his post. (c) (M-1916A1). 1. Hastens to the left trail flasks, and, when the trail has been unlatched by No. 5, carries it to the left until the bracket stop touches the axle. 2. Working with the gunner and Nos. 1 and 5, removes the piece covers. 3. Receives the left trail spade from the gunner and places it on the ground beside the left float. 4. Removes the section of the rammer staff from the left trail flask and assists No. 5 in assembling the rammer staff. 5. Assisted by No. 5, lowers the piece apron. 6. Seats the left trail spade, removes the hammer from the left trail flask, and assisted by No. 5 drives in the spades. The left spade is driven in first, No. 2 driving from the rear, his blows alternating with those of No. 5. 7. Takes his post. (d) (M-1917A1). 1. Places the trail handspike in the firing position. 2. Runs around the right of the piece, removes the muzzle and open-sight covers, takes the breech cover from the top shield, and places all covers to the left of the piece. 3. Removes the sponge-and-rammer staff from the traveling position, assembles it, and places it with the sponge on the breech and muzzle covers. 4. Distributes waste to the cannoneers. 5. Takes his post. (5) No. 3. (a) (All models). Places the fuze setter in position. (b) (M-1897,44 only). Gives waste to No. 2 for distribution to the cannoneers. (c) (All models). Sets the fuze-setter scales at corrector 30, range 3000. (d) (All models). Puts a round of shrapnel in the fuze setter. (e) (All models). Assisted by No. 4, arranges the ammunition and tools in an orderly and convenient manner to the left of the piece. (f) (All models). Takes his post. (6) No. 4. (a) (M-1897A4, M-2). 1. Assists No. 3 to arrange the ammunition and tools. 2. Takes his post. (b) (M-1916A1). 1. The same as in (a) above with the following addition: 3. Distributes waste to the cannoneers. (c) (M-1917A1). 1. Gives waste to No. 2 for distribution to the cannoneers. 2. Passes the lanyard to the gunner and the quadrant to the chief of section. 3. Puts a round of shrapnel in the fuze setter. 4. Assists No. 3 in arranging ammunition and tools. 5. Takes his post. (7) No. 5. (a) (M-1897,44). 1. Lowers the right piece apron. 2. Removes the muzzle cover and places it on the gun cover. 3. Removes the aiming stakes and places them beside the sponge-and-rammer staff, or sets out the aiming stakes when so directed by the chief of section. 4. Takes his post. (b) (M-2). 1. Swings the right trail into the 90° position (or the 45° position when specifically so ordered by the executive), while No. 1 sets the trail pin. 2. Removes the right trail handspike, carries it around the right side of the gun, and places it conveniently on the ground to the side of the firing jack. 3. Unbuckles the right side gun cover straps, and assisted by the gunner and Nos. 1 and 2 removes the gun cover, folds it neatly, and places it on the ground 1 yard to the right of the right piece wheel. SERVICE OF THE PIECE 507 4. Removes the muzzle cover, and places the muzzle cover, right brake cover, range-quadrant cover, breech cover, and rammer neatly on top of the gun cover. In truck-drawn units, also places the sight-bracket cover and left brake cover on the gun COWer. 5. Removes the aiming stakes and places them beside the sponge-and-rammer staff, or sets out the aiming stakes when so directed by the chief of section. 6. Distributes waste to the cannoneers. 7. Takes his post. (c) (M-1916A1). 1. Hastens to the right of the trail, unlatches the trail latch, and carries the right trail flash to the right until the bracket stop touches the axle. 2. Runs around the right of the piece and working with the gunner and Nos. 1 and 2, removes the piece covers, and places all the covers beside the right wheel. 3. Receives the right trail spade from No. 1 and places it on the ground beside the right float. 4. Removes the section of the rammer staff from the right trail flask, and assisted by No. 2 assembles the rammer staff and places it in a convenient position on the right of the piece. 5. Assists No. 2 in lowering the piece apron. 6. Seats the right trail spade, removes the hammer from the right trail flask, and assists No. 2 in driving in the spades. The left spade is driven in first, No. 2 driving from the front, his blows alternating with those of No. 2. 7. Removes the aiming stakes and places them beside the sponge-and-rammer staff, or sets out the aiming stakes when so directed by the chief of section. 8. Takes his post. (d) (M-191741). 1. Assembles the aiming stakes and places them beside the sponge-and-rammer staff, or sets out the aiming stakes when so directed by the chief of section. 2. Takes his post. c. (All models). The coupled pieces may be partially prepared for action before reaching the firing position. The duties of the cannoneers are the same as when the pieces are uncoupled, but only such operations as are practicable are carried out before the pieces are uncoupled. Immediately after establishing the piece in position, prepara- tion for action is completed without command, and the cannoneers take their posts for firing the piece. d. (All models). If prepare for action has been ordered before the piece is estab- lished in the firing position, the command habitually is given by the chief of section as soon as the piece has been uncoupled. In case this is not desired, the caution, “Do not prepare for action,” must be given. 17. Posts of the Cannoneers, Pieces Uncoupled. a. The posts of the cannoneers, pieces uncoupled, are as shown below: (1) Chief of section. (a) (M-1897.44, M-1916A1, M-1917A1). The chief of section goes where he can control the service of the piece, hear commands, and perform his duties effectively. A convenient post is 2 yards from the end of the trail on the side opposite the executive. (b) (M-2). The chief of section goes where he can control the service of the piece, hear commands, and perform his duties effectively. A convenient post is at the end of the trail on the side opposite the executive. (2) Gunner. (a) (M-1897.44, M-1917A1). Immediately in rear of the cannoneer's seat, on the left of the trail of the piece. (b) (M-2). Immediately to the left of the breech, behind the axle (inside or outside the trail, depending upon the traverse of the piece). (c) (M-1916A1). On the left of the breech, abreast of it, and inside the trail flasks, if opened. (3) No. 1. (a) (M-1897.44, M-1917A1). Immediately in rear of the cannoneer's seat, on the right of the trail of the piece. 508 SERVICE OF THE PIECE (b) (M-2). Immediately to the right of the breech, behind the axle (inside or outside the trail, depending upon the traverse of the piece). (c) (M-1916A1). On the right of the breech, in a position corresponding to the gunner's position. (4) No. 2. (All truck-drawn models). Two feet in rear of the gunner, covering him. (5) No. 3. (a) (M-1897.44, M-1917A1). Two feet to the left of and on line with No. 2. (b) (M-2). Two feet to the left of and opposite the rear of the left piece wheel. (c) (M-1916A1). Two feet to the left of the gunner. (6) No. 4. (All truck-drawn models). Two feet in rear of No. 3 covering him. (7) No. 5. (a) (M-1897.44, M-1917A1). Two feet in rear of No. 2 covering him. (b) (M-2, M-1916A1). Two feet to the left of No. 4. b. (M-2, M-1917A1). At drill all stand at attention at their posts, facing the front. In firing and in combat, minor modifications of these posts are required for the more efficient performance of the duties in the service of the piece and to secure the protection afforded by the materiel. Higher-numbered cannoneers, if present, take posts as pre- scribed by the chief of section. - i lºsſº, (3) (2) (4) (5) 1. Fig. M-1897A4. (3) TG) G) @// (2) Fig. 3. M-1916A1. Fig. 4. M-1917A1. Plate 13. Posts of Cannoneers (Pieces Uncoupled). L - c. (M-2, M-191741). In order to exercise the cannoneers in all the duties con: nected with the service of the piece and to lend variety to the drill, the posts of individual cannoneers should be changed frequently. 18. March Order, a Duties of individuals. (All truck-drawn models). The pieces bein uncoupled and prepared for action, to resume the order for marching, the command is: MARCH ORDER. Duties of individuals are as follows: SERVICE OF THE PIECE 509 (1) Chief of section. (a) (All truck-drawn models). Supervises the work of the Ca1] In OI!CôIS. (b) 1. (M-1897.44, M-1916A1, M-1917A1). Inspects the materiel; makes sure that the piece is not left loaded; and, when the operations have been completed, reports to the executive, “Sir, No. (so and so) in order,” or reports any defects which the section cannot remedy without delay. 2. (M-2). Inspects the materiel; makes sure that the piece is not left loaded and that the traveling locks are set for traveling; and, when the operations have been com- pleted, reports to the executive, “Sir, No. (so and so) in order,” or reports any defects which the section cannot remedy without delay. (2) Gunner. (a) (M-1897,44). 1. Sets the deflection of plateau 0, drum 100. 2. Removes the sight, taking care to lift the sight column directly upward with both hands so as not to bend it, and passes it to No. 1. 3. Traverses the piece to the center of the axle and elevates it until it rests on the traveling lug. 4. Locks the elevating handwheel. 5. Closes the vial cover of the site level, first removing the dust and grit. 6. Puts on the sight-support cover. 7. Secures the sight extension bar. 8. Takes his post. (b) (M-2). 1. Sets the tilting head and deflection at zero and closes the covers on the sight-bracket leveling bubbles. 2. Removes the sight from its bracket, returns it to its case, and locks the case. 3. Disengages the sight-bracket gears and turns the sight bracket to the traveling position. 4. Engages the sight-bracket lock in the traveling position. 5. Traverses the piece to the center of the traversing arc, assisting No. 2 in locking the firing jacket in the traveling position. 6. Traverses slightly right and left, while No. 2 secures the traveling lock. 7. Withdraws the left trail pin and puts it in its traveling position while No. 2 closes the trail. 8. Replaces the sight-bracket and left-brake covers, which have been handed him by No. 2 (horse-drawn units) or No. 5 (truck-drawn units), on the sight bracket and left brake (after first releasing the brakes). 9. Assists Nos. 1, 2, and 5 in replacing the gun cover on the gun. 10. Takes his post. (c) (M-1916A1). 1. Traverses the piece to the center of its traverse; sets the sight scales at zero and the elevation micrometer at 300. 2. Removes the panoramic sight, returns it to its case, and locks the case. 3. Working with No. 1, lowers the top shield. Secures the left trail spade in the traveling position. 4. Releases the hand brake on the side. 5. Replaces the lanyard. 6. Steps clear of the trail flasks and assists No. 1 in locking the traveling lock as Nos. 2 and 5 close the trail flasks. 7. Working with Nos. 1, 2, and 5, replaces the piece covers. 8. Takes his post. (d) (M-191741). 1. Places the piece in the center of its traverse and lowers the breech to the traveling position. 2. Sets the sight scales at zero. 3. Removes the panoramic sight, returns it to the sight case, and locks the case. 4. Lowers the shank and secures it. 5. Removes the lanyard and passes it to No. 4. 6. Assists No. 1 in raising and securing the piece apron, in replacing the breech cover, and in lowering and 'securing the top shield. 7. Releases the brakes. 510 SERVICE OF THE PIECE 8. Takes his post. (3) No. 1. (a) (M-1897A4). 1. Assists the gunner in elevating the piece on to its traveling lug, keeping the range setting between 3500 and 5500, but habitually at a different setting. 2. Receives the sight from the gunner and replaces it in the case, collimator toward the inside. 3. Closes the breech and sets the safety piece in the traveling position. 4. Unscrews the sponge-and-rammer staff and places it in the traveling position. 5. Takes his post. (b) (M-2). 1. Sets the angle of site at 300, and levels the angle-of-site bubble. 2. Closes the cover of the angle-of-site bubble. 3. Closes the breech and sets the safety piece in the traveling position. 4. Unscrews the sponge-and-rammer staff, and places it in the traveling position. 5. Assists No. 2 in locking the firing jack in its traveling position by depressing the piece. 6. Withdraws the right trail pin and puts it in its traveling position while No. 5 closes the trail. 7. Replaces the range-quadrant, breech, and right brake covers, which have been handed to him by No. 5. 8. Assists the gunner and Nos. 2 and 5 in replacing the gun cover. 9. Takes his post. (c) (M-1916A1). 1. Sets the site at 300 and the range scale opposite march. 2. Closes the breech. 3. Working with the gunner, lowers the top shield. Secures the right trail spade in the traveling position. 4. Releases the hand brake on his side. 5. Steps clear of the trail flasks. Assisted by the gunner, locks the traveling lock as Nos. 2 and 5 close the trail flasks. 6. Working with the gunner and Nos. 2 and 5, replaces the piece covers. 7. Takes his post. (d) (M-1917A1). 1. Closes the breech and sets the safety lock at safe. 2. Sets the range scale at zero. 3. Locks the piece in the traveling position. 4. Assisted by the gunner, raises and secures the piece apron, replaces the breech cover, and lowers and secures the top shield. 5. Takes his post. (4) No. 2. (a) (M-1897.44). 1. Secures the trail handspike in the traveling position. 2. Replaces the breech cover and secures it. 3. Raises and secures the left piece apron. 4. Takes his post. (b) (M-2). 1. Takes the right trail handspike from its position at the side of the jack and inserts it into the jack. 2. Releases the firing jack, permitting the piece to drop on its wheels, and hands the right trail handspike to No. 5. 3. Swings the jack forward and upward, and, assisted by the gunner and No. 1 on the traversing and elevating handwheels, locks the jack in the traveling position. 4. Assisted by the gunner on the traversing handwheel, secures the traveling lock in its traveling position. 5. Removes the left trail handspike and secures it in its traveling position. 6. Raises the left trail and moves it to its closed position while the gunner removes the left trail pin. 7. Locks the trails in the traveling position. 8. Assists the gunner and Nos. 1 and 5 in replacing the gun cover on the gun. 9. Takes his post. SERVICE OF THE PIECE 511 (c) (M-1916A1). 1. Removes the left trail spade and places it on the ground near the rear of the left wheel. 2. Replaces the hammer in the traveling position on the left trail flask. 3. Runs around the left of the piece and assisted by No. 5 raises and secures the piece apron. 4. Assists No. 5 in disassembling and securing the rammer staff in the traveling position. 5. Working with No. 5 closes and latches the trail flasks. 6. Working with the gunner and Nos. 1 and 5, replaces the piece covers. 7. Takes his post. (d) (M-1917A1). 1. Secures the trail handspike in the traveling position. 2. Replaces the sponge-and-rammer staff in the traveling position. 3. Places the breech cover on the top shield and replaces the muzzle and open- sight covers. - 4. Takes his post. (5) No. 3. (a) (M-1897.44, M-2, M-1916A1). 1. Sees that any fuzes which have been set are back at safe. 2. Sets the fuze setter at corrector 30, range 3000. 3. Returns unused fuzes to the fuze box. 4. Replaces the fuze setter in the box. 5. Assisted by No. 4, prepares ammunition and tools for loading into the truck. He will assure himself that all fuzes have been set at safe. 6. Takes his post. (b) (M-1917A1). 1. Sees that any fuzes which have been set are set back at safe. 2. Returns unused fuzes to the fuze box. 3. Sets the fuze setter at corrector 30, range 3000. 4. Replaces the fuze setter in the box. 5. Assisted by No. 4, prepares ammunition and tools for loading into the truck. He will assure himself that all fuzes have been set at safe. 6. Takes his post. (6) No. 4. (a) (M-1897A4, M-2, 1916A1). 1. Assists No. 3 to prepare ammunition and tools for loading into the truck. 2. Takes his post. (b) (M-1917A1). 1. Gets the lanyard from the gunner and the quadrant from the chief of section. 2. Assists No. 3 in preparing ammunition and tools for loading into the truck. 3. Takes his post. (7) No. 5. (a) (M-1897A4). 1. Replaces the muzzle cover. 2. Raises and secures the right piece apron. 3. Secures the aiming stakes. 4. Takes his post. (b) (M-2). 1. Replaces the muzzle cover. 2. Takes the right trail handspike from No. 2, passes around the right side of the piece, handing the breech, range-quadrant, and right brake covers to No. 1 on his way, and secures the right trail handspike in its traveling position; in truck-drawn units, hands the sight-bracket cover and left brake cover to the gunner. 3. Secures the aiming stakes. 4. Raises the right trail and moves it to its closed position while No. 1 removes the right trail pin. 5. Secures the gun cover and assists the gunner and Nos. 1 and 2 in replacing it on the gun. 6. Takes his post. (c) (M-1916A1). 1. Removes the right trail spade and places it on the ground near the rear of the right wheel. 2. Replaces the hammer in the traveling position on the right trail flask. 512 SERVICE OF THE PIECE 3. Runs around the right of the piece and assists No. 2 in raising and securing the piece apron. 4. Assisted by No. 2, disassembles and secures the rammer staff in the traveling position. 5. Working with No. 2, closes the trail flasks. 6. Secures the aiming stakes. 7. Picks up the piece covers, and, working with the gunner and Nos. 1 and 2, places them. 8. Takes his post. (d) (M-1917A1). 1. Secures the aiming stakes. 2. Assists No. 3 in preparing ammunition and tools for loading into the truck. 3. Takes his post. (8) (M-1897,44 only). The gunner and Nos. 1, 2, and 5, working together under the supervision of the chief of section, replace the gun cover. b. To resume fire in another position. (1) If it is intended to resume firing shortly, but in another position, so that the coupling of the pieces is necessitated, the command March order is not given. In this case, at the command for coupling, only such of the operations incident to march order are performed as are necessary for the movement of the piece and for the care and security of the equipment. (2) If the command March order is given while the pieces are coupled, the opera- tions pertaining to march order are completed as described above. CHAPTER VII UNLIMBERING AND LIMBERING 19. Unlimbering. a. Disposition of the carriages. (1) Before unlimbering. (All horse-drawn models). The piece and its caisson are placed abreast of each other, 2 yards apart, poles pointing in the direction of movement. This formation of the carriages is called a double section. (Plate 14). The interval of 2 yards should not be materially changed, otherwise the amount of movement of the carriages by hand is greatly increased. If it is intended to fire to the front, the caisson should be placed on the left of the piece before the command for unlimbering is given; if it is intended to fire to the rear, the caisson should be on the right of the piece; if to the flank, on either side of the piece. In emergencies the carriages may be unlimbered from any formation. (2) After unlimbering. (a) 1. (M-1897, M-1916). The adjacent wheels of the piece and the caisson are about 1 foot apart, trails of the piece and the caisson pointing to the rear, the piece on the right about 1 foot in advance of the caisson. (Plate 15). 2. (M-2). The adjacent wheels of the piece and the caisson are about 1 yard apart, trails of the piece and the caisson pointing to the rear, the piece on the right and about 1 foot in advance of the caisson. (b) (M-1897 and M-2 only). Normally, the piece is placed slightly in advance to allow for recoil at the first shot, which ordinarily is about 1 foot. (c) (M-1897 and M-1916 only). The interval of 1 foot may be increased to permit wide movements of the trail if they are expected, but efforts should be made to preserve to the fullest extent possible the protection afforded by the shields. (d) (All horse-drawn models). In emergencies the caisson may be placed tem- porarily on the right of the piece. As this position is not favorable to the service of ammunition, the caisson should be moved to the left of the piece as soon as practicable. (e) (All horse-drawn models). At ceremonies and drills, limbers are posted 25 yards in rear of their carriages, moving to their post at a trot. In active service and in instruction simulating it, limbers are conducted by the first sergeant to a place previously designated by the battery commander, where they are disposed so as to take the best advantage of cover and concealment. If no cover and concealment are available, they are located in rear of either flank, faced toward the front, with wide intervals between them. b. To unlimber. (1) General. (All horse-drawn models). In unlimbering to fire SERVICE OF THE PIECE 513 Od (2) | T iſ; - 2) dºi|G) @ º Plate 14. Carriages in Double Section, Cannoneers Mounted, Preparatory to Unlimbering (M-1897) to Fire to the Rear. ſº I | (G) — @ 9 | (3) e? Plate 15. Carriages Unlimbered (M-1897). Note. There should be about one foot between carriages with the wheels of the gun about one foot in advance of the caisson, because recoil from the first shot generally seats the trail spade, but in so doing the piece usually is driven about one foot to the rear. FA1 (1) 514 SERVICE OF THE PIECE Tº S V, lº / = \º-ºº: Š) % j/ſ; º §§ § EAvrº jº Zºº, : $$. § g 7| TVANNº. Zºº º 'ſſ || Tº M N º Plate 17. ACTION FRONT; Carriages Turned Half-way Around (M-1897). SERVICE OF THE PIECE 515 • / / | | | | e | Limbers W N | \ | Caisson \ Piece | | } | / | | | A | | | | | Q * =sº \r, \--> * {- ¥ O le) | C CN | # | § \- | d's | | | –2yds — Limbers \ % A \s _^ 2^ Plate 18. ACTION FRONT; From Double Section, Showing Method of Posting Limbers 25 Yards to Rear of Their Carriages (M-1897). Note. When the movement is completed the carriages will be in position and the cannoneers at their posts as shown in Plate 12. 516 SERVICE OF THE PIECE to the front or rear the caisson establishes the position, in unlimbering to fire to the flank, the element (piece or caisson) on the side toward which fire is to be directed establishes the position. If the carriages, after unlimbering, have to be moved by hand, each carriage is moved, as prescribed in paragraph 13, in the order designated by the chief of section. If the teams are not hitched, the carriages are unlimbered successively, the one which establishes the position being unlimbered first. Limbers are moved to their position by cannoneers designated by the chief of section. (2) To fire to the front. (Plate 16). (All horse-drawn models). The carriages being in double section, the caisson on the left, the command is: ACTION FRONT. If marching, the carriages halt at the command or signal. The cannoneers, if mounted, dismount after the carriages have halted. (a) The caisson. Nos. 3 and 4 hasten to the trail handles; No. 4 unlatches the pintle; Nos. 3 and 4 raise the trail from the pintle, and No. 4 commands or signals Drive on. Nos. 3 and 4, assisted by the higher-numbered cannoneers at the wheels, then carry the trail away from the piece, turning the caisson 180°. No. 3, assisted by No. 4, lowers the caisson prop; No. 4 sets the caisson brake, and Nos. 3 and 4 take their posts. I | | | M } 2’ y Af | 2^ / /... " /* 259 ds 2^ ,” 2. ,” * ,” A& Z / º ! | * - sºme | W | tº \ | | \ / / \ / / *S ~ * _w * = * * * * * * Plate 19. ACTION REAR; From Double Section Showing Method of Posting Limbers 25 Yards to the Rear (M-1897). (b) The piece. 1. (All horse-drawn models). The gunner and No. 1 hastens to the trail handles; No. 2 grasps the right wheel and places himself so as to be ready to turn the wheel toward the muzzle; No. 5 grasps the left wheel and places himself SERVICE OF THE PIECE 517 - - - - - 6 - - - /* * / oses out first & | c | ? W 5 | g M O | 3 (U Vº E 3 | 5 | § | .* | C) | | | | | N 24 A Y---------4---- Plate 20. ACTION RIGHT (LEFT); From Double Section Limbers, Posted 25 Yards in Rear of Their Carriages (M-1897). 518 SERVICE OF THE PIECE so as to be ready to turn the wheel toward the trail. The gunner unlatches the pintle and, assisted by No. 1, raises the trail from the pintle. The gunner then commands or signals Drive on. The gunner and No. 1 carry the trail away from the caisson, and all the cannoneers working together turn the piece 180°. The gunner causes the piece to be placed beside the caisson (a (2) above). 2. (a) (M-1897, M-1916). The gunner and No. 1 lower the trail to the ground, and all the cannoneers at the piece take their posts (pars. 21c and 22). (b) (M-2). No. 1 releases the drawbar lock and turns the drawbar 180°, latching it in the firing position; the gunner and No. 1 then lower the trail to the ground. No. 2 sets the brakes and the cannoneers at the piece take their posts. (c) Limbers. (All horse-drawn models). At the command Drive on, the limbers take their prescribed positions. To take post in rear of the carriages, the caisson limber executes a left-about, moves straight to the rear, executes another left-about, and halts so that the heads of the lead horses (or the end of the pole if teams are not hitched) will be 25 yards from the rear of the caisson. The piece limber follows the caisson limber, passes around its rear, and halts so as to be abreast of it and 2 yards to its right. (3) To fire to the rear. (All horse-drawn models). (Plate 19). The carriages being in double section, caisson on the right, the command is: ACTION REAR. If marching, the carriages halt at the command or signal. The cannoneers, if mounted, dismount after the carriages have halted. (a) The caisson. Nos. 3 and 4 hasten to the trail handles; No. 4 unlatches the pintle; Nos. 3 and 4 raise the trail from the pintle, and No. 4 commands or signals Drive on. No. 3, assisted by No. 4, then lowers the caisson prop; No. 4 sets the brake, and Nos. 3 and 4 take their posts. (b) The piece. 1. (All horse-drawn models). The gunner and No. 1 hasten to the trail handles of the piece; No. 2 grasps the right wheel and No. 5 grasps the left wheel of the piece and both stand ready to assist in such movements of the carriage as may be necessary. The gunner unlatches the pintle and, assisted by No. 1, raises the trail from the pintle. The gunner then commands or signals Drive on. All working together place the piece beside the caisson (a (2) above). 2. (a) (M-1897, M-1916). The gunner and No. 1 lower the trail to the ground, and the cannoneers at the piece take their posts (pars. 21c and 22). (b) (M-2). No. 1 releases the drawbar lock and turns the drawbar 189°, latch- ing it in the firing position; the gunner and No. 1 then lower the trail to the ground. No. 2 sets the brakes and the cannoneers at the piece take their posts. 3. (All horse-drawn models). Higher-numbered cannoneers, when present, assist in the movement as directed by the chief of section. (c) Limbers. (All horse-drawn models). At the command or signal Drive on, the limbers take their prescribed positions. To take post in rear of the carriages, the caisson limber inclines well to the right, moves to the rear, executes a left-about, and halts so that the heads of the lead horses (or the end of the pole if teams are not hitched) will be 25 yards from the rear of the caisson. The piece limber follows the caisson limber, passes around its rear, and halts so as to be abreast of it and 2 yards to its right. (4) To fire to the flank. (All horse-drawn models). (a) The carriages being in double section, the caisson on either side of the piece, the command is: ACTION RIGHT (LEFT). The movement is executed according to the principles of Action front and Action rear, with the following modifications: After the carriages are un- limbered, the muzzle of the piece is turned in the direction of fire and the trail of the caisson in the opposite direction to the muzzle of the piece; the carriage in rear is run up to its proper position on the line. The carriage on the side toward which fire is to be delivered is first established in position, and then all the cannoneers assist in bringing the carriage in rear up to its proper position. (b) At the command or signal Drive on, the limbers take their prescribed SERVICE OF THE PIECE 519 positions. To take post in rear of the carriages, the limber away from the flank toward which fire is to be delivered moves out first, wheels away from the direction of fire, and after having gained sufficient distance to the rear executes an about, and halts so that the heads of the lead horses (or the end of the pole if teams are not hitched) will be 25 yards from the rear of its carriage. The other limber follows and takes post in a similar III.3.I]]]CT. 20. Limbering. a. To limber front and rear. (All horse-drawn models). (Plate 23). The carriages being in position and in march order (par. 23), the command is: LIMBER FRONT AND REAR. (1) (a) (All horse-drawn models). No. 4 releases the caisson brake and hastens to the caisson trail; Nos. 3 and 4 raise the trail, and when the trail is raised No. 3 raises and secures the caisson prop. Nos. 3 and 4 working at the trail, all other cannoneers assisting, turn the caisson 180°, carrying the trail away from the piece, the gunner and even numbers working on the right and odd numbers on the left. The movement being completed, Nos. 3 and 4 lower the caisson prop; No. 4 sets the caisson brake, and the cannoneers take posts for limbering as follows: (b) 1. (M-1897, M-1916). The gunner and No. 1 face to the rear at their posts. 2. (M-2). The gunner releases the brakes and the gunner and No. 1 then face to the rear at their posts. (c) (All horse-drawn models). No. 2 places himself on the right of the gunner and faces to the rear; No. 5 places himself on the left of No. 1 and faces to the rear. Nos. 3 and 4 place themselves with their backs toward the caisson chest close up against the footboard, No. 4 on the right and No. 3 on the left of the trail. Higher-numbered cannoneers take post as directed by the chief of section. (2) (a) (All horse-drawn models). The limbers are brought up. (Plate 22). As soon as the limber has halted in prolongation of the trail, the gunner and No. 1 spring to the trail handles and raise the trail. Nos. 2 and 5 hasten to the piece wheels and pre- pare to assist in any movement of the carriage that may be necessary. (b) 1. (M-1897, M-1916). The gunner and No. 1 place the lunette over the pintle; the gunner then latches the pintle. 2. (M-2). The gunner and No. 1 raise the trail and place the lunette in the traveling position and over the pintle; the gunner then latches the pintle. (c) (All horse-drawn models). The caisson is limbered simultaneously in the same manner; Nos. 3 and 4 handle the trail, No. 4 latching the pintle. Higher-numbered cannoneers assist by working at the wheels of the caisson in any movement of the car- riage. As soon as the carriages are limbered, cannoneers take their posts at the carriages limbered. b. To limber rear. (All horse-drawn models). (Plate 24). The carriages being in position and in march order (par. 23), the command is: LIMBER REAR. (1) No. 4 releases the caisson brake; Nos. 3 and 4 raise and secure the caisson prop. All cannoneers working together run the caisson 15 yards straight to the rear of the line of spades. Nos. 3 and 4 lower the caisson prop, No. 4 sets the caisson brake, and all the cannoneers take posts for limbering. © (2) The limbers are brought up and the limbering is completed as prescribed in a (2) above. 520 SERVICE OF THE PIECE - = ** = * * * * 7-3.c4 or 7 - - - - - - - - - - .* A far, Asea-s /f Aosf.ed / 40” f/3/7/2 Plate 21. LIMBER FRONT AND REAR (Limbers Posted in Rear, or on the Flank) (M-1897). Note. The limbers come up in section column, forming two separate columns when near the battery. SERVICE OF THE PIECE 521 : Plate 22. Posts for Limbering (M-1897). 5° 'S mºs 2.) #zſºs Hº Ø # º SS/ Plate 23. LIMBER FRONT AND REAR. Positions While Limbering (M-1897). 522 SERVICE OF THE PIECE sºme tºmº wº- gº tºmº gºmº, sºme º º tº- *Exº tºº * - º tº-sº F- Track of Z////er /josfed on P/3/7A, ;§,; 5 9 ds wºme ºmº ºmns amº sºme sºm º ºs ºne sºme *s ºr *= * Plate 24. LIMBER REAR (M-1897). CHAPTER VIII PREPARATION FOR ACTION AND MARCH ORDER (HORSE-DRAWN UNITS) 21. To Prepare for Action. a. (All horse-drawn models). The carriage being in position, unlimbered, the command is: PREPARE FOR ACTION. Duties of individuals are as follows: (1) Chief of section. (a) (All horse-drawn models). Supervises the work of the Call IIOIl CCIS. (b) 1. (M-1897, M-2). Inspects the matériel; verifies the fact that the recoil mechanism contains the proper amount of oil; (TR 1305-75A) (now TR 320-95) and, when the operations have been completed, reports to the executive, “Sir, No. (so and so) in order,” or reports any defects which the section cannot remedy without delay. 2. (M-1916). Inspects the materiél, makes certain that the recoil cylinder contains the proper amount of oil, that the cylinders are properly closed, and that the filling and drain plugs are tight. When the operations have been completed, he reports to the executive, “Sir, No. (so and so) in order,” or reports any defects which the section cannot remedy without delay. (2) Gunner. (a) (M-1897). 1. Removes the sight-support cover. 2. Receives the sight from No. 1, seats it, and sees that the deflection setting is plateau 0, drum 100. 3. Releases the elevating latch; operates the elevating and the traversing mechanisms, leaving the piece in the center of its traverse on the axle. 4. Sets site zero and levels the bubble. 5. Opens the sight-extension-bar case. 6. Takes his post. (b) (M-2). 1. Removes the left brake cover and places it on top of the caisson (horse-drawn units), or places it on the ground outside the left wheel (truck-drawn units), and sets the brakes. 2. Removes the left trail pin and, assisted by No. 2, sets the pin in the 90° position (or in the 45° position when specifically so ordered by the executive). 3. Assists Nos. 1, 2, and 5 in removing the gun cover. 4. Removes the sight bracket cover and places it on the caisson (horse-drawn units), or on the ground outside the left wheel (truck-drawn units). 5. Releases the sight-bracket traveling lock and raises the sight and bracket to the firing position. 6. Removes the sight from its case and seats it in the sight bracket. 7. Engages the sight-bracket gears by means of the throwout lever; uncovers the sight-bracket leveling bubbles; sets the tilting head at zero, the deflection at zero, and levels the bubbles. 8. Assists No. 2 in releasing the traveling lock by releasing the pressure on the pin by means of the traversing handwheel, and leaves the gun in the center of the traversing arc. 9. Takes his post. (c) (M-1916). 1. Assists No. 1 in unlocking the traveling lock. Seats the lock bar and stands clear of the trail flasks. 2. Steps inside the trail flasks and unstraps the left trail spade, passing it to No. 2. 3. Working with No. 1, raises and secures the top shield. 4. Working with Nos. 1, 2, and 5, removes the piece covers. Places the breech section of the piece cover on the caisson chest. 5. Removes the panoramic sight from its case and seats it on the sight bracket. 6. Sees that the sight scales are set at zero and that the elevation micrometer is set at 300. Levels the cross-level bubble. 7. Equips himself with a lanyard. 8. Takes his post. 523 524 SERVICE OF THE PIECE gunner. (3) No. 1. (a) (M-1897). 1. Removes the sight from its case and passes it to the 2. Operates the range-crank handle; sets the range at 3000. 3. Gives waste to No. 2 for distribution to the cannoneers. 4. Operates the breech mechanism; sets the safety piece in the firing position. –º--—º -—º-—it. SIGHT SEATED ITUZZLE COVER. 84 :::::A; BREE C H COVER ON E LEVATING CAISS ON PINTLE ILATCH RE - L. EASED AINTING STAKES SPONG E 84 RANTNTER PIECE CENT ºp # 3TAFF ASSENTBLED OF TRAVERS R PLACED 5PONGE UP SITE - ZERO EA UIE, ELE #| LEVELED (W # | | - --- {º * * T- 1ſt - ..) ') - Tº:- == SIGHT EXTENSIO – : EAAR CA$12, QTFEN ** o 3. * OIL INDEX VER - I FI E1D BY CHIEF OF SECTION AProRN Lowermºpl (9, PU2 º SETTER FOOT - OAFA) D * == 2.5t ( ~ RAISED & SET COPARECTOR-30 RAN G E - 3000 * * 49 & § º 3. in a 2 * 24t *(4. ROUND OF SHRAP- NEL, INSERTED 2 ft 2 ft (5) | | IGHT & LEFT IECE APRON | L OV-J EF EID * = HANGE AT - 3 O § º * B. R.E.E.C. H. O'PE & INSFECTED SAFETY PIECE IN FIRING PO- ºr ION - Plate 25. The Section (Horse-Drawn) Prepared for Action (M-1897). 5. Examines the breechlock, chamber, and bore, cleaning any parts requiring it; leaves the breech open. 6. Removes the sponge-and-rammer staff from the traveling position, assembles it, and leans it against the front of the caisson, sponge up. SERVICE OF THE PIECE 525 7. Takes his post. e (b) (M-2). 1. Removes the right brake cover and places it outside the right wheel. 2. Removes the right trail pin and, assisted by No. 5, sets the pin in the 90° position (or in the 45° position when specifically so ordered by the executive). 3. Assists the gunner and Nos. 2 and 5 in removing the gun cover. 4. Assists No. 2 in unlocking the firing jack from the cradle by elevating the gun slightly. 5. Removes the range-quadrant cover and places it outside the right wheel. 6. Sets site 300 and levels the bubble. 7. Sets range 3000 and matches the elevation pointers by means of the elevating handwheel. 8. Removes the breech cover and places it outside the right wheel. 9. Operates the breech mechanism; sets the safety piece in the firing position. 10. Examines the breechblock, chamber, and bore, cleaning any parts requiring it; leaves the breech open. 11. Removes the sponge-and-rammer staff from the traveling position, assembles it, and places it to the right of the piece. 12. Takes his post. (c) (M-1916). 1. Assisted by the gunner, unlocks the traveling lock. Stands clear of the trail flasks. 2. Steps inside the trail flasks and unstraps the right trail spade, passing it to No. 5. . Working with the gunner, raises and secures the top shield. . Working with the gunner and Nos. 2 and 5, removes the piece covers. . Sets the hand brake. . Sets site 300, range 3000, and levels the bubble. . Opens the breech and examines the bore. . Takes his post. (4) No. 2. (a) (M-1897). 1. Runs around the right of the piece and lowers the right piece apron. 2. Removes the breech cover and places it on top of the caisson. 3. Places the trail handspike in the firing position. 4. Distributes waste to the cannoneers. 5. Takes his post. (b) (M-2). 1. Releases the trail lock and swings the left trail into the 90° position (or into the 45° position when specifically so ordered by the executive), while the gunner sets the trail pin. : 2. Removes the left trail handspike, carries it around the left side of the gun, and places it conveniently beside the firing jack. 3. Unbuckles the left side gun cover straps and assisted by the gunner and Nos. 1 and 5, removes the gun cover. 4. Assisted by No. 1 who elevates the piece, and by the gunner who traverses the piece slightly, releases the traveling lock and unlocks the firing jack from the cradle. 5. Depresses the firing-jack pedal and swings the jack forward and down- ward, locking it in the firing position. 6. Using the two trail handspikes, elevates the firing jack. 7. Sets the traversing control plunger for 90° traverse (or for 45° traverse when specifically so ordered by the executive). 8. Removes the handspikes from the jack, leaves the right handspike on the right side of the jack where it is convenient for lowering the jack, and returns the left handspike to its firing position in the trail. 9. Takes his post. (c) (M-1916). 1. Hastens to the left trail flask and, when the trail has been unlatched by No. 5, carries it to the left until it almost touches the left wheel. 526 SERVICE OF THE PIECE 2. Receives the left trail spade from the gunner and places it on the ground beside the left float. 3. Removes the section of the rammer staff from the left trail flask and assisted by No. 5 assembles the rammer staff. 4. Runs around the left of the caisson and places the rammer staff against the front of the caisson, sponge up. Working with the gunner and Nos. 1 and 5, removes the piece covers. Places the muzzle section of the piece cover on the caisson chest. 5. Assisted by No. 5, lowers the piece apron. 6. Seats the left trail spade, removes the hammer from the left trail flask, and assisted by No. 5 drives in the spades. The left spade is driven in first, No. 2 driving from the rear, his blows alternating with those of No. 5. 7. Takes his post. (5) No. 3. (a) (All horse-drawn models). 1. Assists No. 4 to lower the caisson apron and to raise the caisson door. 2. Opens the fuze setter, leaving it in the raised position. 3. Removes the fuze-setter cover, placing it on the caisson. 4. Sets the fuze-setter scales at corrector 30, range 3000. 5. Takes his post. (6) No. 4. (a) (All horse-drawn models). 1. Assists No. 3 to lower the caisson apron and to raise the caisson door. 2. Takes a fuze box from the caisson rack and places it on the footboard. 3. Puts a round of shrapnel in the fuze setter. 4. Takes his post. (b) (M-1916). In addition to the above before taking his post, No. 4 distributes waste to the cannoneers. (7) No. 5. (a) (M-1897). 1. Removes the aiming stakes, runs around the left of the caisson, and leans them against the left front of the caisson, point down. 2. Lowers the left piece apron. 3. Removes the muzzle cover, placing it on the caisson pintle. 4. Removes the breech cover from the top of the caisson and hangs it over the muzzle cover on the caisson pintle. 5. Sets out the aiming stakes when directed by the chief of section. 6. Takes his post. (b) (M-2). 1. Swings the right trail into the 90° position (or the 45° position when specifically so ordered by the executive), while No. 1 sets the trail pin. 2. Removes the right trail handspike, carries it around the right side of the gun, and places it conveniently on the ground to the side of the firing jack. 3. Unbuckles the right side gun cover straps, and assisted by the gunner and Nos. 1 and 2 removes the gun cover, folds it neatly, and places it on the ground 1 yard to the right of the right piece wheel. 4. Removes the muzzle cover, and places the muzzle cover, right brake cover, range-quadrant cover, breech cover, and rammer neatly on top of the gun cover. In truck-drawn units, also places the sight-bracket cover and left brake cover on the gun COWeſ. 5. Removes the aiming stakes and places them beside the sponge-and-rammer staff, or sets out the aiming stakes when so directed by the chief of section. 6. Distributes waste to the cannoneers. 7. Takes his post. (c) (M-1916). 1. Hastens to the right of the trail, unlatches the trail latch, and carries the right trail flask to the right until it almost touches the right wheel. 2. Receives the right trail spade from No. 1 and places it on the ground beside the right float. 3. Removes the section of the rammer staff from the right trail flask and assists No. 2 in assembling the rammer staff. 4. Runs around the right of the piece and, working with the gunner and Nos. 1 and 2, removes the piece covers. SERVICE OF THE PIECE 527 5. Assists No. 2 in lowering the piece apron. o 6. Seats the right trail spade, removes the hammer from the right trail flask, and assists No. 2 in driving in the spades. The left spade is driven in first, No. 5 driv- ing from the front, his blows alternating with those of No. 2. 7. Removes the aiming stakes and leans them against the left front of the caisson, points down, or sets them out when directed by the chief of section. 8. Takes his post. b. (All horse-drawn models). The limbered carriages may be partially prepared for action before reaching the firing position. The duties of the cannoneers are the same as when the carriages are unlimbered, but only such operations as are practicable are carried out before the carriages are unlimbered. Immediately after establishing the carriages in position, preparation for action is completed without command, and the cannoneers take their posts for firing the piece. c. (All horse-drawn models). If prepare for action has not been ordered before the carriages are established in the firing position, the command habitually is given by the chief of section as soon as the carriages have been unlimbered. In case this is not de- sired, the caution, “Do not prepare for action,” must be given. Cannoneers should report to their chiefs of section if any parts of the matériel are not in working order. Do not run between the wheels. Do not throw breech, covers, muzzle covers, etc., on the ground where they may gather dirt. 22. Posts of the Cannoneers, Carriages Unlimbered. (Plate 25). a. (All horse-drawn models). The carriages having been unlimbered, posts are taken as follows: (1) Chief of section. (a) (M-1897, M-1916). The chief of section goes where he can control the service of the piece, hear commands, and perform his duties effectively. A convenient post is 2 yards from the end of the trail, on the side opposite the executive. (b) (M-2). The chief of section goes where he can control the service of the piece, hear commands, and perform his duties effectively. A convenient post is at the end of the trail on the side opposite the executive. Fig. 1. M-1897. Fig. 2. M-2. Fig. 3. M-1916. Plate 26. Posts of Cannoneers, Carriages Unlimbered. (2) Gunner. (a) (M-1897). Immediately in rear of the cannoneer's seat, on the left of the trail of the piece. (b) (M-2). Immediately to the left of the breech, behind the axle (inside or outside the trail, depending upon the traverse of the piece). (c) (M-1916). On the left of the breech, abreast of it, and inside the trail flasks, if opened. (3) No. 1. (a) (M-1897). Immediately in rear of the cannoneer's seat, on the right of the trail of the piece. (b) (M-2). Immediately to the right of the breech, behind the axle (inside or outside the trail, depending upon the traverse of the piece). (c) (M-1916). On the right of the breech, in a position corresponding to the gunner's position, * 528 SERVICE OF THE PIECE (4) No. 2. (All horse-drawn models). Two feet in rear of the gunner, covering 1IIl. (5) No. 3. (All horse-drawn models). Two feet in rear of the caisson chest, on the right of the caisson trail. (6) No. 4. (All horse-drawn models). Two feet in rear of No. 3, covering him. (7) No. 5. (a) (M-1897). Two feet in rear of No. 2, covering him. (b) (M-2, M-1916). Two feet in rear of the caisson chest, on the left of the caisson trail. b. (All horse-drawn models). At drill all stand at attention at their posts facing the front. In firing and in combat, minor modifications of these posts are required for the more efficient performance of the duties in the service of the piece and to secure the protection afforded by the matériel. Higher-numbered cannoneers, if present, take posts as prescribed by the chief of section. c. (All horse-drawn models). In order to exercise the cannoneers in all the duties connected with the service of the piece and to lend variety to the drill, the posts of individual cannoneers should be changed frequently. 23. March Order. a. Duties of individuals. The carriages being unlimbered and prepared for action, to resume the order for marching, the command is: MARCH ORDER. Duties of individuals are as follows: (1) Chief of section. (a) (All horse-drawn models). Supervises the work of the Carlſl OneerS. (b) (M-1897, M-1916). 1. Inspects the materiél; makes sure that the piece is not left loaded; and, when the operations have been completed, reports to the executive, “Sir, No. (so and so) in order,” r reports any defects which the section cannot remedy without delay. 2. (M-2). Inspects the materiél; makes sure that the piece is not left loaded and that the traveling locks are set for traveling; and, when the operations have been completed, reports to the executive, “Sir, No. (so and so) in order,” or reports any defects which the section cannot remedy without delay. (2) Gunner. (a) (M-1897). 1. Sets the deflection at plateau 0, drum 100. 2. Removes the sight, taking care to lift the sight column directly upward with both hands so as not to bend it, and passes it to No. 1. 3. Traverses the piece to the center of the axle and elevates it until it rests on the traveling lug. 4. Locks the elevating handwheel. 5. Closes the vial cover of the site level, first removing the dust and grit. 6. Assists No. 1 in raising the brake, if lowered. 7. Puts on the sight-support cover. 8. Secures the sight extension bar. 9. Takes his post. (b) (M-2). 1. Sets the tilting head and deflection at zero and closes the covers on the sight-bracket leveling bubbles. 2. Removes the sight from its bracket, returns it to its case, and locks the case. 3. Disengages the sight-bracket gears and turns the sight bracket to the traveling position. 4. Engages the sight-bracket lock in the traveling position. 5. Traverses the piece to the center of the traversing arc, assisting No. 2 in locking the firing jacket in the traveling position. 6. Traverses slightly right and left, while No. 2 secures the traveling lock. 7. Withdraws the left trail pin and puts it in its traveling position while No. 2 closes the trail. 8. Replaces the sight-bracket and left-brake covers, which have been handed him by No. 2 (horse-drawn units) or No. 5 (truck-drawn units), on the sight bracket and left brake (after first releasing the brakes). 9. Assists Nos. 1, 2, and 5 in replacing the gun cover on the gun. 10. Takes his post. & £ * * SERVICE OF THE PIECE 529 (c) (M-1916). 1. Traverses the piece to the center of its traverse; sets the sight scales at zero and the elevation micrometer at 300. 2. Removes the panoramic sight, returns it to its case, and locks the case. 3. Working with No. 1, lowers the top shield. Secures the left trail spade in the traveling position. 4. Working with Nos. 1, 2, and 5, replaces the piece covers. 5. Replaces the lanyard. 6. Steps clear of the trail flasks and assists No. 1 in locking the traveling lock as Nos. 2 and 5 close thhe trail flasks. 7. Takes his post. (3) No. 1. (a) (M-1897). 1. Assists the gunner in elevating the piece on to its travel- ing lug, keeping the range setting between 3500 and 5500, but habitually at a different setting. 2. Receives the sight from the gunner and replaces it in the case, collimator to- ward the inside. 3. Closes the breech and sets the safety piece in the traveling position. 4. Assists the gunner in raising the brake, if lowered. 5. Unscrews the sponge-and-rammer staff and places it in the traveling position. 6. Takes his post. (b) (M-2). 1. Sets the angle of site at 300, and levels the angle-of-site bubble. 2. Closes the cover of the angle-of-site bubble. 3. Closes the breech and sets the safety piece in the traveling position. 4. Unscrews the sponge-and-rammer staff, and places it in the traveling position. 5. Assists No. 2 in locking the firing jack in its traveling position by depressing the piece. 6. Withdraws the right trail pin and puts it in its traveling position while No. 5 closes the trail. 7. Replaces the range-quadrant, breech, and right brake covers, which have been handed to him by No. 5. 8. Assists the gunner and Nos. 2 and 5 in replacing the gun cover. 9. Takes his post. (c) (M-1916). 1. Sets the site at 300 and the range scale opposite march. 2. Closes the breech. 3. Working with the gunner, lowers the top shield. Secures the right trail spade in the traveling position. 4. Working with the gunner and Nos. 2 and 5, replaces the piece covers. 5. Releases the hand brake. 6. Steps clear of the trail flasks and assisted by the gunner locks the traveling lock as Nos. 2 and 5 close the trail flasks. 7. Takes his post. (4) No. 2. (a) (M-1897). 1. Secures the trail handspike in the traveling position. 2. Replaces the breech cover and secures it. 3. Raises and secures the right piece apron. 4. Takes his post. (b) (M-2). 1. Takes the right trail handspike from its position at the side of the jack and inserts it into the jack. 2. Releases the firing jack, permitting the piece to drop on its wheels, and hands the right trail handspike to No. 5. 3. Swings the jack forward and upward, and, assisted by the gunner and No. 1 on the traversing and elevating handwheels, locks the jack in the traveling position. 4. Assisted by the gunner on the traversing handwheel, secures the traveling lock in its traveling position. 5. Hands the sight-bracket and left-brake covers to the gunner. 6. Removes the left trail handspike and secures it in its traveling position. 7. Raises the left trail and moves it to its closed position while the gunner removes the left trail pin. º 530 SERVICE OF THE PIECE 8. Locks the trails in the traveling position. 9. Assists the gunner and Nos. 1 and 5 in replacing the gun cover on the gun. 10. Takes his post. (c) (M-1916). 1. Removes the left trail spade and places it on the ground near the rear of the left wheel. 2. Replaces the hammer in the traveling position on the left trail flask. 3. Runs around the left of the caisson and assisted by No. 5 raises and secures the piece apron. 4. Working with the gunner and Nos. 1 and 5, replaces the piece covers. 5. Assisted by No. 5, disassembles and secures the rammer staff in the traveling position. 6. Working with No. 5, closes the trail flasks. 7. Takes his post. (5) No. 3. (a) All horse-drawn models. 1. Sees that any fuze which have been set are set back at safe. 2. Sets the fuze setter at corrector 30, range 3000. 3. Returns unused fuzes to the fuze box. 4. Replaces the fuze-setter cover. 5. Secures the fuze setter in the traveling position. 6. Assists No. 4 to lower and secure the caisson door and to raise and secure the caisson apron. 7. Takes his post. (6) No. 4. (a) (All horse-drawn models). 1. Assists No. 3 in setting fuzes back at safe. 2. Replaces or otherwise disposes of unused ammunition. Before replacing any round in the caissom chest, he will assure himself that the fuze is set at safe. 3. Runs around the left of the caisson and replaces the fuze box in the caisson rack. 4. Assists No. 3 to lower and secure the caisson door and to raise and secure the caisson apron. 5. Takes his post. - (7) No. 5. (a) (M-1897). 1. Runs around the left of the caisson and removes the breech cover from the caisson pintle and places it on top of the caisson. 2. Replaces the muzzle cover. 3. Raises and secures the left piece apron. 4. Secures the aiming stakes and places them in the traveling position. 5. Takes his post. (b) (M-2). 1. Replaces the muzzle cover. 2. Takes the right trail handspike from No. 2, passes around the right side of the piece, handing the breech, range-quadrant, and right brake covers to No. 1 on his way, and secures the right trail handspike in its traveling position. 3. Secures the aiming stakes. 4. Raises the right trail and moves it to its closed position while No. 1 removes the right trail pin. 5. Secures the gun cover and assists the gunner and Nos. 1 and 2 in replacing it on the gun. 6. Takes his post. (c) (M-1916). 1. Removes the right trail spade and places it on the ground near the rear of the right wheel. 2. Replaces the hammer in the traveling position on the right trail flask. 3. Runs around the right of the piece and assists No. 2 in raising and securing the piece apron. 4. Working with the gunner and Nos. 1 and 2, replaces the piece covers. 5. Assists No. 2 in disassembling and securing the rammer staff in the traveling position. - 6. Working with No. 2, closes and latches the trail flasks. SERVICE OF THE PIECE 531 7. Secures the aiming stakes. 8. Takes his post. b. To resume fire in another position. (1) (All horse-drawn models). If it is in- tended to resume firing shortly, but in another position, so that the limbering of the pieces is necessitated, the command March order is not given. In this case at the com- mand for limbering, only such of the operations incident to march order are performed as are necessary for the movement of the piece and caisson and for the care and security of the equipment. (2) If the command March order is given while the pieces are limbered, the opera- tions pertaining to march order are completed as described above. CHAPTER IX DUTIES IN FIRING (TRUCK-DRAWN AND HORSE-DRAWN UNITS) 24. General. a. In general, the duties in firing are as follows: (1) (All models). The chief of section is responsible that all duties are properly performed, all commands executed, and all safety precautions observed. (2) (a) (M-1897, M-1897A4). The gunner sets the announced site and deflection, and lays and refers the piece. (b) (M-2) The gunner sets the announced deflection, lays for direction, and refers the piece. (c) (M-1916, M-1916A1). The gunner sets the announced deflection; lays, refers, and fires the piece. (d) (M-1917, M-1917A1). The gunner sets the announced site and deflection; he lays, refers, and fires the piece. * (3) (a) (M-1897, M-189744). No. 1 sets the announced range, opens and closes the breech, and fires the piece. (b) (M-2). No. 1 sets the announced site and range, opens and closes the breech, lays for elevation, and fires the piece. (c) (M-1916, M-1916A1). No. 1 sets the announced site and range; opens and closes the breech. (d) (M-1917, M-1917A1). No. 1 sets the announced range and opens and closes the breech. (4) (All models). No. 2 loads the piece. (5) (All models). No. 3 operates the fuze setter and screws fuzes in shell. (6) (All models). No. 4 prepares ammunition and passes rounds to No. 2 for loading; in time fire he keeps rounds in the fuze setter and sets the fuze. (7) (a) (M-1897, M-1897.44, M-1917, M-1917A1). No. 5 gives general direction to the piece. p (b) (M-2). No. 5 prepares ammunition for firing, and in direct laying at moving targets levels the angle-of-site bubble and sets the range. (c) (M-1916, M-1916A1). No. 5 prepares ammunition. b. (1) (M-1897, M-1897.44, M-1917, M-1917A1). The duties of the gunner and Nos. 1, 2, and 5 are mutually dependent. The same is true of Nos. 3 and 4. (2) (M-2, M-1916, M-1916A1). The duties of the gunner and Nos. 1 and 2 are mutually dependent. The same is true of Nos. 3, 4, and 5. Team organization is essential to accurate and rapid fire. The duties of cannoneers are closely related; they are not independent. To attain maximum team work each cannoneer must be thoroughly drilled in his own individual duties and also know the duties of the other members of his gun squad in order that he can perform his own tasks without interfering with the duties of the other Caſlilo IłęCIS. Speed is important but accuracy should not be sacrificed for speed. Effective firing is the result of accurate settings on the instruments. Quadrants, range scales, etc., are built for accuracy. Any setting that is not exactly right is entirely wrong. The indices, must be exactly in the center (Plate 27). Settings on index range scales or on sliding levels which are inaccurate by the width of the index line or by a portion of the bubble adds this error to the probable error of the gun. When guns are shooting with large dispersion it can be usually traced to inaccurate setting by the gun crew. 532 SERVICE OF THE PIECE Speed is developed by the elimination of lost motion and by attention to the smallest details in the performance of individual duties. The hand wheels and gears must be operated in the proper direction automatically. When a battery is at attention the eyes of all cannoneers should be on the executive (or on the section chief if the executive is not placed so all can see him), when not actually setting data or performing duties. Talking usually indicates that there is some indecision in the particular gun squad as to the meaning of a command or else there is a lack of fire discipline in the battery. In such a case the gun should be called out of action until the indecision is adjusted. The time con- sumed loses any advantage gained by a well drilled gun crew. 25. Chief of Section. a. Enumeration of duties. (1) (a) (M-1897, M-1897A4, M-1917, M-1917A1). Assisted by the gunner, to lay for elevation when the gunner's quadrant is used. (b) (M-2, M-1916, M-1916A1). Assisted by No. 1, to lay for elevation when the gunner's quadrant is used. (2) To measure the elevation. - (3) (a) To measure the minimum quadrant elevation. (b) To measure the minimum range. (4) To indicate to the gunner the aiming point, the referring point, or the target. (5) To follow fi g d p O ÍO11OW IIIe COIſl1113 Il ClS. (6) To indicate when the piece is ready to fire. 7) To give the command to fire, except when firing at moving targets with direct lavi g p g targ aying. (8) To report errors and other unusual incidents of fire to the executive. (9) To conduct prearranged fire schedules. (10) To record basic data. (11) To observe and check frequently the functioning of the matériel. (12) To assign duties when firing with reduced personnel. .** - _*T \. §3 ºf Niš 'N//º) = 2^\l l § | Nº *Y - % º / | Bº wº- 5 % Plate 31. No. 2 Loading the Piece (M-1897). 28. No. 2. a. Enumeration of duties. (Plate 31) (1) (All models). To load the piece. (2) (All models). In volley fire, to call out the number of the round. (3) (a) (Models M-1897, M-1897.44, and M-1917, M-1917A1 only). When necessary, to assist No. 5 in giving direction to the piece. (b) (M-2 only). When necessary, to assist No. 5 in shifting the trails. b. Detailed description of certain duties. (1) To load the piece. (All models). To receive the round, No. 2 steps with his left foot toward No. 4 and grasps the round with his right hand at the base of the cartridge case and his left hand in rear of the ogive. He then resumes his position facing the gunner and inserts the round in the breech, removing his left hand. He pushes the round home with his right hand. When about one-third of the cartridge case still extends beyond the breech face, he gives the round a final impetus until his open hand comes in contact with the breech, then, continuing the motion, he rotates his hand upward and to the left, clearing the breech. No. 2 will be particularly careful to avoid striking the fuze against any portion of the materićl. To prevent premature bursts caused by projectiles being struck on the fuze by the piece in recoil, a round to be loaded will be held well out of the path of recoil of the gun until the latter is again in battery. (2) To call out the number of the round. (All models). To insure that the correct SERVICE OF THE PIECE 555 number of rounds is fired in volley fire, No. 2 calls out the range and the number of the round as he loads the piece; and, as he loads the last round, adds “Last Round.” For example, when two rounds are to be fired at 2800, he calls out, “2800 one; 2800 two, last round.” He should not speak louder than necessary to insure his being heard by the members of his own gun squad. REMINDERS FOR NO. 2 Use the base of the palm, fingers up, in pushing the projectile home. DON'T put your foot on the float or trail. Be sure to keep clear of the breech when the piece is fired. (3) When necessary, to assist No. 5 in shifting the trails. (M-2 only). No. 2 goes to the handspike on the left trail, while No. 5 handles the right trail, and shifts the trail Plate 32. The Time Fuze and the Bracket Fuze Setter, M1916 (M-1897, M-1897A4). (a) The time-of-burning scale on time fuze, shrapnel (75-mm). (b) Corrector scale. (d) Corrector-worm knob. (c) Range scale. (e) Range-worm crank. 556 SERVICE OF THE PIECE right or left as directed by the gunner. The command is: MUZZLE RIGHT (LEFT), and the trail is shifted in the opposite direction so that the muzzle is swung in the direction indicated. At the gunner's signal, Nos. 2 and 5 lower the trails to the ground. 29. No. 3. (All models). a. Enumeration of duties. (1) To set the fuze setter. (2) To set fuzes. (3) To fuze shell. (4) To remove fuzes from shell. b. Detailed description of certain duties. (1) To set the fuze setter. (a) The series of fire commands for initially opening fire with time-fuzed projectiles will contain the data to be set on the fuze setter. These commands are, for example, Corrector 28, 3600. The corrector may be changed by announcing a new corrector for example, Corrector 33. (b) 1. (M-1897, M-1897.44 and M-2, M-1917, M-1917A1). No. 3 is first taught to read data set on the fuze setter and then to set data announced. To set data on the bracket fuze setter, No. 3 turns the corrector-worm knob with his right hand until the graduation on the corrector scale, corresponding to the corrector announced, is opposite the index. He then turns the range-worm crank until the graduation on the range scale, corresponding to the range announced, is opposite the fixed index. 2. (M-1916, M-1916A1). No. 3 is first taught to read data set on the fuze setter and then to set data announced. To set data on the bracket fuze setter, No. 3 turns the corrector-worm knob with his right hand until the movable index is opposite the graduation on the corrector scale corresponding to the corrector announced. He then turns the range-worm crank until the graduation on the range scale, corresponding o the range announced, is opposite the fixed index. > Plate 33. The Hand Fuze Setter, M1912 (M-1897, M-1897A4). (c) (All models). To set data on the hand fuze setter, (Plate 33) No. 3 turns the corrector-worm knob until the graduated line on the corrector scale, corresponding to the corrector announced, is in coincidence with the index engraved on the rim of the case. He then turns the knob on the range-scale worm until the graduation on the range scale, corresponding to the range announced, is in coincidence with the index on the index bar. t (d) (All models). If the range to be set on the fuze setter differs from that to be set on the piece, the command Fuze range (so much) will be given. In this case No. 3 sets the fuze range on the fuze setter, disregarding the range announced for the iece. (e) (All models). If the command Percussion is given, the fuze setter is not used. SERVICE OF THE PIECE 557 However, No. 3 keeps the range scale of the fuze setter set according to the ranges an- nounced. He is thus ready to pass to time fire as soon as a corrector is announced. (f) (All models). To insure accuracy in setting the scales of the fuze setter, it is necessary that No. 3 look squarely at the scales and their indexes. To take up lost motion, the final movement of the scales should always be in a counterclockwise direction. (g) (All models). The fuze data having been set on the fuze setter, No. 3 calls “Cut” as a signal to No. 4 to set the fuze. (2) To set fuzes. (All models). No. 3 sets fuzes only when the hand fuze setter S TN-> *T / - - ſ SČ S, /2 2-— _- _* * ~. 2 -í. , / __" 7 - \ \ • ~" \ } } < })\ 7 >. 22:... . * * –23 ºe.” 31– % ;l/ſlſº ~ \\ \ * \ NYX Y. Note. Plate 34. To Fuze Shell (M-1897, M-1897A4). Top, truck drawn units; bottom, horse drawn units. 558 SERVICE OF THE PIECE is used. The fuze data having been set on the fuze setter as indicated above, to set the fuze, the projectile being held by No. 4, No. 3 places the fuze setter over the fuze. The fuze setter is then turned in the direction indicated by the arrow on the fuze-setter case until the slot in the range-ring carrier engages the pin on the graduated time-train ring of the fuze. The guide plate and the range-ring carrier will then bear firmly on the fuze. No. 3 continues to turn the fuze setter in the direction indicated until the stop pin attached to the corrector-scale support engages with the fixed stop pin on the fuze and prevents further motion. When the fuze has been properly set, the pointer which is attached to the top of the corrector scale will register with the graduated line on the closing cap of the fuze. The fuze setter is then removed. (3) To fuze shell. (All models). At the command Shell, No. 3 opens the fuze box and places it in a convenient position. The projectile being held by No. 4, No. 3 inserts the designated fuze, being careful to note that it is fitted with its felt or rubber washer, and screws it home by hand. The fuze is given its final seating by the use of the fuze wrench. No great force should be used. If there is any difficulty in screwing the fuze home, the fuze should be removed and another inserted. If the same trouble is en- countered with the second fuze, the shell should be rejected. (4) To remove fuzes from shell. (All models). If for any reason a projectile which has been fuzed is not to be fired, the fuze will be removed. The operation of inserting a fuze is reversed. If the adapter starts to unscrew with the fuze, the unscrewing must be stopped at once and the shell disposed of as directed by the executive. REMINDERS NO. 3 Be sure to keep up with the corrector settings. SET each announced range regardless of what kind of fire is being used. Set the range at zero when the command “Fire at will,” is given. During firing keep the right hand on the corrector-worm knob and the left on the range-worm crank so as to be ready to make settings at once. The scales of the fuze setter should not be set with a projectile resting in the fuze setter because such practice wears the gears with resultant inaccuracies in firing. Set all fuzes at “Safety” when “March Order” is given. Keep the fuze setter and its cover clean. The rotating pin notch and the stop pin should be kept free of dirt—a small piece will cause errors. 30. No. 4. a. Enumeration of duties. (1) (M-1897, M-1897.44, M-1917, M1917A1). (a) To remove ammunition from the chest or other container and to clean and prepare it for firing. (b) To set the fuze when the bracket fuze setter is used. (c) To hold the round while No. 3 sets the fuze, when the hand fuze setter is used. (d) To hold the round while No. 3 screws the fuze into the shell. (e) To pass the round to No. 2. (2) (M-2, M-1916, M-1916A). (a) To set the fuze when the bracket fuze setter is used. (b) To hold the round while No. 3 sets the fuze, when the hand fuze setter is used. (c) To hold the round while No. 3 screws the fuze into the shell. (d) To pass the round to No. 2. b. Detailed description of certain duties. (1) To remove ammunition from the chest or other container, and to clean and prepare it for firing. (a) (M-1897, M-1897,44). No. 4, when time permits, arranges the round so that they are within easy reach or partially removes them from their compartments 10R from their packing containers, before firing begins. To remove a round from the chest (in units equipped with cais- sons), No. 4, standing with his left side toward the chest, grasps the base of the cartridge case with his right hand and pulls the round to the rear, across the front of his body, grasping the projectile in the rear of the ogive with his left hand at the proper time to prevent the round from falling. He inspects the projectile to see that it is flee from sand and dirt and that the rotating band is not burred. Any foreign matter will be re- moved by wiping with a piece of waste. Projectiles having burred rotating bands should be placed aside temporarily until the burrs can be removed with a file. SERVICE OF THE PIECE 559 When the caisson contains more than one kind or lot of ammunition it is convenient to with- draw the rounds beginning with the projectiles at the outside of each row. When the caisson con- tains but one kind of ammunition the rounds should be withdrawn from alternate rows beginning at the top and bottom rows and at the outside of each row. (b) (M-1917, M-1917A1). To remove ammunition from the container and to clean and prepare it for firing. No. 4, when time permits, arranges the rounds so that they are within easy reach by partially removing them from their packing containers before firing begins. He inspects the projectile to see that it is free from sand and dirt and that the rotating band is not burred. Any foreign matter will be removed by wiping with a piece of waste. Projectiles having burred rotating bands should be placed aside temporarily until the burs can be removed with a file. (2) To set the fuze when the bracket fuze setter is used. (All models). When the command Corrector (so much) is given, No. 4 procures a round of shrapnel, removes the waterproof cap of the fuze, and inserts the point of the projectile in the bracket fuze setter, taking care that the lug nearest the point of the fuze engages in the groove in the fuze setter. When No. 3 has called “Cut,” No. 4 turns the projectile with steady and uniform motion in a clockwise direction until further movement is stopped. In turning the projectile, No. 4 stands to the rear of the fuze setter, facing to the right front. His left hand, back down, grasps the round at or near the forward end of the cartridge case. The palm of the right hand is placed on the base of the cartridge case, the fingers grasping the edge of the base. While turning the projectile, No. 4 takes care to hold it firmly against the guide and to keep the fuze well engaged by a steady pressure on the base of the cartridge case with his right hand. No. 4 then removes the round by lifting it directly out of the fuze setter, taking care not to strike the lugs of the fuze against any part of the fuze setter. The time of burning may be read from the graduated ring of the fuze. When directed by the chief of section, No. 4 will read and announce the time of burning after setting the fuze. A time fuze which has been set for any desired time of burning can be reset to S (Safe) by setting the fuze setter range ring to S, the corrector to normal (30), and resetting the fuze. The fuze should be inspected to see that the S on the graduated time ring of the fuze is in line with the marks on the upper-time train ring and on the body of the fuze. Fuzes set but not fired will be reset to S (Safe), inspected, and returned to the chest or other container by No. 4. If the command Percussion is given, No. 4, after removing the waterproof cap, passes the round directly to No. 2 for loading. (3) To hold the round while No. 3 sets the fuze, when the hand fuze setter is used. (a) (M-1897, M-1897.44, M-1917, M-1917A1). No. 4 holds the round while No. 3 sets the fuze. No. 4 procures the round, removes the waterproof cap, faces to the right, and partially kneels on the right knee. He places the base of the cartridge case on his right thigh just above the knee. He grasps the round with both hands, the right arm resting on his right thigh, the left arm braced against his left thigh. The round is held firmly, pointing upward in the general direction of No. 3's head, while No. 3 sets the fuze. Sand bags may be placed for cannoneers to kneel on. (b) (M-2). No. 4 holds the round while No. 3 sets the fuze. No. 4 receives the round from No. 5, removes the waterproof cap, faces to the right, and partially kneels on the right knee. He places the base of the cartridge case on the right thigh just above the knee. He grasps the round with both hands, the right arm resting on his right thigh, the left arm braced against his left thigh. The round is held firmly, pointing upward in the general direction of No. 3's head, while No. 3 sets the fuze. (c) (M-1916, M-1916A1). No. 4 holds the round while No. 3 sets the fuze. No. 4 receives the round from No. 5, removes the waterproof cap, faces to the right, and partially kneels on the right knee. He places the base of the cartridge case on his right thigh just above the knee. He grasps the round with both hands, the right arm resting on his right thigh, the left arm braced against his left thigh. The round is held firmly, pointing upward in the general direction of No. 3's head, while No. 3 sets the fuze. (4) To hold the round while No. 3 screws the fuze into the shell. 4. (a) (M-1897, M-189744, M-2, M-1916, M-1916.41). When shell is being used, No. 4 holds the round 560 SERVICE OF THE PIECE while No. 3 screws in the fuze. The round having been removed from the chest or other container, cleaned, and prepared for firing, No. 4 removes the fuze plug from the fuze socket and holds the round firmly on the footboard or other convenient support, while No. 3 screws in the fuze. (b) (M-1917, M-1917A1). When shell is being used, No. 4 holds the round while No. 3 screws in the fuze. The round having been removed from the container, A k * {|} qſ =|[EEE 'H'. F G. H Gzzzzzzer indicates') N razzzz!e right or Čeft, or armozzzz? of Zead for a P77O virg target MUZZLE, RIGHT | | MUZZLE LEFT PTTO Ve t Tr2OV-2 trail l aft – trail right -º- > () 5 Plate 35. To Shift the Trail (M-1897, M-1897A4). cleaned, and prepared for firing, No. 4 removes the fuze plug from the fuze socket and holds the round firmly with its nose pointing in the general direction of No. 3's head while No. 3 screws in the fuze. (5) To pass the round to No. 2. (All models). No. 4 passes the round to No. 2 in the most expeditious manner and in such a way that No. 2 is enabled to grasp the base of the cartridge case with his right hand. SERVICE OF THE PIECE 561 REMINDERS FOR NO. 4 Handle all fuzes with care. $º Take note of the position of the rotating pin notch in the fuze center and where the corresponding pin is located on the fuze. When the fuze is put into the fuze center, place it so that there will be little turning movement before the pin is engaged in the notch. Do not turn the shrapnel with more vigor than is necessary. Try to set all fuzes using the same amount of force. Assist No. 3 in setting fuzes at “safety” when March Order is given. Completely set each fuze. Handle all fuzes with care. Don't turn the round to the left after setting. Don't let a dirty projectile get out of your hands. Don't throw waterproof caps under your feet. 31. No. 5. a. Enumeration of duties. (1) (M-1897, M-1897A4, M-1917, M1917A1). (a) To shift the trail. (b) To keep empty cartridge cases out of the way. (2) (M-2). (a) To remove ammunition from the chest or other container, to clean and prepare it for firing, and to pass it to No. 4. (b) For direct laying on a moving target, to level the angle-of-site bubble and to set the range. (c) When necessary, to assist No. 2 in shifting the trails. (d) To keep empty cartridge cases out of the way. (3) (M-1916, M-1916A1). (a) To remove ammunition from the chest or other container, to clean and prepare it for firing, and to pass it to No. 4. (b) To keep empty cartridge cases out of the way. b. Detailed description of certain duties. (1) (M-1897 M-1897A4). (a) To shift the trail. When laying for direction involves shifting the trail, the gunner and No. 5 work together. To shift the trail, No. 5 star is immediately in rear of the trail handspike (the lunette for pieces not equipped with the trail handspike), feet about 18 inches apart, and grasps the handspike (lunette) with both hands. The gunner causes the trail to be shifted by the command Muzzle right (left), or other suitable indication, until the vertical line of the sight is approximately on the target (aiming point). When direct laying is used, No. 5 sights along the line of metal and shifts the trail so as to point the piece directly at the target. In the case of direct laying on moving targets (except when firing by individual sections at fast-moving targets as prescribed in par. 38), No. 5, at the command Target (so and so), points the piece directly at the target, but does not shift the trail again until the gunner commands or signals Muzzle right (left). (b) To keep empty cartridge cases out of the way. (M-1897 M-1897A4). No. 5 takes the cases as they are ejected and throws them well to the rear of the piece. REMINDERS FOR NO. 5 Know the width of the trail spade and float in mils. To aid in shifting the trail a series of lines can be laid off marked off on the ground, 50 mils apart. Don't use the bare hand on hot cartridge cases. (2) (M-2). (a) To remove ammunition from the chest or other container and to clean and prepare it for firing. No. 5, when time permits, arranges the rounds so that they are within easy reach or partially removes them from their compartments. To remove a round from the chest (in units equipped with caissons), No. 5, standing with his left side toward the chest, grasps the base of the cartridge case with his right hand and pulls the round to the rear, across the front of his body, grasping the projectile in rear of the ogive with his left hand at the proper time to prevent the round from falling. He inspects the projectile to see that it is free from sand and dirt and that the rotating band is not burred. Any foreign matter will be removed by wiping with a piece of waste. Projectiles having burred rotating bands should be placed aside temporarily until the burrs can be removed with a file. (b) For direct laying on a moving target, to level the angle-of-site bubble and to set the range. No. 5 takes a convenient position outside the right wheel, and levels the angle-of-site bubble and sets the range in the manner prescribed for No. 1 in para- graph 27b (2) (b) and (c). 562 SERVICE OF THE PIECE (c) When necessary, to assist No. 2 in shifting the trails. No. 5 goes to the drawbar on the right trail, while No. 2 handles the left trail, and gives direction to the piece by shifting the trails right or left as directed by the gunner. The command is: MUZZLE RIGHT (LEFT), and the trail is shifted in the opposite direction so that the muzzle is swung in the direction indicated. At the gunner's signal, Nos. 2 and 5 lower the trails to the ground. (d) To keep empty cartridge cases out of the way. No. 5 throws the cases well to the rear of the left trail of the piece. (3) (M-1916, M-1916A1). (a) Detailed description of certain duties. 1. Same as for M-2 (See b (2) (a) above). 2. To keep empty cartridge cases out of the way. No. 5 throws the cases well to the rear of the left trail of the piece. (4) (M-1917, M-1917A1). (a) To shift the trail. When laying for direction involves shifting the trail, the gunner and No. 5 work together. To shift the trail, No. 5 stands immediately in rear of the trail handspike, feet about 18 inches apart, and grasps the handspike with both hands. The gunner causes the trail to be shifted by the command Muzzle right (left), or other suitable indication, until the vertical hair of the sight is approximately on the target (aiming point). When direct laying is used, the top shield is lowered, and No. 5 sights along the line of metal and shifts the trail so as to point the piece directly at the target. In the case of direct laying on moving targets (except when firing by individual sections at fast-moving targets as prescribed in par. 38), No. 5, at the command Target (so and so), points the piece directly at the target, but does not shift the trail again until the gunner commands or signals Muzzle right (left). (b) To keep empty cartridge cases out of the way. No. 5 takes the cases as they are ejected and throws them well to the rear of the piece. CHAPTER X ADDITIONAL INFORMATION ON THE SERVICE OF THE PIECE 32. Use of the Sight Lines, Collimator Sight. (M-1897, M-1897.44 only). The sight lines in the collimator appear as a white cross on a black background. The lines are vertical and horizontal. The gunner is taught to discern these lines and to prolong them outside the collimator to obtain coincidence with external objects. The general method used for this is as follows: Close the right (left) eye, look through the colli- mator along its axis from as great a distance as possible, then move the eye up and down rapidly so as to prolong the vertical line, then sideways to prolong the horizontal line. As the gunner becomes more experienced, the amount of movement of the eye necessary to obtain coincidence with external objects becomes less. Some men find it convenient to sight with both eyes open, thus avoiding the necessity of moving the eye. 33. Use of the Sight Extension Bar. (M-1897, M-1897,44 only). The use of the sight extension bar is exceptional and must be avoided whenever possible as it frequently leads to inaccuracy. When its use is necessary, the gunner places it in the sight socket. This raises the sight above the top of the shield and enables the gunner to sight on aiming points otherwise obscured from view. As soon as the piece has been laid, he removes the sight extension bar, replaces the sight column in the sight socket, and refers the piece. The sight extension bar must not be left in position during firing. 34. Accuracy in Laying. a. (All models). Sighting and laying instruments, fuze setters, and elevating and traversing mechanisms will be manipulated so as to minimize the effects of lost motion. This requires that the last motions in setting instruments and in laying be always in the directions prescribed. To insure accurate laying, the gunner and any other cannoneers who have duties in connection with laying the piece invariably will be required to verify the laying after the breech has been closed. b. (1) (M-1897, M-189744). When the piece, must be established on uneven ground, SERVICE OF THE PIECE 563 the amount of cant of the axle is measured with the gunner's quadrant and reported by the chief of section to the executive. (2) (M-2). When the piece must be established on uneven ground, it is desirable for accurate firing that the three points of support, when firing from the jack, be leveled by pioneer work. (3) (M-1917, M-1917A1). When the piece must be established on uneven ground, the amount of cant of the axle is measured with the gunner's quadrant by placing the quadrant on the top center edge of the main shield, and reported by the chief of section to the executive. 35. To Shift the Trail. (M-1916, M-1916A1 only). The command is: MUZZLE RIGHT (LEFT). The gunner and No. 1 release the hand brakes. Nos. 2 and 5 hasten to the left and right trail spades respectively, remove the trail spades, and close and latch the trail flasks. The gunner traverses the piece to the center of its traverse, and when the trail flasks have been closed and latched causes the trail to be shifted until the vertical hair of the sight is approximately on the target or aiming point. The gunner then commands: Drive spades. Nos. 2 and 5 separate the trail flasks and drive in the spades. The gunner and No. 1 set the hand brakes. 36. To Raise and Lower the Brake. (M-1897, horse-drawn only). The chief of sec- tion may cause the brake to be lowered after the trail has been seated. a. To lower the brake. The gunner stands between the left wheel and the trail; No. 1 stands between the right wheel and the trail. Each grasps the tie rod on his side near the brake beam. No. 1 turns the latch pin of the brake-beam carrier to the right, lifts is as high as possible, and calls “Heave.” At this signal both lift the brake beam, No. 1 pulls back the brake-beam carrier, and when the brake beam is freed both allow it to fall to the ground of its own weight. b. To raise the brake. The gunner and No. 1 take the same positions as for lowering the brake. No. 1 calls “Heave” and both lift the brake beam. No. 1 then pushes the brake beam carrier forward and replaces the latch pin. To secure the latch pin properly, it may be necessary to repeat the operation. 37. Fire at Will. a. (1) (M-1897, M-1897.44, M-1916, M-1916A1, M-1917, M-1917A1). The piece being in position and prepared for action, in case of sudden attack, when the target appears at a range of less than 500 yards, the executive may command: 1. Target (so and so), 2. FIRE AT WILL. The chief of section repeats this command. (2) (M-2). The piece being unlimbered or uncoupled and prepared for action, in case of sudden attack, when the target appears at a range of less than 500 yards, the executive may command: 1. Target (so and so), 2. FIRE AT WILL. The chief of section repeats this command. (a) 1. (M-1897, M-1897.44, M-1916, M-1916A1, M-1917, M-1917A1). No. 1 sets the range at 500; No. 3 sets corrector 30, range zero; No. 4, if shrapnel is used, sets fuzes continuously. The gunner, assisted if necessary by No. 5 at the handspike, keeps the piece laid directly on his part of the target throughout the firing. 2. (M-2). No. 1 lays the gun by eye for elevation so that the gun is pointed approximately at the target; No. 3 sets corrector 30, range zero; No. 4, if shrapnel is used, sets fuzes continuously. The gunner keeps the piece laid directly on his part of the target throughout the firing. Based on his observation of his shots throughout the firing, No. 1 corrects the laying for elevation as may be necessary. (b) (M-1897, M-1897.44, M-2, M-1916, M1916A1, M-1917, M-1917A1). Firing is commenced at the command of the chief of section No. (so and so) Fire. The piece is loaded and fired as rapidly as possible until the command Cease firing, or until the enemy disappears from view or actually reaches the piece. b. (1) (M-1897, M-1897.44, M-1916, M-1916A1, M-1917, M-1917-A1). In fire at will, refinements of laying are not attempted, rapidity of fire being of primary impor- tance. Shrapnel, if available, will be used. If shrapnel is not available, shell, preferably with delay fuze, will be used. In general, the procedure in firing shell is the same as with shrapnel except that the gunner lays well below the lowest visible element of the target. 564 SERVICE OF THE PIECE (2) (M-2). In fire at will, refinements of laying are not attempted, rapidity of fire being of primary importance. Shrapnel, if available, will be used. If shrapnel is not available, shell, preferably with delay fuze, will be used. In general, the procedure in firing shell is the same as with shrapnel except that No. 1 lays so that the shell will strike at or just short of the base of the target. 38. To Fire by Individual Sections With Direct Laying at Moving Targets. a. (M-1897, M-1897.44, M-1916, M-1916A1, M-1917, M-1917A1). The chief of section observes the target, estimates its range and speed, and gives such directions to the cannoneers as will aid them in laying and firing the piece. b. (1) (M-1897, M-1897,44). The gunner traverses the piece to the center of its traverse and, when directed by the chief of section, sets a lead in mils for the target on the drum of the sight. Assisted by No. 5 at the handspike, who points the piece directly at the target, the gunner manipulates the elevating and traversing mechanisms until the vertical and horizontal lines of the sight intersect at the target. The piece is fired at the command Fire of the gunner when the piece is laid, No. 1 has called “Set,” and the chief of section has indicated that the executive has given the command or signal to commence firing. Subsequent rounds are fired at the command of the gunner as soon as the necessary corrections have been made and the piece is again laid on the target. (2) (M-1916, M-1916A1). The gunner brings the vertical and horizontal hairs of the sight on the target by operating the elevating and traversing handwheels. The piece is fired by the gunner when the piece is laid, No. 1 has called “Set,” and the chief of section has indicated that the executive has given the command or signal to commence firing. Subsequent rounds are fired by the gunner as soon as the necessary corrections have been made and the piece is again laid on the target. (3) (M-1917, M-1917A1). The gunner traverses the piece to the center of its traverse and, when directed by the chief of section, sets a lead in mils for the target on the panoramic sight. Assisted by No. 5 at the handspike, who points the piece directly at the target, the gunner manipulates the elevating and traversing mechanisms until the vertical and horizontal hairs of the sight intersect at the target. The piece is fired by the gunner when the piece is laid, No. 1 has called “Set,” and the chief of section has indi- cated that the executive has given the command or signal to commence firing. Subse- quent rounds are fired by the gunner as soon as the necessary corrections have been made and he again is laid on the target. c. (1) (M-1897, M-1897A4). If the target is moving rapidly in a lateral direction, the gunner may cause No. 5 to lead the target by pointing the piece ahead of the target. In this case the gunner commands, for example, Lead right (left) (so many) mils. No. 5, using the graduated trail log, float, or shield to measure off the lead ordered (par. 41), points the piece ahead of the target by the number of mils announced by the gunner. The gunner gives the command to fire as the target reaches the intersection of the sight lines; if No. 5 has shifted too much, he traverses the piece to meet the target and gives the command to fire at the appropriate moment. For subsequent rounds, No. 5 shifts the trail by pointing the piece ahead of the target by the announced lead immediately after the piece is fired, until a new lead is announced or firing ceases. In case the target stops or moves to the front or rear, the gunner may require No. 5 to cease leading and point the piece directly at the target. In this case the gunner commands, for example, Lead zero, muzzle right (left). No. 5 ceases to lead the target, shifts the trail in the direction indicated, and points the piece directly at the target. (2) (M-1916, M-1916A1). If the target is moving rapidly in a lateral direction, the chief of section commands, for example, Lead right (left) (so many) mils. The gunner sets off the lead announced on the micrometer and lays as previously described. The gunner fires the piece as the target reaches the intersection of the cross hairs of the sight; if he has traversed too far, he traverses the piece so as to cause the cross hairs to meet the target, and fires at the appropriate moment. For subsequent rounds, the gunner continues to traverse and elevate the piece and fire as the target approaches the intersection of the cross hairs of the sight, meanwhile altering the lead on the micrometer if a change is ordered by the chief of section. Instead of setting the an- SERVICE OF THE PIECE 565 nounced lead on the sight scale, the gunner may set deflection zero and track the target by keeping the horizontal hair on the base of the target and the vertical hair ahead of the target by the announced lead, measured on the reticule of the sight. In case the target stops or moves to the front or rear, the chief of section may command, for example, Lead zero. The gunner changes the lead accordingly and brings the cross hairs of the sight upon the target. (3) (M1917, M-1917A1). If the target is moving rapidly in a lateral direction, the gunner may cause No. 5 to lead the target by pointing the piece ahead of the target. In this case the gunner commands, for example, Lead right (left) (so many) mils. No. 5, using the graduated trail log, float, or shield to measure off the lead ordered (par. 41), points the piece ahead of the target by the number of mils announced by the gunner. The gunner fires the piece as the target reaches the intersection of the cross hairs of the sight; if No. 5 has shifted too much, he traverses the piece to meet the target and fires the piece at the appropriate moment. For subsequent rounds, No. 5 shifts the trail by pointing the piece ahead of the target by the announced lead immediately after the piece is fired, until a new lead is announced or firing ceases. In case the target stops or moves to the front or rear, the gunner may require No. 5 to cease leading and point the piece directly at the target. In this case the gunner commands, for example, Lead zero, muzzle right (left). No. 5 ceases to lead the target, shifts the trail in the direction indicated, and points the piece directly at the target. d. (1) (M-1897, M-1897,44). No. 1 sets the range announced by the chief of section, calls “Set,” and fires the piece at the gunner's command Fire. (2) (M-1916, M-1916A1, M-1917, M-1917A1). No. 1 sets the range announced by the chief of section, and calls “Set.” e. (M-1897, M-1897A4, M-1916, M-1916A1, M-1917, M-1917A1). No. 2 loads the piece at the command or signal to commence firing and continues to load the piece each time it has fired and returned to battery, until the command Cease firing is given. Resultin durection'&f Fire parallel to Original direction? | of £ l | original direction d !: | | $ t tre 2–4|Direction oſ Fire resulting, Prom. displacement | | | | | | zzze frz /26a7/" 5take \ \ ºp * . * r A. ve .* /* c %2 ſº a 3, A. Z, .*- ^c anºe * º ring avº Plate 36. Aiming Stakes—Displacement Correction (M-1897, M-1897A4). f. (M-1916, M-1916A1 Only). When the piece approaches the limit of its traverse, the gunner commands: MUZZLE RIGHT (LEFT). The trail is shifted as prescribed in paragraph 35. The chief of section continues to observe the target during the shifting of the trail; the gunner, directed by the chief of section, again lays on the target in the new direction and fires the piece as described above. 39. Aiming Stakes. (Plate 35). a. (All models). When a suitable natural aiming 566 SERVICE OF THE PIECE point is not visible, the piece after it has been laid initially for direction, is referred to the aiming stakes as described in paragraph 26a (2) (g). Two aiming stakes are used for each piece. Each stake is equipped with a light for use in firing at night. One stake is set up in a convenient location at least 100 yards from the piece. b. (1) (M-1897, M-1897,44). The other stake is set up at the midpoint between the first stake and the piece, and is lined in by the gunner so that the vertical line of the collimator and the two aiming stakes are all in the same vertical plane. Any lateral displacement of the piece during firing can then be detected easily and corrected for as indicated in paragraph 40. For night use, the lights should be adjusted so that the far one will appear several feet higher than the near one. The two lights thus will clearly establish a vertical line on which the vertical line of the collimator can be laid. (2) (M-2, M-1916, M-1916A1, M-1917, M-1917A1). The other stake is set up at the midpoint between the first stake and the piece, and is lined in by the gunner so that the vertical hair of his sight and the two aiming stakes are all in the same vertical plane. Any lateral displacement of the piece during firing can then be detected easily and corrected for as indicated in paragraph 40. For night use, the lights should be adjusted so that the far one will appear several feet higher than the near one. The two lights thus will clearly establish a vertical line on which the vertical hair of the sight can be laid. 40. Correction for Lateral Displacement. (All models). When the gunner notes that the piece is out of line with reference to the aiming stakes, he reports that fact to the chief of section. The gunner continues to lay the piece, using the far stake, until cor- rection is authorized by the executive. The piece is then moved back into its original position, or a correction is made as follows: The gunner lays the piece by using the far stake, then refers to the near stake, and finally lays on the far stake with the new reading. The stakes are then realined by moving the near stake. This correction is effective only when the stakes have been equally spaced as indicated in paragraph 39. | | || —- | advºkyº ra) \ºe s\ ſº \5 * sº º ==-º- Trail spade seats against log & S ... ... . . Plate 37. Preparation of Trail Logs (M-1897, M-1897A4). 41. Trail Logs and Platforms. (Models M-1897, 1897.44, M-1917, M-1917A1 Only). (Plate 37). a. When soil conditions are unfavorable and the necessary material can be procured, the handling of the piece will be greatly facilitated by the construction and use of improvised wheel mats, trail logs, and platforms. b. In order to facilitate shifting the trail in fire against moving targets, a trail log should be constructed conforming to the arc described by the spade and permitting shifts of at least 800 mils. A block shaped to provide a smooth bearing surface against the trail log should be fastened to the spade. The trail log should be graduated every 50 mils; the upper part of the shield and the float should also be graduated in mils. Note. An excellent trail log is made by forming a fascine, or bundle of 15 to 25 green saplings, SERVICE OF THE PIECE 567 of proper length and from 9% to 1 inch in diameter. This form of trail backing is resilient and tends to prevent the trail from sticking in muddy soil. The bundle will conform to the proper shape by usage, or may be formed into an arc by bending the ends over a caisson body, sprinkling it with water, and retaining it in that position until it becomes set. 42. Reporting Errors. (All models). Each member of the gun squad should be constantly impressed with the importance of reporting promptly to the chief of section any errors made by members of the gun squad. The chief of section will report errors immediately to the executive as prescribed in paragraph 25. 43. Cease Firing. (All models). The command Cease firing normally is given to the gun squad by the chief of section, but in emergencies anyone present may give the command. At this command, regardless of its source, firing will cease immediately. If the piece is loaded, the chief of section will report that fact to the executive. Firing is resumed at the announcement of the range or elevation. If the battery is not to fire again for several minutes the command “Cease Firing” should be given; and followed by the command “rest.” 44. Suspend Firing. (All models). The command Suspend firing is given only when the battery is firing on a prearranged schedule and a temporary halt in the firing is desired. At this command, firing is stopped, but settings continue to be altered in conformity with the schedule. If the piece is loaded, the chief of section will report that fact to the executive. Firing will be resumed at the command Resume firing. 45. Changes in Data During Firing. (All models). The announcement to the gun squad of any new element of firing data serves as a signal to stop all firing previously ordered but not yet executed. If the piece is not loaded at the announcement of a new element of firing data, the new data will be set off and firing resumed at the announce- ment of the range or elevation. If the piece is loaded with shrapnel and the new data require a change in the fuze setting, the piece will be unloaded (par. 46). If no change in fuze setting is required or if the piece is loaded with shell, the new data are set off, and the firing is resumed. 46. To Unload the Piece. . a. (All models). When the command Unload is given, No. 1 opens the breech, and No. 2, standing at the breech, receives the *; --ed round with both hands. In case the extractor fails to eject the round, the rammer must be used. b. (1) (M-1897, M-1897.44, M-2, M-1916, M-1916A1). No. 1 takes the sponge-and- rammer staff and inspects the rammer head to see that it is thoroughly clean and that the recess for the fuze is free from any foreign matter. Under the direct supervision of an officer, he inserts the rammer head in the bore and pushes it carefully in until it encloses the fuze and comes in contact with the projectile. He pushes the rammer head gently against the projectile and, if necessary, taps the rammer staff lightly to dislodge the projectile. He then pushes the projectile out of the breech while N6. 2, standing at the breech, receives the round in both hands. (2) (M-1917, M-191741). The gunner takes the sponge-and-rammer staff and in- spects the rammer head to see that it is thoroughly clean and that the recess for the fuze is free from any foreign matter. Under the direct supervision of an officer, he inserts the rammer head in the bore and pushes it carefully in until it incloses the fuze and comes in contact with the projectile. He pushes the rammer head gently against the projectile, and, if necessary, taps the rammer staff lightly to dislodge the projectile. He then pushes the projectile out of the breech while No. 2, standing at the breech, receives the round in both hands. c. (All models). To unload a shell fitted with the M-46 or M-47 type fuze, the special rammer head for handling such fuzes must be used. When practicable, the procedure prescribed in TR-1370-A (Plate 38) should be followed. 47. Misfires. a. (M-1897, M-1897.44, M-2, M-1917, M-1917,41 ). In the event of a mis- fire, at least three attempts to fire the primer will be made. The breechblock will not be opened until at least, 2 minutes have elapsed after the last attempt to fire (AR 750-10). Rounds which have misfired will be removed from the battery position and disposed of as prescribed in TR 1370-A. b. (M-1916, M-1916.41). In the event of a misfire, at least three attempts to fire the 568 SERVICE OF THE PIECE primer will be made. The breechblock will not be opened until at least 2 minutes have elapsed after the last attempt to fire (AR 750-10). The procedure specified under “Misfires and hangfires” in TR 1305-75 B will be disregarded. Rounds which have misfired will be removed from the battery position and disposed of as prescribed in TR 1370-A. 4%4" or other suitable size timber *— *_-wooden rammer * cross-section. OF Cannon. — z_-rope apparatus For Ünseatin gºtile (3ee(%ze/öA2) rope º % à == à projectile º – men worki at rope (Žežaſ COL'ez- lºv/26/2 Aoss/Ze) (1)METHOD OF EXTRACTING A PROJECTILE. * * * * * * * I A3 -3.O.” - r T--Fº yº N | S. | ſ `--------------- _{\\ - — — —ſh "f ºmºm º ºsmº A-29" | | I'l---|| || \ , PºojecTIL; ; ; & FUSE i !! # |})NRAMMER. A-6.O | ºl-i---------|-- f \ e- - !------- //{\\\||= − \ \ E- * * = * * * * Lllºwtº |-- 3/25” —134a2+ (2)APPARATUS FOR UNSEATING FROJECTILE. Z277e/250/25 show/2:4-A or 75,772., B-Abr/55.72m. Plate 38. Precautions to be Taken in Unloading (M-1897, M1897A4). Note. Unloading should be supervised by an officer. ALL projectiles (both shrapnel and shell) are dangerous when they must be extracted with a rammer. All personnel not absolutely required to expose themselves should take cover. When extracting a projectile by the method shown above, the breechblock is closed if the cartridge case has been detached and been removed, or, as in the case of the 155-mm howitzer, if the separate loading powder charge has been removed. If such is not the case, the breechblock should be opened and some other means taken to prevent the projectile from falling on the ground or on the trail when forced to the rear. \ \ \ \ 48. Ammunition. a. (All models). Ammunition must be protected from damage, especially to rotating bands and cartridge cases. When it is received, it should be sorted into lots and placed in the best available storage. Ammunition data cards should be retained until after all ammunition pertaining thereto is expended. Fuzes must not SERVICE OF THE PIECE 569 DATA BOARD SECTION 4– Base Deflections Calibration Corrections Aiming Stake Auxiliary Aiming Point |Def. Range Aºſk / A/A ZZT PL 14 || Zaize Zree-zz rº: | 0 2OOO 1:7% - GOOO - 7 AZ /O-/7”/30 £% 4OCo -3.7% DR ZOO Barrages E © 07.1NTAND3 Ammunition sitºions ſaz, Z Zºo 5.7x7F. ZF5 Lot Nurnbar A/OA’ z" - Žižel 37–72 gºgº 4ma | *.*.* Minimurn Ra rºgº Setting —A2 5 O } Mininnurri El 2v stion – 2 5 Plate 39. The Section Data Board (M-1897, M-1897A4). be stored with other components, and all components should be kept in their water- proof containers until their early use is anticipated. Protection should be provided against moisture, dirt, the direct rays of the sun, and, so far as practicable, against hostile artillery fire and airplane bombs. Protection against weather, dirt, and sun may be obtained by the use of paulins below and above the ammunition, and suitable dunnage below and between the layers. Protection against hostile fire may be obtained by the use of small dispersed stacks, trenches, or dugouts. 570 SERVICE OF THE PIECE b. (All models). Care must be exercised to keep sand and dirt out of the adapter threads of unfuzed ammunition. The fuze wrench must be used to seat fuzes. c. (1) (M-1897, M-1897.44, M-2). With HE shell, Mk. I or Mk. IV, or chemical shell Mk. II, the M-46, M-47, Mk. IV, or Mk. V fuzes may be used. The M-35 fuze may be used with the normal charge. (2) (M-1916, M-1916A1, M-1917, M-1917A1). With HE shell, Mk. I or Mk. IV or chemical shell, Mk. II, the M-46, M-47, Mk. IV, or Mk. V fuzes may be used. 49. The Section Data Board. (All models). When positions are occupied for more than a few hours, a data board may be used by each section for recording such items as base deflection, calibration corrections when appropriate, minimum range or eleva- tion, data for primary defensive fire missions, and other data the need for which may be urgent. 50. Firing-Jack Floats. (M-2 Model only). Wooden floats may be prepared for the firing jack for use in soft and muddy ground, to prevent the jack from sinking so far into the ground that the weight of the gun is wholly or partially on the wheels. Such floats may be devised of timbers and should be at least 2% feet long and 1% feet wide. 51. Firing From the Wheels. (M-2 Model only). In an emergency, the piece may be fired from the wheels, with the trails closed or open. In this case, the chief of section must watch the degree of traverse and elevation closely to be sure that the gun in recoil will not strike the trails. As soon as practicable, the trails should be opened and the piece raised on the firing jack. CHAPTER XI CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF MATÉRIEL 52. General. a. (All models). This chapter covers such operations in the care and maintenance of the matériel as may be performed by a battery in the field. b. (1) (All models). Complete instructions for battery maintenance, including dis- assemblies, are found in the Technical Regulations and Standard Nomenclature Lists referred to in paragraph 2, especially in the Government Publication shown below. Operations not covered therein are the function of the ordnance maintenance company. (2) (a) TR 1305-75 A (Now TR 320.95), SNL C-4, and SNL C-25. (b) TR 1305-75A (now TR 320-95) and SNL C-12. (c) (M-1916, M-1916A1). TR 1305-75B and in SNL C-2 and SNL C-30. (d) (M-1917, M-1917A1). Handbook of the 75-mm Gun Matériel, M-1917 (British). c. (1) (All models). In general, the battery is charged with preventive maintenance, that is, with routine cleaning, lubricating, and preserving. Certain classes of repairs, adjustments, and replacement of parts may also be made under the direction of an officer or the chief mechanic. Parts which may be drawn by a battery for replacement purposes are indicated in the Standard Nomenclature Lists shown below and are indicated by the symbol %. Unless specifically prohibited, such parts may be installed by the battery mechanic. For routine care and maintenance, specific duties are assigned to individuals, squads or sections, and a strict accountability for the proper performance of such duties is enforced. (2) (a) (M-1897, M-1897,44). SNL C-4, for the M-1897 gun, SNL C-25 for the M-1897A4 gun. (b) (M-2). SNL C-12. (c) (M-1916, M-1916A1). SNL C-20 or SNL C-30. d. (1) (M-1897, M-1897,44). Disassemblies which may be performed in the battery are the following: (a) Breech and firing mechanism. (b) Sweeper plate and guide. (c) Piston-rod coupler key. SERVICE OF THE PIECE 571 (d) Rocker-arm trunnion caps. (e) Dismounting of gun from cradle. (f) Dismounting of cradle from carriage. (g) Removal of respirator. (h) Removal of filling and drain plug. (i) Shields. (j) Axle. (k) Elevating screw pin and range-elevation screw. (1) Range scale. (m) Elevating-crank assembly. (n) On M-1897 carriage, removal of wheels, axle collars, axle washers, brake frames, brake shoes, and brakefork keys. (o) On M-1897A4 carriage, removal of major parts of high-speed adapter, includ- ing axle brackets, compensator assembly, brake assembly, radius rods, seat supports, wheels, and tires. (2) (M-2). The following operations may be performed within the battery: (a) Draining and replenishing recoil liquid. ſ (b) Removal or adjustment of respirator. . (c) Removal of gun from carriage. (d) Removal, disassembly and replacement of parts of the breech, operating, and firing mechanisms. (e) Removal or adjustment of equilibrators. (f) Dismounting recoil mechanism from the cradle. (g) Removal, care, and maintenance of wheels and wheel bearings, including tires. (h) Maintenance and adjustment of brake mechanism. (i) Care and maintenance of the firing jack. (j) Adjustment of the automatic pole support. (k) Replacement of minor parts or assemblies as listed in the Standard Nomen- clature List, such as the flexible joint on the traversing handwheel shaft, traversing and elevating stops, drawbar assembly, shoulder guard assembly, screws, nuts, cotter pins, gear case covers for semiannual cleaning, etc. (3) (M-1916, M-1916A1). The following disassemblies may be performed in the battery: (a) Breech and firing mechanism. (b) Recoil mechanism. (Not authorized for M-1916M1A1 matériel (St. Chau- mond recoil.) (c) Dismounting of gun from cradle. (d) Wheels. (e) Shields. (f) Sight, M-1916. (g) Rocker and rocker arms. (h) Top carriage. (i) Equalizing gear and pinions. (j) Brake mechanism. (k) Trails. (4) (M-1917, M-191741). In general, the following disassemblies may be performed within the battery: (a) Barrel assembly from cradle. (b) Breech and firing mechanism. - (c) Recoil mechanism, including dismounting of outer spring case from cradle. (d) Shields. (e) Elevating mechanism, except elevating screw. (f) Crosshead assembly and traversing screw. (g) Axletree assembly and axle brackets. h) Wheels. ( (i) Brake mechanism. 572 SERVICE OF THE PIECE (1) Operations necessary for the replacement of worn or broken parts as listed in SNL C-27. >> ∞）� „C. Þ~ •） E TE $ $ q.) ºd † – (!) • •=. £; £ R ſ |- „~, ~：4 ^~~^ *(268I-LWI) uLAAťJp-ºSJOH ‘95eļu ſeo puſē un 9 go uoſqťoļJą nr I ’0’ſ) 04'eſ： [ 9 N 1×2 vº o Nv H (Q）→asvavo oni 1v2.ſvg ni Tvwa， w @ * ^^ ■ M.J.\^ — ^^ №. 9 M × { s Hl. 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(d) 14 vºs vyao Hwoa 3 uus ao ano Nv @ @ @-->Nſuff EJ @3 DV-ſ 8 m s G 3 SO « x 3 * g T. x v^ 1 + 0 + g * u vīto 2 3 Txw @ + \ſuſ!cſ-> @ @ to) 13 v Hs un vwovno w wo^ aYvwa 3 ºvº u n s d3 soºxa º a Txw @ EJ ſuſQ> @ @ vo) º 1 2 3 T º 13 × 3 vua a Txw (d) 1 H O 1 \} * 13 × 3 vua a 1xy @ O Q>w EJ GD( P ) (s 3. To H S) º 1N now 1 H 9 1S (o) w wo^ aXwuq @ @ @->cſ-> E] @ 1431 ºdvo Not NN ng L u H o rw º dv2 Nol N N n v 1 © E] cſ->q-> El @ 13 a 1 ºg vaw º walio w 13 × 2 vº 1 Hºoiv * uwag 'w 31 Tog 13%>Y^ @ G] cſ->w E] © (ºxq) 1931 ºs Hıva v 3 i Tow & Nv sagits (ºſº) 1H01） * sHuwa wannov GNv s 3011s @ EJ�cĽ> [E] @1 + RT “LN OM A * v） ? T no w 13 × 3 v ſº : 1.kºlu ‘l Nov 4 º wallow laxov^ @ EJ ºp + @ sw3.on nid o Nv 31v1a vsøanas (•) \! o lyd id sł w @ GJ wſw E] © 13 an º wantov aizz.nw u Hºuw • v3ıow aizz nw @ Ej w 53. Cleaning. a. (1) (M-1897, M-1897.44, M-2, M-1916, M-1916A1). Dirt and grit cumulated in traveling, or from the blast of the piece in firing, settle on the bearing surfaces, and in combination with the lubricant form a cutting compound. Powder foul- ing attracts moisture and hastens the formation of rust. Therefore, at lulls during firing and immediately after firing the piece must be thoroughly cleaned. At other times it should be cleaned at intervals not exceeding 2 weeks, depending upon the use and SERVICE OF THE PIECE 573 lubricated h a rag. described in paragraph 57c. Dirt and grit accumulated in traveling or from the 5 olvent applied wit , and in combination with the re and breech mechanism is Dirt on nonbearing surfaces can usually be removed by water (2) (M-1917, M-1917A1). blast of the piece in firing settle on the bearing surfaces condition. or other greasy parts must be cleaned with dry-cleaning s The procedure in cleaning the bo * (†VA68I-IN) UIAA e Ip-x[on]）, ºººº!…It O puſe un 9 go uſoņeoĻIQ n'I ‘Iſ 34eſ， I s H I N O \， x Is A J 3 a 3 Oºnixºva o nvH Ģ>3.svgvo º Niwwag na a Han v 3 a 13 GÐ sx = 3^^ o^l x \! 3^3 +Hıon 2 Jo Hs nºg ſuſºsvavº ºni Ivºivanı ıvgınıw q) Anwaaaa a sinau a º lo º axiawas invisno? 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O 3 S od x 3 º 3 T xv ( b ) “14 v Hs in 3 3 + ^4 & Nv H o N | sv 3 Aww u 1 3 3 T º 13 × pºw\，} g za T. x v (p) (S 3 T o H s ) 1 N now i Hº : S （ 1 ） E T ‘4 V D N O | N N n \J. L. “_L + 3 T ‘ \J V 3 \! º Y， 3 i now 13 × 2 v^ @ Q @ 6) @ Q @ Q) @ (9) E] [3] G. El El E + E + + + + + O O + + + Gj + E! E! 4 + + + (9) (q) “133T “SH Lw& \}3 n nog º SBG 1 ms º 1 2 3 i ºl N 0 \}.3 * \} annow ug Y. Ovº S \! 39 N (mºld Q N\/ 3 ） w/ T& \& 2 & 3 º pa S 1 + 3 T * \\ 3 \TO\，; 3 T 2 Zn | J. 4 D (jº -q-e () tº 3. y the Ordnance The following cleaning materials are issued b Dirt on nonbearing surfaces can usually be removed by water Department for use in the field lubricated or other greasy parts must be cleaned with dry-cleaning solvent applied with a brush or rag. lubricant form a cutting compound. Powder fouling attracts moisture and hastens the (3) (All models). formation of rust. 574 SERVICE OF THE PIECE (a) Soda ash (dehydrated sal soda). Used for cleaning the bore, breech mech- anism, and firing mechanism after firing. It is preferred to kerosene be- For removing grease. (b) Dry-cleaning solvent. cause it does not leave a corrosive film, and to gasoline because it is less inflammable. (c) Crocus cloth. This is the coarsest abrasive permitted for cleaning rust and stains from bearing surfaces. ºu nº ZWZWI 9ų3 04 OSI 8 sºțIdde q-ſeqo SțUĮ SUIO!!!80gĮpour SnoțAqO UĻĻAA ’040N *ZIAI ‘unſ) UIUII-g!, “ļJeųIO UIO!!ť0Į Iqnº I º&# 94ťIGI *Jaſom uį uoſs.Jaujųjų J94,0 p3)||2003J 3q pĮmous sºuſ Joaq 1034M - sa20.juns pºļuļodun puo pasodxø Jøųo IIo può ºsapiſs 'suus;uoq0au 8UIJų puo q239）， '0/0q ºqooyuqmiBSW380 ONLIWO188m 31||Haw&0 G) puo upºp ‘Şuļuſ, Jo!Jº! 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Used for cleaning unfinished or non-bearing steel surfaces only. Issued in five degrees of coarseness, of which 00 is the finest. For general cleaning purposes. f the gun squad in routine cleaning and main- jute. Issued for cleaning the bore. , clean rags, and sponges. (f) Cotton waste b. A division of duties for members o (e) Burlap, tenance is as follows: The gunner—the sighting s quadrant. -1897, M-1897.44, M-1916, M-1916A1). (b) (M-2). The gunner—the telescope mount and gunner's quadrant. (1) (a) (M equipment, including the gunner SERVICE OF THE PIECE 575 (c) (M-1917). The gunner—the sights and all sighting equipment including the 5 gunner S Q uadrant. (2) (a) (M-1897, M-1897,44). Nos. 1 and 2 the breech mechanism and bore, the range scale, and the rangescale shaft. Nos. 1 and 2 the breechblock, firing mechanism, and the bore. No. 1 will clean and, if necessary, oil the range quadrant. (b) (M-2). (c) (M-1916, M-1916A1). Nos. 1 and 2—the breechblock and the bore. 916I-IN “uno uiuu-gi, '\neqo uoſ, eoſqn'ſ '87 oreia In où usao ſon uuo yw >>upupuo kqpºxºva -(q) s».» oſans buvuo>q pºrºdwaa sº so p • • • • • » : Isº a u nouu au bu s ºs u • • v • q > • uubu ı ） ; ;p v ø œ •••4 q * > Moq ºu , !ro pudkapºs， q súa• 234 y 2 = pu w I Å， bu ! » d s ºuv u o sº p r is aux pºu o ºsvu svu o q>șuu but subts puo ºbuiåų ‘ąºssaq »ų; ito púo uopp ' buur, u， slını bútanP půd （buvų »uorºq ſſº, pipaujuſ -(o)33 10M; S H L N O 1：N X \ S \\] ])/\）] © S YA 3 3 ^^ Oº^^ L \\+ 2 AB + swaarº 0^1 Åw3a3 a slaw， Huo º 32 inw.3s INvus No.2 N1 N2 H^a - „ȚIyQ GJ Q 2 [ 1 & d \/ N 3 H ^^ |+ D 1 \ººl º N t n d 'n Op "| i \^ \J ſ. |-! Þ.A. vºn 3. O \/& § N !d J. B. YA D \，\!9 \\ 2 1\/?! 3 0 \/d S (z ) S N 14 o N 1 N 31. svig 3.3 v1s: 3 0 N ods (o) e 3 o N ( 8 ) ► si Nv H 23 v. 9 N i w 13 ? "HD33wę º zawoa (o) → 3 on taer) N iv H2 • • Noustº º 9 Niwas o N i soix ( 2 ) S N × 4 × N i T u o^ld 3 ng Nv H o N | iw w 3 & O ( 2 ) S N jd. 9 N 1 N 3 ISV 3 390 g T.S ył pw \; \} 3 \ N 1 0 & -3 m w DS 3 0 N \， \J \^ \J \^ \J 3 X DOY, (søn.» z) 14wks 13 awao nvH 9 Ni lwa 313) dv2 www w Był bow ÎN 1dw NvwºT º 3 ** /* O N \， +\ 9 N i lw’A E º 3 (s d n > c ) _1.3 % ovº º 3.1 1s Jo 3. Tº Nºw N 14 Y N v \$2 ºn 33 H NA O N v }{ g 1 iç go 3 T 2 Ny ( d n > 1 ) 3 2 v \， Q !！! \! \! \! 3 × 2 0 \! 1. “№ Oº O N I 1 D 3 M N O D T I \^ \J JL (Nao Hs 10N)(z) s Nid 32 NIH 9 NI N31$v3 o 13 i H s doi {& n > n ) √3 ≠ 9 N w ſł 3 \\ v 8 9 (S) SN 14 3 DYYNIT 3 X w \!9 (9 N 11.114 ºvo anº nv | 23 d s ) ? a Twa n 10 i 33 H^^ {N^A O Hºs loN) (*) s N 14 za o N I H G 13 i Hs (4 no 1 ) N ou N 14 0 N ( z / Tv no 3Œ (q) → 3 o N ( yuj) (3 swawo autºavwo) viva o 9 N iz 1īvno3}} �º ºre �， � ( d n > I ) d w 2 y^{ \div \d 3 \\ p 0 \! Nid º \d n > 1) dvo Nol N N n \!1 (q) a 30 M-9 \\ \ H snº ww3.9 9 N \ z \！\vn og ( d n2 i ) 9 N 1 \\ v 3 º 13 VHS $ $ 082 9 N11 w A3 T-3 (4 no ſ ) (\u0a + 'suomuid u >>^ 334 ) ww. oa« 3.1 is 3o 312 Ny s ao li s » 2ww on ſıv^313 (s.d. n > k) oN | ww3.a 3 T1N id (søn， z) u uvaes s sowo 31 is ºo a 10 Nv)‘a ovi vw vx dou Aºi º №. 3 s sv. H D LVT NOYJ.J.\y (?) S N \ d y， \div 9 N 1 N × n.L 3 ATVA ( d n > 1 ) ≡ 3 ao o ſavia 9 ſo N 1 N × n. l. 3 Anwa (søn 2 S ) \} 3 0 N I T ^2 o N i w dºs No S 3 G | T S Nid 39 N | H \; 2 AO2) Yº 2 Q N ĮTAD 9 Nț\， dS + E + + + E. G. G] [5] [º] O G] [3] G + + […] + + + + […] + E + E E + […] [...] [E] + + -} + Ș7 Vāſ, （） Hlohº wo HS ng g ſuſ * O 3 l \， D 1 Q N 1 $º !... d 3 DX3 S._1\} \， d \} 3 \ + ſ_O O N \/ Sdn D （1 IO （TV 1, y o 3 sin- \}} T \Ow Q TJ | Tle{e} \/ /\\ 0 H （~O ---* + G] [5] [5] + El El G] e -- + + + + G] G] + + + + E! E] [2] -- EJ G] + + El G] + + + + + 6 O a 1 O N ºg y g H ^A Q a s n 3 ç\/3\39 9N I L\/2 I\} g ni J1||HdW/89 · 4. os a no av N3 H ^^ (os - 3ws) Aavº H 3 s n ! - „os ^^ o T 38 si a u n lv - \} ad į J3 L N 3 H ^^ (02 - 3\/s) T 10 1 H 9 IT ºg S []. “ O 3 LV 2 ſq N I S v 14 3 2 X 3 S 1\d\/d ni v No 03 s n - T IO 9 N 1 ly) (yſg n T S 1 N \/ 0 \\] º [\ T\ ( N ^ o Hs lo N ) - (q) e ao N (×) (3 swswso ? ut waww.ºo) w 3 u no 8 w 3 N N ! ' s o N 1 \} ds ºn lo 2 av daun no.2 9 N \ ^1 & no D ºn ſwyd J. }ł D.J.\^ ^\ : Q\/& S Nid 4.3 × )\， Y}{3 }\ D 1\/ Ti ſº o vº S. ( 2 ) s Nid 9 N IN 31 swae º ºvus 3 9 No.4 s 8 = Đ N n ta ++ 3.1 v T \dwº yłº 0，1 %) NI “I 3 AV \J ）, Jl. O A 1 d. 3 ? O N \， \{ 0 N \ \， | -3 (z ) SN 13 YAN'ın Y X. Tº v . 3 s sv u ºv Hs 9 N ſurº (2) s Nid 9NIN 3.1$v3 3 9031s ÎN \ d \O NI MW3 g \， \fº Y DOT ON IT-3 A\!\!1 S 30 IT S （ A^2 \ſ? § ©N IT 3A 3 T Ç ç Ovº 2 N 14 YA DOT ºd 0 ) $ 333 1 2 \ \， \，\! O N vae! N \ d \\ N\/\* D T 2 3 H ^^Q Nv H 9 N \ 1\/A 3 （ 3 ($4 nº C ) \! 3 A 02 13 Yı bvw Q 3.1 is go º 19 NV (só no c) 13 × bwygº 3 li s do 3 nº Nºw ( 2 ) S N 14 M N | T 1 H 91s N Nd Yi N \，\! ) T 2 3 H ^ G N \， \{ 0 N t S \! º A \!\， 1, ( €) s N t º 4 sv H º ? 9 N 1 H 3 svo s uw va 3 vivºs ( £) SIN łd 3 $w H ≤ 39 N 1 H 3$v2 ago2s2 1 au o 1 www o NY， Jiº! O £ © N | Jl. O £ N N O D *T \\^ \J 1 Nid ºg (3n2 1) &vo Not N N ºſì ( 9 N 1.1.1.1.4 gwo º n + Tv 13 34 s) 3 a nwa n to 1 3 3 H^A ( N ^^o Hs lo N ) ( z ) s Nid ? ： N \ H → N 1 N × 1 sv 3 Q t 3 \ \\ s & 0 r, ( N ^^o HS loN) (+) s Nid 3 0 N I H G na i Hs (& n > 1 ) \} 29 NVH 2 » vvſ, g ( z ) SN 14 ſa ovy! Ni'i gyſwyg, ( 8 nº I ) No 1 N 14 º N I z 1 nºv n o 2 (q) →3oN ( Yu; ) (a.svg wº aut wavwo) w v 39 o N 1 zıīvno? (næx souq •ųıs aepun) (4 m2 1 ) 13 v Hs 3 ivio 3 w w 31 NI 9 Nisų 3 Aww.u. (se no c) dvo w ſłowa 9 N11 VA3 T-3 į 8 a ao» o N Tw4 s t º º no I) ſo N tuwag 3 T 1 N id Ang №. 3 s sv H. D.m.v T NO \; & \/ (søn 2 z) (u ºv Hs ssow 2 3 1 1s + o 3 10 Nv) 3 ovi v dv2 dot ( d n > | } } 3 \\^vYjº G. OYJ N O 1$ \d (o) → 30 N ( sº nº s ) w ao N i nap 9 N 184 s No s 30 ITS N ſed ? 9 N : H × 2 AO D Ya 30 N ITA2 9 N!\，dS (d) (M-1917, M-1917A1). Nos. 1 and 2—The breechblock and the bore. No. 1 will clean and oil the range gear. (3) (All models). No. 3 the fuze setter. g (4) (a) (M-1897, M-1897,44). Nos. 4 and 5 the elevating and the traversin mechanism, the axle, the roller paths, and the inclined planes for the gun slides. (b) (M-2). Nos. 4 and 5–the elevating and traversing mechanisms and the recoil slides. d the traversing mech- (c) (M-1916, M-1916A1). Nos. 4 and 5–the elevating an the gun slides, and the guides. an 1Sms, 576 SERVICE OF THE PIECE At other times it should be (d) (M-1917, M-1917A1). Nos. 4 and 5—the elevating and traversing mech- Before firing, at lulls during firing, and immediately cleaned and lubricated at intervals not exceeding 2 weeks, depending upon its use and anisms, the gun slides, and the cradle guideways. tion. M-1917A1 only). the piece should be cleaned and lubricated. (5) (All models). Higher-numbered cannoneers assist in the operations as directed 1917, c. (M- by the chief of sec after firing, IV916I-IAI ‘unſ) uIuI-g!, ‘qJeųO uſoņeoĻIqn’I “†† 94ťIJI ºſnou Jºno IonUUD 10 93uoupJO Kq paypoº- (q) �? ºsnº oyuns ºuļu03q posodxò}}№ſſºſ}}3SW389 ONIHW38 n33HM 83313 @) SUUSIUJDU，08U （UJÍJq ‘ºjoq 3ų Iſo puo Aupº3UIųSOM Jaqjy 'Japuſo į，“;ds;¿?§¿#ffff;pUO§）,‘ų999 JQ3SW380 9NIIVOIHGm TwH3NIW ($) 3ų} \!0 pU0 voºț0°8UIJŲ un SInI ?UIJnp pU0*3UIJŲ 300j8q Áļaļo pauuuj!!-(0) :ȚION0NIMOWd (NVH JG， 3SW380 9NIIVÕIBGnı 31 Hºw&O (?) "SHIN0W XIS AB3A3 → 'NYO 9NIIVOIHGnı 38 nSS388 Hae-n ‘3.09 3AOÛw N3HM (OG-3WS) s●10 AAV3H 3Sn ; 3.0G MOT3G SI Sył33M OM1 AH3A3 +HLOTO 80 HS(\ſig tº38[\]\783dW31 N3HM (Q2-3\/S) "SX33M OM1 AB3A3 3SIMB3H10 °30||MB3S INVISNOO NI NGHM ATIVO G)（8310 w T101H0h 3Sn-TIO 9NIVOIHºm Q) 03|Tidd\7 NGHWM03|Tidd\7 WOHS1NWO|Hºſ\Tl ( (Q) 9ļONŒœ?"） + (D 13WOOS ? TTV8 •(NMOHS JON) 83100 $ 83NNI ‘SON|8dS TIOO3H83||NQOO (2) e ſug__—ĢĒJ + Q) HOLwn 3OwgS H01WT 3Gºds Q + ep\ſ?Ų + Q) Nid 13MOVHG HOIwT 3QwgS Nid 13MDV80 HDIVT 30°dS Q) + w|�' + Q) (£) SNld 3TQNWH MOOH NOLIOJNNOO Tſwael Nid NOLIOJNNOO TV81 Q) + w|J + Q) (2) SN|d 9NIN31SWJ JJWIS 39NO4S (2) SN|d 9NINGISWA 33v1S 39NOds Q + wŲ + Q) H30Nm'ld HOIWT HWG WOOT ONTJAWHL (0)340N-WS|NWHO3W 9NIHIJ ?‘HO3383'3HOG (D E ti'jŲ GJ () 10Nd 3TQNWH 9N813 (0)940N-NIWHO 8‘NOISId ‘9NÈJJS ONISOTO () GJ wiſ|Ų GJ Q) (2) SNld MNIT ? ATGWBSSW 13%AS ONIJA (2) SN'd YN 110Nd 3TCNVH 9NIwł3d0 QGJ w{Ų + Q) (2) SN|d 9NIN31Sw3 39QETS (2) SN|d 9NINGISWA 300GTS Q) + w}|};Ų + Q) Nid 9N8V38 HWGMOOT ONTJAWHI Y098 HB1N10d 3TVOS 30NW， WHw HBM008 (!) E w|，}Ų GJQ S30 TS 3 M380S 9NIT3ABT SSOHO (Sd^02)(1+VHS TEBHMGNWH ONLIVATB) dwp www BBM008 @ E qy|ſj||• • •�. El Q) Nid yſOOT 3d00S3TBL OIWWBONwd • Nd MNWHO TBBHMONWH ONLIVAJT3 (ſ) + \pÑ%Ų + Q) Nid MNV80 TB3HMGNWH ONLIVAJTE (Sdnº º) 13MOVBG BIS 30 310Nw Q) G. wS\\|5||KğÇ GJQ) (Sdnº 9 ) 83A00 13MOwBQ 31IS 30 310Nº Nid y NV80 TBBHMONWH BIS 30 310Nw Q + w}}##ųj E] (T) (Sdnº º) 13MOWAG BIS 30 310NW, (dnº I) 30wHG WHW HEMOOH Q E Ç»ſºſ2- № ĒĢ ģ ĶķĻļŅņ, įſęſ 1108 9NIIDENNOO Twtil Q) + w~`ſ}}##față�) + Q) Nid y Nwºſº T33HMONWH ONISH3Aw 81 (NMOHS 10N) (2) SN|d 30NIH 9NINGISWA GTBIHS d01 Q + wÈffff;"}）;ſējſŲ + Q) (£) SNld dSWH 8 30NIH 3SVO 3d00S3T31 01W WHONwd 13WHS WWO 3 MW88 (€) + Hae-|（#fffff;¡¿Hq） + () ITOG 9NILOENNOO TIV81 MOVB 8 830Nmid 83A3T 3MVH9 (ſ) + \p||gíffffffffae##-#E] (T) Nid ? (dnº I) dVO NOINNÍNHL 9NIHW38 TB3HM (?) e ¡3>Þ}} }}3,5Gº) 9NIHW38 T33HM (NMOHS 10N) (ty) SNld 39NIH OTEIHS (D) -+|1t.(NMOHS 10N) (d^0 ) NOINĮd 9NIZITVÍNO3 (ſ) +}|2Œ+8(2) SN|d 39NIH 9NIN31SW3 QT3||HS d01 (q) 040N – 8/39 9NIZITønŮ3 (@) e №ſ+ (l) (NMOHS 10N) (?) SN|d 39NH QT3|HS (dņ01) dV^ WHW HEMOOH Q) E w+ ($) 13VHS WVO 3yw'89 Nid ? (dn) /) dv2 NOINNI HI Q E w+ (D MOwº ? 830Nm'ld 83A3T 3XW88 (Q) ºļ0N-9NIHSn3 8V39 9NIZIT\/[^03 (2) o tºj+ (D (dn) 1) NOIN|d 9NIZIT\/nO3 (dſ)) 9NIHW38 13VHS SSOHO 9NIIVNETJ Q E we (2) (q).840N-HV39 9NIZIT\/[^03 (d^ODIINOH3'SNO|N|d N33M138) WHOM JIS 30 310Nw @ El și(13}{D\/88 311S 83GN(\) SEGITS 3 DHV 9NIVAJTE Q E wE] (T) (d^0 I) 13WHS 3 IV|03W83|N| 9NISH3AW81 (Sdn0 €) 9NIHW38 3T1Nld (D EI[E] (T) (Sd^0 €) d\!) WHOM 9NIVAJT3 (SdÑO 2)(13WHS SSOHO 31IS JO 3TONV) 39WIJHVO JOL (T) GT;E] (T) (H3A00 9NIBdS I 3 d^0 I) 9NIBV38 3TINĮd ATGWBSSW HOIwT NOddw Q + ∞+ (D AT8W3SSW HOIVT NO8dw (2) SNId Wºłº 9NINH^1 3ATWA (D +E] (T) (Sd^0 2)(13WHS SSO80 31IS 30 3T10NW) 39WIHHVO d01 (d^0 |) H3NOO HW39 9NINH^1 3ATWA OD +}E] (T) (d^0 ) 13MOWH8 QO8 NOISId (Sdnº 9) H3ONITAO 9NIHdS NO SEGITS Q E wEJ (D (D) 240N-(SdnO G) H3ONITAO ONIJđS NO S3QITS Nid 39NIH UBAQO UBONITAO 9NIBdS (D + w+ (D NId 30NIH H3NO) H3ONITAO 9NIHdS ion by passing th fresh grease. After immers and the unpainted bearing surfaces. ings must be cleaned and repacked wi Lubrication instructions for the gun and carriage, lides, elevating and traversing mechanism, trun- , are covered in Plate 45. While being lubricated, parts should be exercised . The cleaning and lubricating of the recoil mechanism Emphasis should also be placed on the proper clean- istribution of the lubricant. The bore, breech mechanism, and firing mechanism should be cleaned to insure complete and even di 1917, M-1917A1 only). M-1917A1 nions, sighting and laying mechanisms, d. (M- as described in paragraph 57b are described in paragraph 56c. ing, drying, and lubricating of the s through water, the wheel bear its condition. SERVICE OF THE PIECE 577 Other parts of the carriage may require more frequent lubrication as a result of par- ticularly adverse conditions. The 54. Lubrication. a. (All horse-drawn models). Caisson limber and M-1916 gun car- riage wheel bearings require 4 pint of lubricating oil daily, or every 25 miles. oil is applied by means of the oiler at the valve in the center of the hub cap without removing the wheel. The automatic pole support on the limber should be packed with mineral lubricating grease at each disassembly. All other parts on these vehicles should be oiled with lubricating oil weekly. “IVAI6I-IN ‘UInſO Uuuu-g!, ‘QJºeųO uſoņeo!…Iqnº I ºgſ, 94 eIGI *sºoo 3-ins 6urpris -uo buſ-Joaq paquļodun puo’-laſ-JJoo »doºs ºſa q. ‘ąųóis Joq-6uixºo.J 's Joab pºsodwa ºsuusvuousavu burung puouſpæa-uq ' • Joqaqooſ Jqni ºbusųsona--JŌbus-2，3-Ja? 3 v(>) ærpo-jo puo sursiuouſsauu 6uis Joao dº puo 6u1ąca ºſo ºbuląųóis ‘6u1-14 'uoea-aeq9 3.Svº að9 9NILWORK'nın 3. LIHdvºjº (9) 3-o savo3-ins buvpils puo bui-Jooq | io puo uoaſºNIYApºd ONVH >$> out-， ut sını bus-in-P puo 6u， y » Joyaq biº ſąorpº uuri (q)\-\_LO“YO （o HS nºgº \，^{ 3Sw3'89 9NI?）\/3G ºn 33Haw （13313 @ 32uoup do ba poºlºod-s33*3 o-ja do ob burºo^æI-3 (d) - s3. LON-3SVERIÐ 9NI Łypł?jºn"ı ºny，ENIw @ Nºnº) SH1NOWN YIS ATBTBAT3 oQN|1\/Oſjºn"! 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Lubrication instructions for the gun and carriage are covered in anticipated, all bright parts should be covered with oil b. (All models). To facilitate identification, all oil holes and grease fittings should Plates 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, and 45. be made conspicuous by circling with bright red enamel. jects may be deeply contaminated, and even hard surfaces may be dangerous for 6 to wiped off and fresh oil applied. If mustard or other persistent gas is used, absorbent ob- 578 SERVICE OF THE PIECE 8 days if the chemical is not neutralized. Surfaces should be sprinkled with calcium hypochlorite or chloride of lime, or painted with a whitewash made from either. After 2 to 6 hours the lime is washed off and the matériel rinsed thoroughly with water. When large quantities of water are available, warm (but not boiling) water should be used instead of whitewash (hypochlorite or chloride of lime). In all cleaning operations, the gas mask and special gasproof gloves must be worn. All cleaning rags, sticks, etc. are disposed by burying. They must not be burned as the heat will disseminate dangerous vapor. ºl. ~AA g- º, R y Zº- –NREsPIRAto: OIL INDEX TRUNNION CONNECTION, RIGHT PLUG, FILLING & DRAINING # = y = OIL INDEX Ol L INDEX OIL lNDEX. CORRECT INCORRECT, INCORRECT, TOO MUCH TOO LITTLE R.F.SF.RVF, R.E.S.E.R.V.E. R.E. SP IRATOR. Plate 46. Places to be Examined for Oil Leakage, and the Operation of the Oil Index (M-1897, M-1897 A4). 56. Recoil Mechanism. a. (M-1897, M-1897.44, M-2). (1) General. Battery mainten- ance of the recoil mechanism is limited to exterior cleaning and lubrication, draining and filling with recoil oil, adjustment of the respirator, and disconnection of the piston rod from the coupler. Only the heavy low-pour-point-recoil oil as issued by the Ordnance De- partment may be used in the recoil mechanism. It is especially important that this oil be kept free of dirt, water, and air bubbles, and that it be not mixed with other oils. A full reserve of oil for the recoil system amounts to approximately one-half the contents of the screw filler. In using the screw filler, care must be exercised to prevent crossing the threads. The screw handle must be turned with both hands. The amount of oil reserve in the system is shown by the position of the oil index with reference to the rear face of the counterrecoil-cylinder rear sealing plate at the rear of the cradle, as follows: (a) No reserve. The indicator is at the bottom of the recess. The piece must not be fired in this condition. (b) Full reserve. The end of the indicator is even with the rear face of the sealing plate. (c) Excess reserve. The indicator projects beyond the rear face of the sealing plate. The piece must not be fired in this condition. (2) Operation prior to traveling. In order to hold the gun firmly in battery during travel, excess reserve oil should be added to the recoil system until the index shows excess oil reserve and stops moving to the rear. This requires about one screw filler of oil for filling from a no-reserve status. (3) Operations prior to firing. (a) Before firing, the reserve oil should be extracted until an insufficient reserve is indicated, then a full reserve should be established by inserting oil until the index is flush with the rear face of the rear sealing plate. (b) The respirator should be removed in order to clean the front interior of the recoil cylinder and to inspect for excess oil leakage. (c) The front end of the recoil cylinder, the filling-and-drain-plug hole, and the oil-index recess should be examined for oil leakage. The presence of a few drops of SERVICE OF THE PIECE 579 oil at any of these places is not important, but if there is an undue leakage the piece must not be fired, and the condition should be reported to the Ordnance Department. (4) Operations during firing. (a) During firing, the recoil mechanism should be maintained at full reserve, the respirator kept properly adjusted, and the rollers and slides kept clean and properly lubricated. (b) The chief of section constantly verifies the complete return of the piece to battery. Firing may be continued as long as the cradle index (at right rear of breech hoop and cradle) remains between the two reference marks on the breech hoop. (c) The chief of section constantly observes the behavior of the recoil mechanism in firing, and takes such action in the case of malfunctioning as is indicated below: TABLE I. DIFFICULTIES WITH RECOIL (M-1897, M-1897A4, M-2) Malfunction Cause Correction Oil index not func- tioning. Index stuck or slug- gish because of paint, dirt, or overtight pack- ing. Withdraw all reserve oil, then insert approxi- mately one-half the capacity of the oil screw filler. Tap the oil index lightly as oil is being added. If it still falls to function notify the Ordnance maintenance company. (In an emer- gency, after bleeding and refilling, the piece may be fired until the gun returns into battery with a shock, when reserve Oil should be extracted, or the gun fails to return to battery, when addi- tional oil should be inserted.) Failure of gun to re- turn to battery. (1) Insufficient oil re- Serve. (2) Dirt, or obstruc- tion. On the slides, roller paths, or rollers. (3) Low nitrogen preSSure; excessive in- ternal friction; dam- aged slides, piston rod, Or piston. Return of gun to battery with a shock. (1) Air from recoil Cylinder escaping too fast through, respirator. (1) Insert sufficient fresh oil to bring the in- gºven with the rear face of the rear sealing plate. (2) Clean and lubricate the slides, roller paths, and rollers. If this fails to correct the trouble, send recoil mechanism to the Ordnance mainte- nance company for repair. (3) Send recoil mechanism to maintenance company for repair. the Ordnance (1) Adjust respirator to give smaller air-vent Setting. (2) Withdraw reserve oil until the index indi- Cates an insufficient reserve, then insert suffici- ent oil to bring the index even with the rear face of the rear sealing plate. (2) Too much reserve oil. b. (M-1916, M-1916A1). (1) General. (a) The recoil mechanism is of the hydro- spring, variable type, in which the length of recoil is regulated automatically by the elevation of the gun. A recoil pit is necessary only when, on level ground, the elevation of the tube exceeds 47° (836 mils). For cleaning, adjusting, and replacing parts, the mechanism may be disassembled under the direction of an officer or the chief mechanic. The liquid used in the recoil cylinder is heavy, low-pour-point recoil oil. Nine pints are required to fill the system. This oil must be kept free of dirt, water, and air, and must not be mixed with other oils. It should be strained through clean cloth before using. The amount of oil in the recoil cylinder may be determined by leveling the gun, removing either of the two filling plugs and observing the oil level. Óil should be visible above the recoil valve. (b) The care and maintenance in (a) above refer to the recoil mechanism of the M-1916A1 matériel. For care and maintenance of the recoil mechanism of the M-1916M1A1 matériel which is equipped with the St. Chaumond recuperator, see FM 6-50. (2) Operations prior to firing. All parts are lubricated as indicated on the lubrica- tion chart for daily oiling. The amount of recoil oil in the recoil cylinder is verified. To bring the recoil oil to the proper level, the cylinder is brought to the horizontal posi- tion, both filling plugs are removed, and oil is added by means of a funnel until it runs out of both filling holes. One tablespoonful is then withdrawn to allow for expansion, and both filling plugs are replaced. When filling an empty cylinder after 580 SERVICE OF THE PIECE disassembly, it is necessary to elevate the muzzle and breech alternately and to shake the mechanism in order to eliminate all air bubbles. After filling, the system should be allowed to stand for 4 hour and then be rechecked for correct level of oil. (3) Operations during firing. Lubrication of the slides and guides is continued dur- ing firing. The functioning of the recoil system is observed closely, and proper measures are taken to avoid or to correct malfunctioning, as listed in the trouble chart below. The movement of the gun in recoil should be smooth and of uniformly decreasing velocity, and the point of maximum recoil should be reached without shock. The counterrecoil mechanism then should return the gun completely to battery without shock. Under normal conditions, the length of recoil is approximately as follows: Length of re- Quadrant elevation (mils) coil (inches) Less than 140 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . e e e 46. 140 to 300 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 to 28. 300 to 485 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28. 485 to 640 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • * * 28 to 18. Over 640 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18. The following chart lists the causes and corrections of malfunctioning: TABLE II. DIFFICULTIES WITH RECOIL (M-1916, M-1916A1) Malfunction CauSe Correction (1) Insufficient oil in recoil cylinder. (2) Weak or broken counterrecoil Springs. Recoil irregular, vio- (1) Fill cylinder; then drain off 1 tablespoonful lent, or excessive. Of Oll. (2) Replace defective springs. (1) Excess oil in re- (1) Drain out 1 tablespoonful of oil. coil cylinder. (2) Dirty or dam- aged slides. Recoil too short (2) Clean and examine slides. If burred, re- pair. If repair cannot be made by chief mechanic, return to Ordnance maintenance company for re- palr. (3) Valve-turn in g mechanism defective. (3) Return to Ordnance maintenance company for repair. Failure of gun to re- turn to battery. (1) Expansion of oil due to rapid and con- tinuous firing. (2) Piston rod gland too tight. (3) Weak or broken counterrecoil springs. (4) Dirt or lack of lubrication OI). gun. slides and guides. (5) Distortion of gun slides or guides. (6) Distortion of pis- ton rod. (1) Remove one filling plug and allow excess oil to escape. Replace filling plug. (2) Loosen gland. (3) Replace defective springs. (4) Lubricate slides and guides. If necessary, retract piece. See paragraph 51 b (2). (5) Notify Ordnance maintenance company. (6) Notify Ordnance maintenance company. Return of gun to bat- tery with a shock. (1) Insufficient oil in recoil cylinder. (2) Piston rod or in- terior of mechanism distorted. (1) Fill system with oil; then drain off 1 table- Spoonful. (2) Return to Ordnance maintenance company for repair. c. (M-1917, M-1917A1). (1) General. The heavy low-pour-point recoil oil as issued by the Ordnance Department should be used in the recoil cylinder. It is especially im- portant that this oil be kept free of dirt and water, and that it be not mixed with other oils. The capacity of the recoil cylinder without gravity tank is 5% pints, or with a gravity tank, 7.8 pints. In case of an emergency, alternative liquids may be temporarily used in the recoil cylinder as follows: (a) Pure glycerine or a mixture of glycerine and water. (b) Any heavy lubricating oil. (c) Soapy water, or water containing a proportion of soda. (d) Clear water may be used in a great emergency only, but for no longer than is absolutely necessary. SERVICE OF THE PIECE 581 (2) Periodic or repair operations. Essential operations which should be performed on this recoil mechanism to insure proper functioning are as follows: (a) Care or replacement of running-out springs. Every 6 months or oftener the running-out springs should be removed, cleaned with dry-cleaning solvent, and inspected for evidence of breakage, undue corrosion, or permanent set. The normal free length of an inner spring is 18.58 inches and of an outer spring 19.65 inches. Any spring, inner or outer, found with a permanent set of 1% inches or more below the normal free length should be replaced. Running-out springs should be coated with graphite lubricating grease at the time of assembly. (b) Care of outer-spring case. Each time the recoil mechanism is disassembled the interior of the outer-spring case should be thoroughly cleaned with dry-cleaning solvent, dried, inspected for burs, wear, etc., and coated with graphite lubricating grease. (c) Inspection and replacement of packing rings. The packing rings should be frequently inspected and replaced if found defective. (3) Operations prior to firing. (a) The recoil mechanism should be inspected for undue oil leakage. Four holes are bored near the rear end of the inner-spring case, and two holes are bored underneath the outer-spring case, one at the front and the other at the rear, in order to afford a means of detecting leaks in the gland. (b) The recoil-cylinder packing rings should be carefully examined and changed if defective. When a packing ring is being tightened, the gland should not be screwed home, metal to metal, in the stuffing box. At least four threads of the gland must be engaged. If the packing cannot be made tight without metal-to-metal contact, a fresh TABLE III. DIFFICULTIES WITH RECOIL (M-1917, M-1917A1) Malfunction CauSe Correction Oil leaking from opening in springcase Cap. (1) Gland not prop- erly screwed up. (2) Gland packing failing to make good ioint. (1) Remove piston-rod nut and outer spring case cap. Screw up the gland, using No. 122 Spanner. Replace cap and nut. (2) Insert additional ring or replace packing with new packing. Recoil too short. (1) Stuffing-box gland too tight. (2) Excess oil in re- coil system (recoil in this case will be vio- lent). (3) Dirty or damaged slide. (1) Examine packing; if screwed up too tight, unscrew the gland as far as necessary without causing oil to leak; if oil leaks, replace packing. (2) Drain out a small quantity of oil. (3) Clean and examine slide. If damaged, re- pair slide. If repairs cannot be made by battery mechanics, send to Ordnance maintenance com- pany for repair. Recoil excessive. Counterrecoil slow. Gun fails to return to battery. (1) Insufficient oil in recoil cylinder (due to leakage at stuffing box). (2) Weak or broken Spring. (3) Front flange of inner-s p r in g c as e broken. (1) Fill the system with oil. Drain off 1/10 pint. Tighten or renew the stuffing-box packing. (2) Replace spring. (3) Send to Ordnance maintenance company for repair. (1) Dirty, scored, or dry slide. (2) Stuffing box gland too tight. (3) Weak or broken counterrecoil spring. (4) Front flange of inner-s p r in g c as e broken. (5) Gun slides guideway distorted. Or (1) Repair (if necessary), clean with dry-clean- ing solvent, dry and lubricate. (2) Unscrew as far as necessary without causing oil to leak. Repack, if oil leaks. (3) Replace the Spring. (4) Send to Ordnance maintenance company for repair. (5) Send to Ordnance maintenance company for repair. Gun returns to bat- tery with shock. (1) Insufficient oil in recoil system. (2), Worn recoil buffer. counter- (1) Refill. Drain off 1/10 pint. (2) Have new buffer fitted by Ordnance main- tenance company. 582 SERVICE OF THE PIECE packing must be used or an additional thin ring packing inserted. Spare packing rings soaked in tallow should be kept ready for immediate use. (c) The recoil cylinder should be correctly filled. If time permits after filling and before any oil is drawn off, the filling-hole plug at the top rear of the cylinder should be kept out for about 15 minutes, after which the cylinder should again be ex- amined to see that it is properly filled. (d) To insure free operation of the recoil mechanism, the gun slides and cradle guideways must be clean, properly lubricated, and free from burs. (4) Operations during firing. (a) The recoil cylinder should be examined from time to time to see that it is full. (b) As often as opportunity permits, the gland should be examined and, if nec- essary, screwed up when the recoil cylinder is hot from firing. The packing is then very plastic and easily squeezed to make a good joint. (c) The chief of section constantly verifies the complete return of the piece to battery. lubricated, and that the recoil cylinder is not leaking. He also insures that the gun slides and cradle guideways are kept properly In the case of malfunctioning he takes such action as is indicated in Table III. 57. Barrel Assembly, Breech Mechanism, and Firing Mechanism. a. (M-1897, M-1897.44, M-2, M-1917, M-1917A1). (1) Operations during firing. (a) During TABLE IV. MALFUNCTIONING OF BREECH AND FIRING MECHANISM Malfunction Cause Correction No momentum to SWing Of firing hammer. Broken firing-rack Spring. Replace Spring. Failure to discharge when proper percus- SiOn On primer is Ob- tained (misfire). Failure to discharge until after several per- cussions on primer { gºner Struck Weak- y). Defective primer. (1) Firing rack and hammer not Working freely. (2) Weak firing-rack pr1.hg. (3) Deformed firing- pin point. (4) Friction on 1an- yard. S See paragraph 47. (1) Disassemble firing mechanism and examine all parts for burs or roughened bearing surfaces. Remove burs or rough spots with crocus cloth or oilstone. Clean off dirt and gummy Oil with cleaning solvent. Dry and coat with lubricating Oil. (2) Replace spring. (3) Replace firing pin. (4) Allow less slack when firing with a long lanyard. Failure to discharge; no per c u ss i O n on primer at all. (1) Safety piece not in firing position. (2) Breechblock not fully closed. (3) Broken firing pin. (1) Set safety piece plunger in the hole marked “Fire” or “Tir.” (2) Close breechblock. (3) Replace firing pin. Failure to extract cartridge case. Broken extractor. Pawl fails to oper- ate. Broken pawl spring or broken breechblock latch Spring. Examine the edge of the See paragranh 46. Replace ex- chamber for burs or deformation. tractOr. If latch spring is broken, replace it. If pawl ; is broken, replace breechblock latch as- sembly. Breechblock does not rotate freely. (1) Lack of lubrica- tion. (2) Burs or roughen- in g of threads of breechblock or breech reCe's S. (1) Remove block, clean recess and threads with solvent, wipe dry; coat lightly with lubri- Cating oil; reassemble. (2) Remove and clean as in (1) above. If burs or roughness are found, the correction must be made by Ordnance maintenance Company. Safety bolt does not remain in upper posi- tion when coupler key is withdrawn. Weak Or broken Safe- ty-bolt s p r in g, or Spring and notch do not engage. Replace safety-bolt assembly. If notch is de- formed refer to Ordnance maintenance company for correction. Safety bolt fails to rise when coupler key is Withdrawn. Safety-bolt shorn. Off. lug is Replace safety-bolt assembly. Note:-The safety bolt cannot rise when the breechblock is closed; forcing out the coupler key with the breech closed results in shearing off the lug. SERVICE OF THE PIECE 583 firing, all exposed bearing surfaces must be kept clean and covered with a thin film of lubricating oil. The sweeper plate and sweeper-plate guide should not allow more than 0.06 inch side play. (b) Whenever the rate of firing permits, the bore should be swabbed with clean water and a sponge. (c) 1. (M-1897, M-1897A4, M-2). The causes and correction of malfunctioning of the breech and firing mechanism are given in Table IV. 2. (M-1916, M-1916A1). The causes and correction of malfunctioning of the breech and firing mechanism are given in Table V. TABLE V. MALFUNCTIONING OF BREECH AND FIRING MECHANISM Malfunction CauSe Correction Failure to discharge when proper percussion on primer is obtained (misfire). Failure to discharge until after several per- Defective primer. (1) Firing mechan- ism not working freely. See paragraph 47 b. (1) See paragraph 47 b. Disassemble firing mechanism and examine all parts for burs or Remove burs or cussions on primer roughened bearing surfaces. (primer struck weakly). rough spots with crocus cloth or oilstone. Clean off dirt and gummy oil with solvent. Dry and coat with lubricating oil. (2) Weak or broken (2) Replace spring. firing spring. (3) Deformed firing (3) Replace firing pin. pin. Failure to extract Broken or damaged See paragraph 46 b. Replace defective extractor. cartridge case. Breechblock does not operate freely. extractors. (1) Lack of lubrica- tion: dirt or grit in mechanism. (2) Burs or rough- ened surfaces on the (1) Disassemble breech mechanism. Clean off dirt and gummy oil with solvent; wipe dry; coat with lubricating oil; reassemble. (2) Remove small burs or , rough spots with crocus cloth or oilstone. In case of deformation of the lugs or guides, notify the Ordnance main- tenance company. (3) Increase the compression on the closing spring by the minimum amount necessary to in- sure closing of the block. See TR 1305-75B. Broken or damaged operating handle or handle stop. b. General. breechblocks, lugs, or guides. (3) Insufficient com- pression on closing spring. Excessive compres– sion on closing spring. (M-1917, M-1917A1 only). lubricated by pulling the gun to the rear Burs or rough spots may be removed with a fine file or oilstone. be washed with dry-cleaning solvent and wiped dry. Reduce the closing spring compression to the minimum necessary to insure closing of the breech. See TR 1305-75.B. (1) Gun slides are examined, cleaned, and until three-fourths of the slide is exposed. The slides should The slides should always be lubricated before returning the gun to battery. (2) Especial care must be exercised to prevent damaging the surface of the quadrant seats. Any repair of the quadrant seats must be made by ordnance personnel. (3) When necessary to use a hammer in disassembly, one of copper should be used. If a steel hammer must be used, a copper drift or hardwood block should be interposed between the hammer and the metal parts of the barrel assembly, breech mechanism, or firing mechanism. (4) (M-1917, M-1917A1). The causes and correction of malfunctioning of the breech and firing mechanisms are given in Table VI. c. Operations after firing. (1) (All models). As soon as possible after firing, the breech-block and firing mechanism should be disassembled, the gun retracted on its slides, and all parts cleaned and lightly oiled. (2) (M-1897, M-1897.44, M-2, Models only). In disassembling the breech mech- anism, the breechblock must be in the closed position before the extractor tang is dis- engaged from the extractor spindle. If the tang is disengaged with the block open, it will drop into the cam groove and jam the block. (a) (M-1897, M-1897.44, M-2 Models only). In order to retract the gun for 584 SERVICE OF THE PIECE TABLE VI. MALFUNCTIONING OF BREECH AND FIRING MECHANISM Malfunction CauSe Correction Fails to discharge Defective primer. See paragraph 47. when proper percus- Sion on primer is ob- tained (misfire). Fails to discharge un- til after several per- cussions Orł primer (primer struck weakly). (1) Firing mechanism not yorking freely. (2) Weak or broken firing spring. (3) Firing pin or re- bound block pin burred or otherwise deformed. (1) See paragraph 47. Disassemble firing mech- anism and examine all parts for burs or rough- ened surfaces. Remove burs or rough spots with a fine file or oilstone. Clean all parts with dry- cleaning solvent. Dry thoroughly and lubricate. (2) Replace with new firing spring. Remove burs or roughened surface with If deformed, replace. (3) fine file or oilstone. Fails to extract car- tridge case. Broken or damaged extractor. See paragraph 46 b (2). Replace extractor. Breechblock does not rotate freely. (1) Insufficient lubri- cation; dirt or grit in (1) Clean the block and recess with dry-clean- ing solvent; wipe dry and lubricate. threads of breech re- CeSS. (2) Burs or rough- (2) Clean block and recess as in (1) above. ness on threads of | If burs or roughness are found, they should be breechblock, breech re- removed with a fine file or oilstone. (No portion cess, or carrier. of the threads should be cut away to remove a crack. In this case, the Ordnance maintenance company should make repair.) cleaning the slides and roller paths, the piston rod must be disconnected from the coupler. To do this the breechblock must be open or previously removed, and the cradle level. (b) (M-1916, M-1916A1 Models only). In order to clean the gun slides and guides, it is necessary to compress the counterrecoil springs by means of the retracting apparatus and drive out the two springrod keys, thus disconnecting the gun from the recoil mechanism. This is not done for routine cleaning. The operation of retracting the gun is described in detail in TR 1305-75 B. When disassembling the counterrecoil springs, care must be taken to have the cannoneers stand clear. In removing the gun from the cradle, ample support must be provided for the breech end so that the gun clips are kept in prolongation of the cradle guides. If this is not done, the cradle guides may be ruined. (c) (M-1917, M-1917A1). The barrel assemble should be retracted until three- fourths of the slide is exposed in order to clean and oil the slides thoroughly. All residue resulting from firing should be removed, using dry-cleaning solvent when necessary, and the slides should be dried and lightly coated with lubricating oil. (3) (All models). The bore, breech mechanism, and firing mechanism are washed with a solution of 9% pound of soda ash or 1 pound of sal soda in 1 gallon of water. Cleaning the bore is accomplished by means of a swab of burlap stitched around the end of the rammer staff. No attempt should be made to remove copper fouling. When all powder fouling has been removed, the bore should be swabbed with clear water and then wiped dry. Finally, it should be lightly coated with lubricating oil, either light or heavy, depending on the weather. The process may have to be repeated on successive days if there is evidence of sweating. If the piece is not to be kept in constant service, the bore should be slushed with rust-preventive compound instead of oil. 58. Cleaning Slides. (M-2 Model only). a. The bronze slides should be examined by retracting the gun until three-fourths of the slides are exposed. Burs or rough spots are removed with a fine file. The slides should be cleaned with dry-cleaning solvent, wiped dry, and coated with a light film of lubricating oil. To retract the gun, lay the piece at zero elevation, open the breech, raise the piston coupler key latch, with- draw the key from right to left as far as it will go, and push the tube to the rear. The gun is placed in battery by reversing this procedure. b. Periodically, or every 2 weeks when in constant service, the gun should be removed SERVICE OF THE PIECE 585 from the carriage in order to clean the entire length of the slides. The gun is removed as follows: (1) Provide at least three heavy timbers to support the gun in a horizontal position when it is being removed. (2) Set the brakes with the carriage in the firing position. (3) Depress the gun and screw the equilibrator assembling nuts their full length on the equilibrator rods. (4) Elevate the gun to zero. (5) Open the breech, raise the piston coupler key latch, and withdraw the key from right to left as far as it will go. (6) Push the gun to the rear, pairs of men at opposite ends of the timbers sup- porting the gun at either end and at the center. Place the gun on wooden blocks or a suitable rest to prevent damage to the slides. c. To replace the gun, the procedure in b above is reversed. 59. Dismounting Recoil Mechanism. From Carriage and Care of Trunnion Bearings. (M-2 Model only). a. At least once every 6 months the cradle should be removed, and the trunnion bearings should be cleaned with dry-cleaning solvent, dried, and packed with medium mineral lubricating grease. The recoil mechanism holding cradle and the recoil mechanism are considered a unit and as such may not be disassembled. When an ordnance maintenance company is readily available, it is advisable that the removal of the recoil mechanism and packing of the trunnion bearings be accomplished by that Ulſl1t. b. To dismount the recoil mechanism from the carriage the procedure is as follows: (1) Remove the telescope mount and range quadrant. (2) Remove the gun from the carriage as described in paragraph 58 b. (3) Loosen the trunnion nut screws and remove the nuts. (4) Remove the screws in the outer trunnion ball retainers. (5) Unscrew the trunnion cap bolts and remove the caps. (6) Raise the recoil mechanism holding cradle and the recoil mechanism slightly, and carefully remove from each of the holding-cradle trunnions the outer trunnion ball retainer, outer bearing plate, cup, ball, inner bearing plate, and spacer. (7) Lift the holding cradle with recoil mechanism clear of the top carriage trunnion bearings and place on wooden blocks. c. The recoil mechanism is mounted on the carriage by reversing the procedure de- tailed in b above. 60. Equilibrators. (M-2 Model only). a. The battery is prohibited from performing any operations other than the removal or the adjustment of the equilibrators. The ad- justment and routine cleaning and lubricating of the equilibrators are accomplished without removing the assembly from the carriage. b. The following procedure is used to adjust an equilibrator: (1) Place the carriage in the firing position. (2) Depress the gun until the equilibrator assembly nut can be assembled its full length on the equilibrator rod. (3) Elevate the gun until the equilibrator trunnion pin is clear of the bearing in the top carriage. (4) Release the equilibrator trunnion pin lock and make the desired adjustment by screwing the trunnion pin in for lesser tension or out for greater tension. (5) After the adjustment is completed, reengage the lock, lower the cradle to seat the equilibrator trunnion pin, and remove the assembling nut. c. An equilibrator is removed from the carriage by following the procedure outlined in b above except that the equilibrator trunnion pin is removed from the equilibrator as- sembly during operation (4). 61. Wheels and Wheel Bearings. a. (M-2). (1) The care and maintenance of the wheel mechanism including tires is a function of the battery. Tire pressure should be maintained at 30 pounds. Tires are removed at least once a year and the disk and rim cleaned and painted. Every 6 months, or oftener if necessary, the wheel hubs 586 SERVICE OF THE PIECE should be removed, the old grease flushed out, new grease pressed into the space be- tween the cleaned and dried rollers and race by hand, and the wheel bearings adjusted. (2) To disassemble the wheel hub from the spindle the procedure is as follows: (a) Remove the hub cap. (b) Remove the cotter pin, slotted nut, and washer from the spindle. (c) Pull the hub from the spindle, being careful to prevent the roller bearing from falling to the ground. (3) To assemble the wheel hub on the spindle the procedure is as follows: (a) Clean and dry the bearings and pack with fiber wheel bearing grease. See that the inner bearing is properly in place. (b) Pack fresh grease in the cavity of the hub. (c) Slide the wheel hub over the spindle, guiding the cup of the inner roller bearing over the cone and rollers, and the brake drum over the brake shoes. (d) Slide the outer cone and roller on the spindle and press it firmly into its seat in the hub. (e) Install the washer and nut, tightening the latter sufficiently to allow the wheel to revolve freely and without end play. (f) Test the bearing adjustment by placing a short bar between the tire and the ground, at the same time holding one finger on the cage of the outer bearing. When, in working the bar up and down, a barely perceptible shake is felt, and the wheel will rotate when given a slight spin, the adjustment is correct. Insert cotter pin and attach the hub cap. b. (M-1917, M-1917A1). (1) General. The care and maintenance of the wheel mechanism, including tires and brakes, is a function of the battery. Tire pressure should be maintained at 25 pounds. Excessive wear may result if the piece is not locked securely in traveling. Tires should be removed at least once a year and the disk and rim cleaned and painted. Every 6 months, or oftener, if necessary, the wheel hubs should be removed, the old grease flushed out, new grease pressed into the bearings and the hub by hand, and the wheel bearings adjusted. Whenever the wheel hubs are immersed in water or there is a possibility of the wheel bearing grease being washed out of the bearings, the wheels must be removed and the bearings and hub cleaned, dried, and repacked with fresh grease. The proper adjustment and operation of the brake mechanism should frequently be checked. (2) Test of wheel bearing adjustment. At all halts during marching, the wheel hubs should be felt for overheating. During the march the wheels should be observed to ascertain that they are running true, without side play. When the bearings are ad- justed, the adjustment should be checked by placing a bar between the raised tire and the ground, at the same time holding one finger on the cage of the outer bearing. When in working the bar up and down a barely perceptible shake is felt, and the wheel will rotate when given a slight spin, the adjustment is correct. (3) Bearing adjustment. To adjust a wheel bearing, the carriage is jacked up, the hub cap removed, the cotter pin extracted from the wheel spindle, and the adjusting nut tightened until it binds, while the wheel is being rotated slowly. The nut is then backed off until the wheel rotates freely but without side play (one-sixth to one-fourth turn). The bearing adjustment should be tested and, when correct, the cotter pin and hub cap should be reassembled. 62. Brake Mechanism. a. (1) (M-1897, M-1897.44, M-2). Brake adjustment is ac- complished by rotating the adjusting wedge. Wheel bearings should be checked for proper adjustment and the brake mechanism lubricated prior to brake adjusting. The procedure for adjustment is as follows: (a) Set brake lever at full released position. (b) Jack up the wheel. (c) Adjust until a drag is felt on the wheel. Then back off just enough so the brake does not drag. Brakes must be cold. (d) The position of the hand lever is adjusted by adjusting the length of the brake rod. SERVICE OF THE PIECE 587 (2) (M-1917, M-1917A1). The brakes are adjusted by means of brake adjusting wedges which are turned clockwise to tighten. Prior to adjusting the brake mechanism, the wheel bearing should be checked for proper adjustment and the brake mechanism lubricated. All parts of the brake linkage must operate positively and freely but without excessive lost motion. At all times, lubrication of the brake cam and rollers must be held at the correct amount to prevent grease from contacting the brake lining. The procedure for adjustment is as follows: (a) Set the brake lever at the full released position. (b) Jack up the wheel. (c) Adjust the wedge until a drag is felt on the wheel, then back off just enough so the brake does not drag. Brakes must be cold when being adjusted. (d) The position of the brake lever is adjusted by changing the effective length of the brake rod. 63. Firing Jack. (M-2 Model Only). a. To prevent the burring of the elevating gears when the gun is dropped from the jack, it should be so elevated that the gun wheels are only about 2 inches from the ground. To avoid running off the rack, the jack should not be elevated beyond the height at which a red mark on the rack appears. b. As soon as practicable after the first few rounds are fired in a position, No. 2 will release the firing jack, lowering the piece to its wheels, reset the jack, and again raise the jack, to ease lateral strain on the jack caused by the settling of the piece during the first few rounds. c. The firing jack should be cleaned and lubricated at least every 2 weeks. During the cleaning, parts should be examined for undue wear and the ratchet plunger spring examined for a possible permanent set, which may result in a slippage of the jack. 64. Miscellaneous Parts of Carriages. a. (1) (M-1897, M-1897A4). (a) Operations common to both M-1897 and M-1897.44 carriages. 1. The exposed rocker segment (elevating rack) must be kept clean and lubricated. 2. The exposed sections of the axle must be kept clean and lubricated. In travel they should be covered and blocked to prevent traversing. 3. The traversing mechanism should be checked for excessive lost motion. One-half turn of the handwheel is allowable. During traveling, the traversing hand- wheel should be strapped to prevent its turning. f 4. The elevating mechanism should be protected from vibration in travel by a strap or cable to hold the breech firmly on the traveling lug. (2) (M-1916, M-1916A1). (a) Operations Common to M-1916 and M-1916A1 carriages. 1. The metal parts should not be struck directly with a steel hammer; a buffer of wood or copper should be interposed. 2. The elevating mechanism, angle-of-site mechanism, and traversing mechan- ism must be kept especially well lubricated. If operation becomes difficult in spite of proper lubrication, the mechanism should be disassembled, and the cause discovered and removed. Adjustment for end play is provided by nuts on the worm shafts. (3) (M-1917, M-1917A1). (a) Trunnions. Routine cleaning of the trunnions may be accomplished by removing the cap squares. To remove the cap squares, the top carriage is traversed as far to the left as it will go to permit the right cap key being removed, and to the right to remove the left key. Periodically, the barrel assembly should be removed and the trunnions, bearings, and cap squares thoroughly cleaned and lubricated. (b) Elevating gear. In replacing the bearings and elevating nuts, the open side of the bearings is inserted first in the upper gear and the closed side first in the lower gear (with the teeth of the elevating nuts at the top in both cases). When the bearings are properly assembled, the gun is elevated by revolving the handwheels toward the rear. (c) Yards and degrees scale ring. All parts should be kept clean, free from grit, burs, or dents, and the revolving surfaces lightly oiled. In replacing the eccentric bushing in the arc guides, there should be the least possible play between the teeth of the pinion and the elevating arc. The grooves in the eccentric bushing which engage the stop pin are arranged to give eight adjustments, which are numbered 1 to 3. 588 SERVICE OF THE PIECE There are two patterns of bushings, the maximum setting on one being represented by the number 8 and the other by the number 5. The order of adjustment for each pattern bushing is as follows: Nos. 1 and Nos.1 and 8, mini- 5, mini- mum and mum and maximum maximum First adjustment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Second adjustment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Third adjustment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fourth adjustment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fifth adjustment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sixth adjustment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Seventh adjustment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Eighth adjustment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (d) Traversing gear. The pivot of the cross head should be kept properly screwed up, and any lateral play in the traversing screw adjusted by tightening the crosshead cap and the check nut. Friction surfaces should be kept clean and lightly lubricated. b. Operations pertaining to carriages. (1) (M-1897). (a) Looseness in the wooden parts of the wheel is taken up by periodic tightening of the hub bolts, which must be done at least twice a year. Shrinkage of the wood may be retarded by soaking the wood in raw linseed oil. Soaking the wheels in water is ineffective, because the water quickly dries, leaving the wood in worse condition than before. (b) End play of the wheel is adjusted by placing leather washers between the hub and the axle collar, and between the hub and the axle cap. Until these become worn too thin, a temporary adjustment may be made by placing the linch pin in a shallower notch in the axle cap. If the linch pin is placed initially in the deepest notch, two additional adjustments are possible before new washers are needed. (2) (M-1897,44). (a) Tires must be maintained at a pressure of 25 pounds. Treads are checked for excessive wear. Excessive wear will result if the piece is not held in the center of traverse in traveling. The amount of toe-in of the wheels can be adjusted by the ordnance maintenance company. Tires should be removed at least once a year, and the disk and rim cleaned and painted. (b) The compensating shaft must be kept clean, oiled, and covered in traveling. (c) The brakes are adjusted by means of brake adjusting wedges, which are turned clockwise to tighten. One or two notches at a time are sufficient to take up looseness due to the wear of the brake lining. The wheels should be jacked up to check that the brakes do not drag when the levers are in the “off” position. If the brakes do not release quickly, the retracting or compression springs may be replaced. (d) To eliminate excessive side play in the wheel bearings, the carriage is jacked up, the hub cap removed, the cotter pin extracted from the wheel spindle, and the ad- justing nut tightened, while the wheel is slowly rotated, until the wheel binds. The nut is then backed off until the wheel rotates freely but without side play. The cotter pin and hub cap are then reassembled. (e) The wheels, hubs, and brake drums should be removed from the spindles every 2000 miles, and at least twice yearly. All grease should be removed from the hub cavities, and the hub and inner and outer roller bearings washed clean with solvent. After being dried the hub and bearings should be packed with fresh, clean fiber wheel- bearing grease. (3) (M-1916). (a) Wheels. The wheels and wheel fastenings should be dis- mounted periodically and the fastenings, hub boxes, axle arms, and axle bore cleaned and examined. All roughness due to scoring or cutting should be smoothed off with an oilstone. To avoid excessive end play in a wheel, the hub cap wheel fastening should be turned around when it shows 1/16 inch wear. When both sides are worn it should be replaced. Looseness in the wooden parts of the wheel is taken up by tightening the hub bolts at least twice a year. Shrinkage of the wood may be retarded by soaking in raw SERVICE OF THE PIECE 589 linseed oil. Soaking in water is ineffective because the water quickly dries out, leaving the wood in worse condition than before. (b) Brakes. The brakes, which are of the contracting band type, similar in principle to those on the caisson M1918, are adjusted by means of adjusting nuts and links located between the brake band ends and the arms of the brake shaft. No dressing of any kind should be placed on the brake linings. When greasy, they should be washed with solvent and readjusted. When the linings are badly worn, they should be replaced by the ordnance maintenance company. Brakes should be adjusted to give equal action on the wheels. To adjust, the wheel is jacked up, the adjusting nut disconnected, and the link tightened. When the brake is in the “on” position, the wheel should not turn when a man stands on the outer end of a horizontal spoke. When in the “off” position, the brake should not drag. Allowance should be made for subsequent wear of the lining; initially, the lever should not come into the last notch when “on.” (4) (M-1916A1). (a) Tires must be maintained at a pressure of 25 pounds. Excessive wear will result if the piece is not locked securely in traveling. Tires should be removed at least once a year, and the disk and rim cleaned and painted. (b) The brakes are adjusted by means of brake adjusting wedges which are turned clockwise to tighten. One or two notches at a time are sufficient to take up loose- ness due to wearing of the brake lining. The wheels should be jacked up to check that the brakes do not drag when the levers are in the “off” position. If the brakes do not release quickly the retracting springs may be replaced. (c) To eliminate excessive side play in the wheel bearings, the carriage is jacked up, the hub cap removed, the cotter pin extracted from the wheel spindle, and the ad- justing nut tightened, while the wheel is rotated slowly, until the wheel binds. The nut is then backed off until the wheel rotates freely but without side play. The cotter pin and hub cap are then reassembled. (d) The wheels, hubs, and brake drums should be removed from the spindles every 2000 miles, and at least twice yearly. All grease should be removed from the hub cavities, and the hub and inner and outer roller bearings washed clean with solvent. After being dried, the hub and bearings should be packed with fresh, clean fiber wheel- bearing grease. After immersion in water, the bearings must be repacked. c. Automatic pole support on the M-1918 limber. (M-1897, M-1897A4, M-2, M-1916, M-1916A1 models only). The automatic pole support must be adjusted to hold the pole assembly at a height of 29 inches without support from the harness, the carriage being limbered and loaded. Malfunctioning may be caused by lack of lubrication, the pole being loose in the pole socket, the support spring not being in proper adjustment, and by a worn pintle lug or lunette. To adjust the support it must be disassembled and the spring tightened sufficiently to support a 20-pound weight suspended from the pole assembly at the neck-yoke stop. If the pintle lug and the lunette are worn, shims must be placed under the pintle adjusting bolt. d. Caisson band brake. (M-1897, M-1897.44, M-2 models only). No dressing of any kind may be placed on the brake linings. Brake bands may slip if the linings are worn or greasy. If greasy, they should be washed with solvent and adjusted. If the lining is badly worn, it must be replaced by the ordnance maintenance company. Brakes must be adjusted to give equal action on the wheels. To adjust a brake, jack up the wheel, dis- connect the adjusting nut, and tighten the link. When the brake is in the “on” position, the wheel should not turn when a man stands on the outer end of a horizontal spoke. When in the “off” position the brake should not drag. In adjusting, allowance should be made for subsequent wear of the lining; initially, the lever should not come into the last notch when “on.” 65. Sighting and Fire Control Equipment. a. General. (1) (a) (M-1897, M-1897,44). Except on the range drum and the bracket fuze setter, battery personnel is not permitted to disassemble or adjust this equipment, but tests must be made before every firing to determine whether the tolerance of error is exceeded. If exceeded, the fact is reported to the ordnance maintenance company. In general, the sights are correct— (b) 1. (M-1897, M-189744). In direction, if the deflection scales read plateau 0 590 SERVICE OF THE PIECE drum 100 when the line of sighting is in a plane parallel to the vertical plane passing through the axis of the bore. 2. (M-2, M-1916, M-1916A1, M-1917, M-1917A1). In direction, if the deflec- tion scales read zero when the line of sighting is in a plane parallel to the vertical plane passing through the axis of the bore. (2) (M-2). Especial care is required to insure the positive and accurate func- tioning of the sighting and fire-control mechanism. Care must be exercised to prevent denting the soft metal surfaces or scratching the glasses. Dirt should be removed from optical surfaces by brushing lightly with a camel's hair brush. Oil or grease should be removed from glass by applying alcohol or, if alcohol is not available, by breathing on the glass and then wiping lightly with lens paper or a clean, soft cloth. The steel surfaces should be kept covered with a light film of high grade lubricant to prevent corrosion. (3) (M-1916, M-1916A1). Battery personnel are not permitted to disassemble the panoramic telescope, but tests and adjustments should be made in the presence of an officer as hereinafter described. Only those tools provided by the Ordnance Department should be used. The sight, M-1916, upon which the panoramic telescope is mounted may be removed from the carriage as prescribed in TR 1305-75 B, but may not be further disassembled by battery personnel. (4) (M-1917, M-1917A1). Battery personnel are forbidden to disassemble the pan- oramic telescope, but tests and adjustments should be made in the presence of an officer as hereinafter described. Only those tools provided by the Ordnance Department should be used. (5) (All models). In general, the sights are correct in elevation, if the algebraic sum of the range and site settings indicate the same angle above the horizontal that is measured with an accurate gunner's quadrant on the tube and if there is no excessive lost motion between the sights and the tube. * b. Testing equipment. (1) (M-1897, M-1897.44). Equipment used in testing sights consists of bore sights and gunner's quadrant. The target for bore sighting may be a distant terrain object, more than 1000 yards away, or a test target for use in close proximity. In the latter case the displacement of the axis of sighting from the axis of the bore must be correctly shown. For this gun the sight displacement is 9.5 inches to the left of and 6.81 inches higher than the axis of the bore. Aiming stakes with wooden blocks or markers attached make a suitable test target. In direction tests these may be canted as the carriage is canted, in which case leveling of the trunnions is unnecessary. Tests can be made without the bore sights by sighting through the firing pin recess or a brass cartridge case with the primer removed, using improvised cross hairs at the muzzle. (2) (M-2). Equipment used in testing sights consists of bore sights and a gunner's quadrant. The target for bore sighting may be a distant terrain object, more than 1000 yards away, or a test target for use in close proximity. In the latter case the displacement of the axis of sighting from the axis of the bore must be correctly shown. For this gun the sight displacement is 14.5 inches to the left of and 11.375 inches higher than the axis of the bore. Aiming stakes with wooden blocks or markers attached make a suitable test target. In direction tests these may be canted as the carriage is canted, making leveling of the trunnions unnecessary. Tests can be made without the bore sights by sighting through the firing pin recess or a brass cartridge case with the primer removed, using improvised cross hairs at the muzzle. (3) (M-1916, M-1916A1). Equipment used in testing sights consists of bore sights and a gunner's quadrant. The target for bore-sighting may be a distant terrain object, more than 1000 yards away, or a test target for use in close proximity. In the latter case the displacement of the axis of sighting from the axis of the bore must be correctly shown. For this gun the displacement of the panoramic telescope is 8.5 inches left of and 15.925 inches higher than the axis of the bore; the displacement of the peep sight, when used, is 8.5 inches left of and 15.25 inches higher than the axis of the bore. An aiming stake with a wooden block or marker attached makes a suitable test target. In direction tests this test target may be canted as the carriage is canted, making level- SERVICE OF THE PIECE 591 ing of the trunnions unnecessary. Tests can be made without the issue bore sights by sighting through the firing pin recess or through a brass cartridge case with the primer removed, using improvised cross hairs at the muzzle. (4) (M-1917, M-1917A1). Equipment used in testing sights consists of bore sights and a gunner's quadrant. The target for bore-sighting may be a distant terrain object, more than 1000 yards away, or a test target for use in close proximity. In the latter case the displacement of the axis of sighting from the axis of the bore must be correctly shown. The panoramic telescope displacement is 8 inches to the left of the axis of the bore. The displacement in elevation is adjustable, being 15.25 inches above the axis of the bore when the carrier is in its lowest position and site is 300. The rocking- bar sight displacement is 14 inches to the left of and 8.25 inches above the axis of the bore. An aiming stake with a wooden block or marker attached makes a suitable test target. In direction tests this test target may be canted as the carriage is canted, making cross leveling of the tube unnecessary. Tests can be made without the issue bore sights by sighting through the firing pin recess or through a brass cartridge case with the primer removed, using improvised cross hairs at the muzzle. c. Gunner's quadrant. (1) (a) (M-1897, M-1897A4). To test the gunner's quadrant, set the scales at zero, place it on the leveling plates of the piece and center the quadrant bubble. (b) (M-2). To test the gunner's quadrant, set the scales at zero, place it on the leveling plates of the piece and level the quadrant bubble. (c) (M-1916, M-1916A1, M-1917, M-1917A1). To test the gunner's quadrant, set the scales at zero, place it on the quadrant seat of the piece, and center the quadrant bubble with the elevating handwheel. (2) (All models). Then reverse the quadrant on its seat. The bubble should center itself. If it does not, it should be adjusted at the earliest opportunity by the Ordnance Department. If it must be used, apply a correction in the appropriate sense equal to one-half of the measured error determined in the end-for-end test. d. Collimator sight, M-1901, and mount, M-1901. (1) (M-1897, M-1897A4 models only). The following tests should be made: (a) Test for trunnion friction (should be made first). 1. Set any range and site. Do not change it during the test. 2. Center the site bubble by raising the breech with the angle-of-site hand- wheel. If the bubble passes the center, start over. 3. Read the elevation of the tube with the gunner's quadrant. 4. Throw off the site bubble by raising the breech, then recenter bubble by lowering the breech. If the bubble passes the center, start over. 5. Read the elevation again with the quadrant. 6. The difference between the elevations read in 3 and 5 above is the error due to trunnion friction. If the error exceeds 1 mil, the trunnion bearings are examined, cleaned, and lubricated, and the test repeated. If the error is still excessive, the piece should be repaired by the Ordnance Department. (b) Test of site bubble for elevation. 1. Set range zero, site zero. Do not change it during the test. 2. Center the site bubble by raising the breech with the angle-of-site handwheel. If the bubble passes the center, start over. 3. Read the elevation of the tube with the gunner's quadrant. 4. Throw off the site bubble by raising breech, then recenter the bubble by lowering the breech. If the bubble passes the center, start over. 5. Read the elevation again with the quadrant. 6. Take the mean of readings in 3 and 5 above. Both readings should be close to zero. The mean must be within 1 mil of zero. This test differs from the trunnion friction test in that in the test the error of trunnion friction is eliminated by taking the mean of the readings, thus giving the error of the site bubble itself. (c) Test of the collimator sight for direction. 1. Center the gun in the cradle. (Force a screw driver between the sweeper plate and the wall of the slide; force the gun 592 SERVICE OF THE PIECE to the opposite wall; make a fine vertical mark across the front of the sweeper plate and the front of the cradle. Force the gun on the opposite side with a screw driver. If the mark on the sweeper plate does not agree with that of the cradle, move the gun toward the middle by half the distance between the two marks.) 2. Bore sight on the target. 3. Starting near plateau 0 drum 200, turn the drum until the vertical hair is on the target. If the hair passes the target, start over. Record the reading. 4. Starting near plateau 0 drum 0, turn the drum until the vertical hair is again on target. If the hair passes the target, start over. Record the reading. 5. The readings in 3 and 4 above should be between plateau 0 drum 104 and plateau 0 drum 96, both inclusive, and should not differ by more than 5 mils. If the sight has a greater error, it should be adjusted by the Ordnance Department. Until adjusted apply a correction to deflection settings. (d) Test of collimator sight for elevation. 1. Set the range at zero. 2. Bore sight on the target, using the angle-of-site handwheel. 3. Read the elevation of the tube with the gunner's quadrant. 4. Place the horizontal hair of the sight on the target by lowering the breech, using the angle-of-site handwheel. If the hair passes the target, start over. 5. Read the elevation of the tube with the gunner's quadrant. 6. Repeat 4. above by raising the breech. If the hair passes the target, start OVCT. 7. Read the elevation of the tube with the gunner's quadrant. 8. Take the mean of 5 and 7 above. This mean should not differ by more than 1 mil from reading in 3 above. e. Test of the range drum. (1) (M-1897, M-1897A4 models only). This is auto- matically tested in test d (2) above. An individual test may be made as follows: (a) Set site and range scales at zero. (b) Level the angle-of-site bubble with the angle-of-site handwheel. (c) Test the tube with a gunner's quadrant. If the tube is not horizontal, the range drum is in error. The correct assembly of the range drum may be checked by inspection. When set at zero, the index opposite the range rack scale should also read zero. (For calibration purposes, the range drum may have been assembled at an off- zero reading.) f. Adjustment of the bracket fuze setter, M-1916. (1) (a) (M-1897, M-1897A4, M-2). To eliminate looseness in either worm gear, loosen the set screw and with a teat wrench turn the adjusting plug clockwise. Retighten the set screw. The range crank should not fall of its own weight. (b) (M-1916, M-1916A1, M-1917, M-1917A1). To eliminate looseness in either worm gear, loosen set screw, and with a screw driver turn the adjusting plug clockwise. Retighten set screw. The range crank should not fail of its own weight. (2) (All models). To eliminate end play in either worm shaft, remove the crank handle or knob by driving out the tapered pin, loosen the set screw, and tighten the bearing cap with a teat wrench. Retighten the set screw. Replace the handle or knob. g. Telescope mount, M15, panoramic telescope, M5, and range quadrant, M1. (M-2 model only). Battery personnel are forbidden to disassemble any part of the telescope, telescope mount, or range quadrant, but are permitted to perform certain adjustments. The following procedure may be used to insure accuracy of the sighting and laying mechanism: (1) Panoramic telescope and telescope mount assembly. (a) Level the carriage trunnions and tube with the gunner's quadrant. (b) Bore sight, placing the test target in alinement with the bore, or note a distant terrain object which is in alinement. (c) Set all scales and micrometers at zero and level the bubbles. (d) Look through the telescope. If the intersection of the cross hairs is on the appropriate part of the target the adjustment is correct. If not, make tests and adjust- ment of individual parts as explained in (2) to (6) below. SERVICE OF THE PIECE 593 (2) Longitudinal level of the telescope mount. (a) Center the cross-level bubble. (b) Place a test level on the top surface of the telescope socket, parallel to the bore, and center the test bubble by means of the longitudinal-leveling knob. (c) Note the position of the longitudinal-level bubble of the mount. If it is not centered within three divisions, correct the level vial by removing the plug from the end of the vial and adjusting by means of the four set screws. (3) Cross level of the telescope mount. (a) Center the cross-level bubble. (b) Place the test level on top of the telescope socket, with its axis parallel to the axis of the cradle trunnions, and center the test bubble by means of the cross-leveling knob. (c) Note the position of the cross-level bubble of the mount. If it is not centered within one division, adjust the level vial as in (2) (c) above. (4) Lost motion in cross-level device. To take up lost motion, loosen the screw which locks the nut and adjust. Reset the screw. (5) Panoramic telescope for direction. If the vertical cross hair of the telescope is not on the bore-sighted target with zero settings, put it on by loosening the two headless screws on the telescope socket, and then adjust the two headless pivot screws. Tighten the locking screws. (6) Panoramic telescope for elevation. If the horizontal cross hair of the telescope is not on the target with zero settings, put it on by turning the elevation knob of the telescope. Then loosen set screw on the knob and slip the knob around until the zero graduation registers opposite the index, being careful not to disturb the cross hair. (7) Range quadrant. (a) Lay the tube horizontal, using the gunner's quadrant. (b) With the site bubble centered, site scales set at 300, and range and elevation scales set at zero, the movable indexes should be in coincidence. If not, adjust indexes and micrometers as indicated in (8) to (10) below, without adjusting the level vial. (8) Range quadrant for elevation. (a) Turn the elevation micrometer knob until the elevation index is opposite zero on the elevation scale, and note the position of the zero on the micrometer with respect to its index. If not in agreement, loosen the three screws in the end of the micrometer knob, hold the knob, and slip the micrometer until its zero graduation and the index are in agreement. (b) This adjustment may also be accomplished by setting the zero on the mi- crometer opposite its index and then loosening the index screw and bringing the eleva- tion scale index opposite its zero graduation. (9) Range quadrant for angle of site. Turn the angle-of-site micrometer knob until the angle-of-site index is opposite the 3 graduation and note the position of the zero on the angle-of-site micrometer with respect to its index. If not in agreement, loosen the nut in the end of the micrometer knob, hold the knob, and slip the mi- crometer until the zero graduation and the index are in agreement. Tighten the nut. (10) Indicating and designating indexes of the range quadrant. Turn the longi- tudinal leveling knob until the angle-of-site bubble is centered. Loosen the securing screws and move the gun elevation index and elevating worm wheel segment index until they coincide. Tighten securing screws. h. Panoramic telescope, M6. (1) (M-1916, M-1916A1 models only). The panoramic telescope is a delicate instrument and must not be subjected to rough usage, jars, or strains. When not in use, it is kept in the special case provided on the shield. Dirt should be removed from optical surfaces by brushing lightly with a camel's hair brush. Oil or grease should be removed by applying alcohol, or by breathing on the glass and then wiping lightly with lens paper or a clean, soft cloth. The ordnance maintenance company packs the worms and gears at the annual overhaul; ordinarily, no further lubrication is required. All nonmoving joints are sealed to prevent the entry of dust and moisture. No disassembly is authorized of such parts. The following tests and adjustments should be made, the telescope being firmly clamped in place, the piece trunnions leveled, and the sight cross-leveled: (a) Test for direction (vertical cross hair). 1. Bore-sight on the target. 594 SERVICE OF THE PIECE 2. Turn the vertical hair of the telescope to the target, using the azimuth micrometer of the telescope. Take the reading. 3. The reading should be zero on both the azimuth (window) scale and the micrometer scale. If not, loosen the micrometer set screw, turn the micrometer to zero without disturbing the vertical hair, and then tighten and recheck. If the azimuth- window index is not exactly at zero, loosen the four set screws and move the index. Tighten and recheck. (b) Test for elevation (horizontal cross hair). 1. Set the angle-of-site scale at 300, and center the bubble with the angle-of-site handwheel. 2. Bore-sight on the target, using the range elevating handwheel for eleva- tion, making the last movement of the breech upward. 3. Measure the elevation of the tube with the gunner's quadrant. 4. Put the horizontal hair of the telescope on the target, using the elevation micrometer on the head of the telescope. - 5. Read the elevation and micrometer scales on the head of the telescope. 6. Reading 5 should equal 3 plus 300. If it does not, loosen the elevation micrometer set screw and turn the scale to the proper setting. Without disturbing the horizontal hair, tighten and recheck. (2) (M-1917, M-1917A1). The panoramic telescope is a delicate instrument and and must not be subjected to rough usage, jars, or strains. When not in use, it is kept in the special case provided on the shield. Dirt should be removed from optical sur- faces by brushing lightly with a camel's-hair brush. Oil or grease should be removed by applying alcohol, or, if alcohol is not available, by breathing on the glass and then wiping lightly with lens paper or a clean, soft cloth. The ordnance maintenance com- pany packs the worms and gears at the annual overhaul; ordinarily, no further lubri- cation is required. The following tests and adjustments should be made, the telescope being firmly clamped in the shank of the carrier: (a) Test for direction (vertical cross hair). 1. Level the gun tube transversely by means of the gunner's quadrant and a straightedge applied across the recoil clips. 2. Bore-sight on the target with range zero using the lower elevating hand- wheel for any necessary elevation changes. (Do not move the upper elevating hand- wheel as this will alter the relation between the line of sighting and the axis of the bore.) 3. Turn the vertical hair of the telescope to the target, using the azimuth micrometer of the telescope. Take the reading. 4. The readings should be zero on both the azimuth (window) scale and the micrometer scale. If the micrometer scale does not indicate zero, loosen the micro- meter set screw, turn the micrometer to zero without disturbing the vertical hair, and then tighten and recheck. If the azimuth-window index does not indicate zero, loosen the four set screws and move the index. Tighten and recheck. (b) Test for elevation (horizontal cross hair). 1. Level the gun tube transversely. 2. Set the angle-of-site scale at 300 and center the bubble with the lower elevat- ing handwheel (angle-of-site handwheel). ) 3. Bore-sight on the target, using the upper elevating handwheel (range hand- wheel). 4. Measure the elevation of the tube with the gunner's quadrant. 5. Place the horizontal hair of the telescope on the appropriate part of the target (2 above), using the elevation-micrometer knob of the telescope. 6. Read the elevation and micrometer scales on the head of the telescope. 7. Reading in 6 above should equal that in 4 above plus 300. If it does not, loosen the elevation-micrometer knob locking screw, and without disturbing the hori- zontal hair turn the scale to the proper setting. Tighten and recheck. i. Angle-of-site scale and bubble, and range scale. (1) (M-1916, M-1916A1). (a) Center the angle-of-site bubble on the rocker arm by means of the angle-of-site elevating handwheel, making the last movement of the breech upward. t (b) Lay the gun horizontal by means of the gunner's quadrant, using the range elevating handwheel, making the last movement of the breech upward. SERVICE OF THE PIECE 595 (c) Set the angle-of-site scale pointer to read 300. \ (d) The range scale should now read zero. If not, loosen the set screw at the top of the range scale and move the scale until the zero graduation is opposite the 300 graduation on the site scale, as shown by the pointer. (2) (M-1917, M-1917A1). (a) Set site 300. (b) Center the angle-of-site bubble by means of the lower elevating handwheel, making the last motion of the breech upward. (c) Lay the gun horizontal by means of the gunner's quadrant, using the upper elevating handwheel, making the last movement of the breech upward. (d) The meter and mil scale rings should read zero. If not, remove the cotter pin from the end of the spindle, loosen the nut of the jamming plate and turn the scale ring to zero by hand. Tighten and recheck. j. Rocking-bar sight for alinement. (M-1917, M-1917A1 only). (1) Level the gun transversely. (2) Set the rocking-bar sight on zero deflection. (3) Bore-sight on the target. (4) The rocking-bar sight should be on the appropriate part of the target. If not, loosen the clamping screw below the foresight and screw the acorn of the sight up or down until the sight is correct. Tighten and recheck. (There is no adjustment for deflection error.) k. Cross level on sight M-1916 (panoramic telescope mount). (M-1916, M-1916A1 models only). (1) Set up the test target at a convenient distance from the gun. By means of plumb lines fixed to a framework, prolong the vertical lines of the target. (2) With the carriage level, the cross-level bubble centered, the angle of site set at 300 and the range at zero, bore-sight on the target for direction. (3) Elevate the gun. The vertical hair of the bore and vertical line of the tele- scope should follow the vertical lines of the target without deviation. If they do not, notify the ordnance maintenance company. SERVICE OF THE PIECE SECTION 2 75-MM HOWITZER, HORSE AND TRUCK-DRAWN CONTENTS Paragraphs Chapter I. Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2 Chapter II. Posts; Mounting and Dismounting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-8 Chapter III. Movements of Pieces by Hand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-10 Chapter IV. Unlimbering and Limbering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-12 Chapter V. Uncoupling and Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-14 Chapter VI. Prepare for Action; March Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-17 Chapter VII. Duties in Firing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-25 Chapter VIII. Additional Information; Service of the Piece . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-39 Chapter IX. Care and Maintenance of Matériel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40-48 CHAPTER I ORGANIZATION 1. Composition. a. Howitzer squad. A howitzer squad consists of the gunner and five cannoneers numbered from 1 to 5. The remaining cannoneers of the howitzer section act as reliefs or are assigned such other duties as the chief of section may direct. In horse batteries two, or more if necessary, of the highest-numbered cannoneers are assigned as horseholders. When the battery unlimbers or uncouples for drill or for firing, the chief of section remains at the firing position and commands the howitzer squad. b. Ammunition squad. (1) An ammunition squad consists of an ammunition corporal and cannoneers as prescribed in Tables of Organization. These cannoneers are numbered consecutively, beginning with No. 1, and are assigned to the ammunition vehicles of the ammunition (fifth) section. In organizations equipped with caissons, the cannoneers are equally divided between the two caissons, the lower-numbered cannoneers being assigned to the first caisson. (2) Posts and movements prescribed hereinafter for the howitzer squad apply, with obvious modifications, to an ammunition squad. 2. Formation. a. Order of formation. (1) . Dismounted. A howitzer squad is formed as shown in Plate 1. Higher-numbered cannoneers, if present, form in order on the left of No. 5. L5E4E2 T2 TTTGT Plate 1. Formation of Howitzer Squad. (2) Mounted. A horse howitzer squad is formed as shown in Plate 2. The interval between horses is 18 inches, the distance between ranks, 4 feet. When more than the gunner and seven cannoneers are present, three ranks are formed. b. To form. (1) Dismounted. The place of formation is indicated and the com- mand given thus, for example: 1. In front (rear) of your pieces (caissons), or 1. On the road facing the park, 2. FALL IN. Each gunner repeats the command Fall in and hastens to place himself, faced in the proper direction, at the point where the right of his squad is to rest. The cannoneers move at the double time and assemble at attention in their proper places. For the first formation of the howitzer squads for any drill or 597 598 SERVICE OF THE PIECE exercise, the caution, “As howitzer squads,” precedes the command. The chief of section, if present, supervises the formation. (2) Mounted. To form a horse howitzer squad mounted the commands are the same as those given above with the exception that Lead out is substituted for the com- mand Fall in. The gunner moves to the point indicated and faces in the desired direc- tion. The cannoneers lead out, form in their proper places and STAND TO HORSE. (3) In case the front or rear of the carriages is designated, each squad falls in at its post (par. 3). c. To call off. (1) Dismounted. The command is: CALL OFF. The cannoneer on the left of the gunner calls off “One”; the cannoneer on the left of No. 1, “Two”; and so on. (2) Mounted. The command is: CALL OFF. The cannoneer on the right of the rear rank calls off “One”; the cannoneer on the left of the gunner, “Two"; the cannoneer on the left of No. 1, “Three”; and so on. The gunner does not call off. (3) After having called off, if a subsequent formation is ordered, the cannoneers fall in at once in their proper order. CHAPTER II POSTS; MOUNTING AND DISMOUNTING 3. Posts of the Howitzer Squad. a. Carriages limbered (without teams), or coupled. (1) In front of the piece or caisson. The squad is in line facing to the front, its center two paces from the end of the pole or from the front of the truck. (2) In rear of the piece or caisson. The squad is in line facing to the front, its center two paces from the muzzle of the piece or from the rear of the caisson. b. Carriages limbered (with teams). (1) When the section is in section column, each squad is posted as shown in Plate 2, its front and center 2 yards in rear of the Ca1SSOI). (2) When the section is in double section or flank column, each squad is posted on the outer flank of and 2 yards from the caisson, the front rank alined on the limbers. When three ranks are formed (par. 2a (2)), the front rank is alined on the wheel drivers. c. Carriages unlimbered or uncoupled. The squad is in rear of the piece in line facing to the front, its front and center two paces from the end of the trail of the piece. 4. To Post the Howitzer Squads. The squads having been marched to the vicinity of the carriages are posted at the command Squads in front (rear) of your pieces (cais- sons). Each gunner marches his squad to its carriages and posts it in the position indicated. 5. Posts of the Cannoneers. a. Carriages limbered or coupled. The cannoneers are posted as shown in Plates 2 and 3, respectively. All are 2 feet outside the wheels and facing to the front. Higher-numbered cannoneers, if present, are posted as prescribed by the chief of section. b. Carriages unlimbered. See paragraph 16. 6. To Post the Cannoneers. a. The command is: 1. Cannoneers, 2. POSTS. Each gunner repeats the command Posts. The cannoneers leave the ranks, if formed, and move at the double time to their posts. b. For preliminary instruction, the squads on entering the park are first posted with their carriages, and the cannoneers are then sent to their posts by the foregoing command. The command is general, however, and is applicable when the cannoneers are in or out of ranks, at a halt or marching, and when the carriages are limbered (coupled) or unlimbered (uncoupled). 7. To Mount the Cannoneers. a. (1) Horse batteries. In each howitzer squad the personnel is mounted as shown in Plate 2. (2) Truck-drawn batteries. In each squad the personnel is seated in the truck in the order prescribed by the battery commander. The chief of section is seated beside the driver. SERVICE OF THE PIECE 599 b. The command is: 1. Cannoneers, prepare to mount, 2. MOUNT. (1) Horse batteries. The mounts of the cannoneers are in charge of horseholders 2 yards in rear or to the flank of their caissons. At the first command, the cannoneers move at the double time and prepare to mount. At the second command, they mount and form as prescribed in a above. th | 5 (3) \ º º º Tig. 1. Posts of howitzer Squad mounted, Fig. 2. Posts of cannoneers, carriages limbered. section column. Plate 2. Posts of Cannoneers. (2) Truck-drawn batteries. At the first command, the cannoneers move at the double time to positions on the ground convenient for mounting the truck. At the second command, all mount as prescribed by the battery commander. c. If the command is: 1. Cannoneers, 2. MOUNT, the cannoneers execute at the command Mount all that has been prescribed for the commands Cannoneers, prepare to mount and mount. 8. To Dismount the Cannoneers. a. The command is: 1. Cannoneers, prepare to dismount, 2. DISMOUNT. 600 SERVICE OF THE PIECE (1) Horse batteries. At the first command, the cannoneers prepare to dismount; at the second command, they dismount and stand to horse. (2) Truck-drawn batteries. At the first command, the cannoneers assume positions from which they can dismount promptly; at the second command, they jump to the ground and take their posts at the double time. (CŞ G) (G) Plate 3. Posts of Cannoneers, Pieces Coupled. b. If the command is: 1. Cannoneers, 2. DISMOUNT, the cannoneers execute, at the command Dismount, all that has been prescribed for the commands Cannoneers, prepare to dismount and dismount. CHAPTER III MOVEMENTS OF PIECES BY HAND 9. Limbered or Coupled. a. Horse batteries. (1) To the front. The command is: 1. Pieces (caissons) forward, 2. MARCH, 3. HALT. In each squad at the first command the gunner and No. 1 hasten to the end of the pole; Nos. 2 and 5 to the rear of the limber chest; Nos. 3 and 4 to the rear of the piece (caisson) wheels; higher-numbered cannoneers, if present, to posts as directed by the chief of section; the gunner and even numbers working on the right side of the carriage; odd numbers on the left. When the piece is to be moved, Nos. 3 and 4 release the brakes. When the caisson is to be moved, No. 4 releases the brake; when the brake is released, Nos. 3 and 4 raise and secure the caisson prop. At the command March, all assist in moving the carriage to the front. At the command Halt, the carriage is stopped. In the case of the piece, Nos. 3 and 4 set the brakes. In the case of the caisson, Nos. 3 and 4 lower the caisson prop and No. 4 sets the brake. All cannoneers resume their posts. (2) To the rear. The command is: 1. Pieces (caissons) backward, 2. MARCH, 3. HALT. Executed as prescribed above, except that Nos. 2 and 5 go to the front of the limber chest and Nos. 3 and 4 go to the front of the piece (caisson), and at the command March the cannoneers move the carriage to the rear. b. Truck-drawn batteries. The carriages are not moved by hand when coupled. SERVICE OF THE PIECE 601 10. Unlimbered or Uncoupled. The command is: 1. Pieces (caissons) forward (backward), 2. MARCH, 3. HALT. a. Piece. (1) First command. At the first command, Nos. 3 and 4 grasp the trail handles, No. 3 on the right and No. 4 on the left; No. 2 grasps the left wheel and No. 5 the right wheel; the gunner and No. 1 place themselves adjacent to their posts, in rear of the axle in moving forward and in front of the axle in moving backward; higher- numbered cannoneers, if present, are employed as directed by the chief of section. (2) Second command. At the command March, all working together move the piece forward (backward) under the direction of the chief of section. When moving up or down steep slopes, the gunner and No. 1 assist by alternately setting and deleasing the right and left brakes, thus permitting the piece to be pivoted about the locked wheel. At the command Halt, they stop the piece, the gunner and No. 1 set the brakes, and all resume their posts (par. 16). b. Caisson. Executed as explained for the piece, except that No. 4 releases the caisson brake and No 3, when the trial is raised, raises and secures the caisson prop. The gunner and No. 1 are at the rear of the caisson chest when moving forward, and at the front of the caisson chest when moving backward, the gunner on the left. At the command Halt, No. 3 lowers the caisson prop and No. 4 sets the caisson brake. All take their posts (par. 16). CHAPTER IV UNLIMBERING AND LIMBERING 11. Unlimbering. a. Disposition of the carriages. (1) Before unlimbering. The piece and its caisson are placed abreast of each other, 2 yards apart, poles pointing in the direction of movement. This formation of the carriages is called a double section. The interval of 2 yards should not be materially changed, otherwise the amount of move- ment of the carriages by hand is greatly increased. If it is intended to fire to the front, the caisson should be placed on the left of the piece before the command for unlimber- ing is given; if it is intended to fire to the rear, the caisson should be on the right of the piece; if to the flank, on either side of the piece. In emergencies the carriages may be unlimbered from any formation. (2) After unlimbering. (a) The adjacent wheels of the piece and the caisson are abreast of each other about 1 foot apart, trails of the piece and the caisson pointing to the rear, the piece on the right. (b) In emergencies the caisson may be placed temporarily on the right of the piece. As this position is not favorable to the service of ammunition, the caisson should be moved to the left of the piece as soon as practicable. (c) At ceremonies and drills, limbers are posted 25 yards in rear of their car- riages, moving to their post at a trot. In active service and in instruction simulating it, limbers are conducted by the first sergeant to a place previously designated by the battery commander, where they are disposed so as to take the best advantage of cover and con- cealment. If no cover and concealment are available, they are located in rear of either flank, faced toward the front, with wide intervals between them. b. To unlimber. (1) General. In unlimbering, the piece establishes the position. When the carriages are 25 yards from the position, the gait is reduced to a walk; can- noneers other than horseholders dismount, turn their horses over to the horseholders, and double time to their posts (Fig. 2, Plate 2). If the carriages, after unlimbering, have to be moved by hand, each carriage is moved as prescribed in paragraph 10, in the order designated by the chief of section. If the teams are not hitched, the carriages are un- limbered successively, the one which establishes the position being unlimbered first. Limbers are moved to their position by cannoneers designated by the chief of section. (2) To fire to the front. The carriages being in double section, the caisson on the left, the command is: ACTION FRONT. If marching, the carriages halt at the com- mand or signal. (a) The piece. The gunner and No. 1 hasten to the trail handles; No. 2 grasps 602 SERVICE OF THE PIECE the right wheel and places himself so as to be ready to turn the wheel toward the muzzle; No. 5 grasps, the left wheel and places himself so as to be ready to turn the wheel toward the trail. The gunner unlatches the pintle and assisted by No. 1 raises the trail from the pintle. The gunner then commands or signals Drive on. The gun- ner and No. 1 carry the trail away from the caisson, and all the cannoneers working togther turn the piece 180°. The gunner and No. 1 lower the trail to the ground, and all the cannoneers at the piece take their posts (pars. 15c and 16). (b) The caisson. Nos. 3 and 4 hasten to the trail handles; No. 4 unlatches the pintle; Nos. 3 and 4 raise the trail from the pintle, and No. 4 commands or signals Drive on. Nos. 3 and 4, assisted by the higher-numbered cannoneers at the wheels, then carry the trail away from the piece, turning the caisson 180°. No 3, assisted by No. 4, lowers the caisson prop; No. 4 sets the caisson brake, and Nos. 3 and 4 take their posts. As soon as practicable, the caisson is placed beside the piece (a (2) above). (c) Limbers. At the command Drive on, the limbers take their prescribed posi- tions. To take post in rear of the carriages, the caisson limber executes a left-about, moves straight to the rear, executes another left-about, and halts so that the heads of the lead horses (or the end of the pole if teams are not hitched) will be 25 yards from the rear of the caisson. The piece limber follows the caisson limber, passes around its rear, and halts so as to be abreast of it and 2 yards to its right. (3) To fire to the rear. The carriages being in double section, caisson on the right, the command is: ACTION REAR. If marching, the carriages halt at the com- mand or signal. (a) The piece. The gunner and No. 1 hasten to the trail handles of the piece; No. 2 grasps the right wheel and No. 5 grasps the left wheel of the piece and both stand ready to assist in such movements of the carriage as may be necessary. The gunner unlatches the pintle and assisted by No. 1 raises the trail from the pintle. The gunner then commands or signals Drive on. The gunner and No. 1 lower the trail to the ground, and the cannoneers at the piece take their posts (pars. 15c and 16). (b) The caisson. Nos. 3 and 4 hasten to the trail handles; No. 4 unlatches the pintle; Nos. 3 and 4 raise the trail from the pintle, and No. 4 commands or signals Drive on. No. 3, assisted by No. 4, lowers the caisson prop; No. 4 sets the brake, and Nos. 3 and 4 take their posts. As soon as practicable, the caisson is placed beside the piece (a (2) above). Higher-numbered cannoneers, when present, assist in the move- ment as directed by the chief of section. (c) Limbers. At the command or signal Drive on, the limbers take their pre- scribed positions. To take post in rear of the carriages, the caisson limber inclines well to the right, moves to the rear, executes a left-about, and halts so that the heads of the lead horses (or the end of the pole if teams are not hitched) will be 25 yards from the rear of the caisson. The piece limber follows the caisson limber, passes around its rear, and halts so as to be abreast of it and 2 yards to its right. (4) To fire to the flank. (a) The carriages being in double section, the caisson on either side of the piece, 2 yards from and abreast of it, the command is: ACTION RIGHT (LEFT). The movement is executed according to the principles of Action front and Action rear, with the following modifications: After the carriages are un- limbered, the muzzle of the piece is turned in the direction of fire and the trail of the caisson in the opposite direction; the caisson is moved to its proper position beside the piece (a (2) above). (b) At the command or signal Drive on, the limbers take their prescribed posi- tions. To take post in rear of the carriages, the limber away from the flank toward which fire is to be delivered moves out first, wheels away from the direction of fire, and after having gained sufficient distance to the rear executes an about, and halts so that the heads of the lead horses (or the end of the pole if teams are not hitched) will be 25 yards from the rear of its carriage. The other limber follows and takes post in a similar manner. 12. Limbering. a. To limber front and rear. The carriages being in position and in march order (par. 17), the command is: LIMBER FRONT AND REAR. (1) No. 4 releases the caisson brake and hastens to the caisson trail; Nos. 3 and 4 SERVICE OF THE PIECE 603 raise the trail and when the trail is raised No. 3 raises and secures the caisson prop. Nos. 3 and 4 working at the trail, all other cannoneers assisting, turn the caisson 180°, carrying the trail away from the piece, the gunner and even numbers working on the right and odd numbers on the left. The movement being completed, Nos. 3 and 4 lower the caisson prop; No. 4 sets the caisson brake, and the cannoneers take posts for limbering as follows: The gunner and No. 1 face to the rear at their posts; No. 2 places himself on the right of the gunner and faces to the rear; No. 5 places himself on the left of No. 1 and faces to the rear. Nos. 3 and 4 place themselves with their backs toward the caisson chest close up against the chest, No. 4 on the right and No. 3 on the left of the trail. Higher-numbered cannoneers take post as directed by the chief of section. (2) The limbers are brought up as described in Part Two, FM 6-5. As soon as the limber has halted in prolongation of the piece trail, the gunner and No. 1 spring to the trail handles and raise the trail. Nos. 2 and 5 hasten to the piece wheels and prepare to assist in any movement of the carriage that may be necessary. The gunner and No. 1 place the lunette over the pintle; the gunner then latches the pintle. The caisson is limbered simultaneously in the same manner; Nos. 3 and 4 handle the trail, No. 4 latching the pintle. Higher-numbered cannoneers assist by working at the wheels of the caisson in any movement of the carriage. As soon as the carriages are limbered, cannoneers take their posts at the carriages limbered (Fig. 2, Plate 2). b. To limber rear. The carriages being in position and in march order (par. 17), the command is: LIMBER REAR. (1) No. 4 releases the caisson brake; Nos. 3 and 4 raise and secure the caisson prop. All cannoneers working together run the caisson 15 yards straight to the rear of the line of spades. Nos. 3 and 4 lower the caisson prop, No. 4 sets the caisson brake, and all the cannoneers take posts for limbering (a (1) above). (2) The limbers are brought up and the limbering is completed as prescribed in a (2) above. CHAPTER V UNCOUPLING AND COUPLING 13. Uncoupling. a. General. At drills, trucks are posted as directed by the battery commander. In active service and in instruction simulating it, the trucks are conducted by the first sergeant to a place previously designated by the battery commander, where they are disposed so as to take the best advantage of cover and concealment. If no cover and concealment are available, they are located in rear of either flank, faced to the front, with wide intervals between them. b. To fire to the front. The command is: ACTION FRONT. If marching, the trucks halt at the command or signal. The cannoneers, if mounted, dismount after the trucks have halted. (1) The piece. The gunner and No. 1 hasten to the wheels nearest their respective posts. Nos. 2 and 5 hasten to the trail handles, No. 2 on the right. No. 2 unlatches the pintle and assisted by No. 5 raises the trail from the pintle; Nos. 2 and 5, assisted by No. 1 at the wheel, swing the piece 180° clockwise and lower the trail to the ground. Prior to the turn, the gunner sets the brake on the pivot wheel (the wheel adjacent to the gunner's post), and when the turn is completed No. 1 sets the other brake. Nos. 3 and 4 unload the ammunition, tools, and accessories from the truck and place them to the left of the piece as directed by the chief of section. When the trail has been lowered to the ground, the gunner and Nos. 1, 2, and 5 assist Nos. 3 and 4 in completing the unloading. When the unloading has been completed, the chief of section commands or signals Drive on. The gunner and all cannoneers take their posts (par. 16). (2) The trucks. At the command Drive on, the trucks move out and are conducted by the first sergeant to their previously designated position. c. To fire to the rear. The command is: ACTION REAR. The movement is 604 SERVICE OF THE PIECE executed according to the principles of Action front except that the piece is not turned after uncoupling. d. To fire to the flank. The command is: ACTION RIGHT (LEFT). The move- ment is executed according to the principles of Action front, with the following modi- fications: After uncoupling, the trail is turned 90° away from the direction of fire, and the piece is run forward sufficiently to clear the track made by the truck. Articles unloaded from the truck are placed on the ground so as to clear the track made by the truck. 14. Coupling. a. The pieces being in position and in march order, the command is: COUPLE. The trucks under the command of the first sergeant approach the position from the right (left) flank. As each truck approaches its piece, it turns to the left (right) and halts in prolongation of the trail of the piece. b. All cannoneers working together under the direction of the chief of section load the tools, accessories, and unexpended ammunition. Then Nos. 2 and 5 hasten to the trail handles. The gunner and No. 1 release the brakes. The truck upon signal from the chief of section is maneuvered backward until the pintle is almost over the lunette. Nos. 2 and 5 raise the trail and place the lunette over the pintle. No. 2 latches the pintle. All cannoneers take their posts (par. 5). CHAPTER VI PREPARATION FOR ACTION; MARCH ORDER 15. To Prepare for Action. a. The carriages being in position unlimbered (uncoupled), the command is: PREPARE FOR ACTION. Duties of the individuals are as follows: (1) Chief of section. (a) Supervises the work of the cannoneers. (b) Inspects the matériel, verifies the fact that the recoil mechanism contains the proper amount of oil (par. 44); and, when the operations have been completed, reports to the executive, “Sir, No. (so-and-so) in order,” or reports any defects which the section cannot remedy without delay. (2) Gunner. (a) Assisted by No. 1, dismounts the sight chest and places it to the left of the piece. (b) Assists No. 1 to unsnap the howitzer cover. (c) Removes the left trail pin. (d) Unstraps the front end of the aiming stake on the left trail. (e) Replaces the left trail pin after the left trail is spread. (f) Removes the panoramic sight, the range quadrant, and the elbow telescope from the sight chest; hands the range quadrant and elbow telescope to No. 1; seats the panoramic sight in its bracket. (g) Sets deflection zero and centers the bubbles. (h) Takes his post. (3) No. 1. (a) Assists the gunner to dismount the sight chest. (b) Assisted by the gunner, unsnaps the howitzer cover and places the breech section to the right of the piece. (c) Removes the right trail pin. (d) Unstraps the front end of the aiming stake on the right trail. (e) Elevates the piece on signal from No. 2. (f) Releases the right wheel brake and when necessary assists No. 4 to raise the right wheel. (g) Replaces the right trail pin after the right trail is spread. (h) Receives the range quadrant and the elbow telescope from the gunner and seats it in its bracket; when ordered by the chief of section, rotates the elbow telescope to the firing position. (i) Sets site 300, range 3000, and centers the bubbles. (j) Opens the breech; examines the breechblock, the chamber, and the bore, cleaning any parts requiring it; leaves the breech open. SERVICE OF THE PIECE 605 (k) Takes his post. (4) No. 2. (a) Passes around the left of the piece, removes the muzzle section of the howitzer cover and tosses it to the right of the piece. (b) Removes the muzzle cover and tosses it to the right of the piece. (c) Releases the cradle lock, calls to No. 1 to elevate the piece, and lowers the firing base to the firing position. (For pieces equipped with a separate traveling lock, No. 2 first releases and lowers the firing base; he then unlatches the cradle lock, calls to No. 1 to elevate the piece, and lowers the traveling lock.) (d) Replaces the cradle lock. (e) Releases the left wheel brake and when necessary assists No. 3 to raise the left wheel. (f) Takes his post. (5) No. 3. (a) Secures the left trail handspike and places it in the left wheel socket; unlatches left wheel. (b) Assisted when necessary by No. 2, raises the left wheel, latches the left wheel latch, and sets the wheel brake. (c) Places the left trail handspike in the left trail socket and spreads the left trail. (d) Places the fuze setter in position, and sets corrector 30, range 3000. (e) Puts a round of shrapnel in the fuze setter. (f) Assisted by Nos. 4 and 5, arranges ammunition and tools in an orderly and convenient manner. (g) Takes his post. (6) No. 4. (a) Secures the right trail handspike and places it in the right wheel socket; unlatches the right wheel. (b) Assisted when necessary by No. 1, raises the right wheel, latches the right wheel latch, and sets the wheel brake. (c) Places the right trail handspike in the right trail socket and spreads the right trail. (d) Assists No. 3 to arrange ammunition and tools in an orderly and convenient IIla I) [16I. (e) Takes his post. (7) No. 5. (a) As soon as the sight chest has been dismounted, unlocks the trails and spreads them parallel. (b) Folds the howitzer cover and places it 1 yard to the right of the right piece wheel. (c) Places the muzzle cover on the howitzer cover. (d) Removes the sponge-and-rammer staff from the traveling position, assembles it, and places it on the howitzer cover. (e) Removes the aiming stakes from the trails, assembles them, and places them beside the sponge-and-rammer staff, or sets them out when so directed by the chief of section. (f) Obtains the lanyard and attaches it to the trigger. (g) Assists No. 3 to arrange ammunition. (h) Takes his post. b. The limbered (coupled) carriages may be partially prepared for action before reaching the firing position. The duties of the cannoneers are the same as when the carriages are unlimbered (uncoupled), but only such operations as are practicable are carried out before the carriages are unlimbered (uncoupled). Immediately after estab- lishing the carriages in position, preparation for action is completed without command, and the cannoneers take their posts for firing the piece. c. If Prepare for action has not been ordered before the carriages are established in the firing position, the command habitually is given by the chief of section as soon as the carriages have been unlimbered (uncoupled). In case this is not desired, the caution “Do not prepare for action” must be given. 16. Posts of the Cannoneers, Carriages Unlimbered (Uncoupled). a. The carriages having been unlimbered (uncoupled), posts are taken as follows: 606 SERVICE OF THE PIECE (1) Chief of section. The chief of section goes where he can control the service of the piece, hear commands, and perform his duties effectively. A convenient post is 2 yards from the end of the trail on the side opposite the executive. (2) Gunner. On the left of the breech, close to and abreast of it, outside the trail. (3) No. 1. On the right of the breech, close to and abreast of it, outside the trail. (4) No. 2. Two feet in rear of the gunner covering him. (5) No. 3, horse units. Two feet in rear of the caisson chest, on the right of the caisson trail. (6) No. 3, truck-drawn units. Two feet to the left of and opposite the rear of the left piece wheel. (7) No. 4. Two feet in rear of No. 3, covering him. (8) No. 5. Two feet in rear of No. 1, covering him. Plate 4. Posts of Cannoneers, Carriages Unlimbered. b. At drill all stand at attention at their posts, facing the front (Plate 4). In firing and in combat, minor modifications of these posts are required for the more efficient performance of the duties in the service of the piece and to secure the protection af- forded by the matériel. High-numbered cannoneers, if present, take posts as pre- scribed by the chief of section. c. In order to exercise the cannoneers in all the duties connected with the service of the piece and to lend variety to the drill, the posts of individual cannoneers should be changed frequently. 17. March order. a. Duties of individuals. The carriages being unlimbered (un- coupled) and prepared for action, to resume the order for marching, the command is: MARCH ORDER. Duties are as follows: (1) Chief of section. (a) Supervises the work of the cannoneers. (b) Inspects the matériel; makes sure that the piece is not left loaded; and, when the operations have been completed, reports to the executive, “Sir, No. (so and so) in order,” or reports any defects which the section cannot remedy without delay. (2) Gunner. (a) Removes the left trail pin. (b) Traverses the piece to the center. (c) Closes the covers on the levels and sets the tilting head and deflection at zero; removes the sight from its bracket. (d) Receives the range quadrant and elbow telescope from No. 1 and returns it and the panoramic sight to the sight chest. (e) Traverses the piece as called for by No. 2. (f) Replaces the left trail pin. (g) Straps the front end of the aiming stake on the left trail. (h) Assisted by Nos. 1 and 2, replaces the howitzer cover. (i) Assisted by No. 1, mounts the sight chest. (3) No. 1. (a) Removes the right trail pin. (b) Closes the breech. (c) Hands the muzzle cover to No. 2. SERVICE OF THE PIECE 607 (d) Closes the covers on the level; sets site 300, range 3000; removes the range quadrant and elbow telescope from its socket and hands it to the gunner. (e) When necessary, assists No. 4 to rotate the right wheel to the traveling position. (f) Elevates or depresses the piece as called for by No. 2. (g) Replaces the right trail pin. (h) Straps the front end of the aiming stake on the right trail. (i) Assists the gunner to mount the sight chest. (j) Assists the gunner and No. 2 to replace the howitzer cover. (k) Takes his post. (4) No. 2. (a) Passes around the left of the piece, receives the muzzle cover from No. 1, and places it on the muzzle. (b) When necessary, assists No. 3 to rotate the left wheel to the traveling position. (c) Releases the firing base lock, brings the firing base up, calls to the gunner to traverse and No. 1 to elevate or depress as necessary, and locks the cradle lock. (For pieces equipped with a separate traveling lock, No. 2 raises the traveling lock, calls to the gunner to traverse and No. 1 to elevate or depress as necessary, and locks the cradle lock; he then releases the firing base lock and secures it in the traveling position.) (d) Assists the gunner and No. 1 to replace the howitzer cover. (e) Takes his post. (5) No. 3. (a) Closes the left trail to the parallel position. (b) Removes the left trail handspike and places it in the left wheel socket, re- leases the left wheel brake, and unlatches the wheel. (c) Assisted when necessary by No. 2, rotates the left wheel to the traveling position and latches the wheel latch; sets the left wheel brake. (d) Places the left trail handspike in the traveling position. (e) Sees that all fuzes are set at safe or quick. (f) Sets the fuze setter at corrector 30, range 3000. (g) Replaces the fuze setter and tools in the section chest. (h) Assisted by Nos. 4 and 5, loads ammunition into the caisson or prepares it for loading into the truck. (i) Takes his post. (6) No. 4. (a) Closes the right trail to the parallel position. (b) Removes the right trail handspike and places it in the right wheel socket, releases the right wheel brake, and unlatches the wheel. (c) Assisted when necessary by No. 1, rotates the right wheel to the traveling position and latches the wheel latch; sets the right wheel brake. (d) Places the right trail handspike in the traveling position. (e) Assists No. 3 to load ammunition into the caisson or to prepare it for loading into the truck. (f) Takes his post. (7) No. 5. (a) Removes the lanyard and returns it to the section chest. (b) Secures the aiming stakes, disassembles them, places them in the traveling position, and fastens the rear straps. (c) Disassembles the sponge-and-rammer staff and fastens it in the traveling position. (d) Locks the trails in the traveling position. (e) Assists No. 3 to load ammunition into the caisson or to prepare it for loading into the truck. (f) Takes his post. b. To resume fire in another position. (1) If it is intended to resume firing shortly, but in another position, so that the limbering (coupling) of the pieces is necessitateå the command March order is not given. In this case, at the command for limbering (coupling), only such of the operations incident to march order are performed as are 608 SERVICE OF THE PIECE necessary for the movement of the piece and caisson and for the care and security of the equipment. (2) If the command March order is given while the pieces are limbered (coupled), the operations pertaining to march order are completed as described above. CHAPTER VII DUTIES IN FIRING 18. General. a. In general, the duties in firing are as follows: (1) The chief of section is responsible that all duties are properly performed, all commands executed, and all safety precautions observed. (2) The gunner sets the announced deflection, lays for direction, and refers the piece. (3) No. 1 sets the announced site and range (elevation) and lays for elevation. (4) No. 2 loads the piece and works with No. 5 in shifting the trails. (5) No. 3 operates the fuze setter or sets fuzes as ordered; he passes projectiles to No. 2 when firing shell. (6) No. 4 prepares ammunition; in time fire, he keeps rounds in the fuze setter, sets the fuze, and passes rounds to No. 2 for loading. (7) No. 5 opens and closes the breech, fires the piece, and works with No. 2 in shifting the trails. b. The duties of the gunner and Nos. 1, 2, and 5 are mutually dependent. The same is true of Nos. 3 and 4. c. When firing by individual sections at moving targets with direct laying, the elbow telescope ordinarily is used, and the duties of certain members of the howitzer squad differ slightly from those given in this section. For duties in this type of fire, see paragraph 27. 19. Chief of Section. a. Enumeration of duties. (1) Assisted by No. 1, to lay for elevation when the gunner's quadrant is used. (2) To measure the elevation. (3) (a) To measure the minimum quadrant elevation. (b) To measure the minimum range. (4) To indicate to the gunner the aiming point, the referring point, or the target. (5) To follow fire commands. (6) To indicate when the piece is ready to fire. (7) To give the command to fire. (8) To report errors and other unusual incidents of fire to the executive. (9) To conduct prearranged fire schedules. (10) To record basic data. (11) To observe and check frequently the functioning of the matériel. (12) To assign duties when firing with reduced personnel. b. Detailed description of certain duties. (1) To lay for elevation when the gunner's quadrant is used. (a) The chief of section is first taught to read settings on the gunner's quadrant and then to set the elevations announced. To set an elevation on the gunner's quadrant, for example 361.8 mils, the chief of section sets the upper edge of the head of index arm opposite the 360 mark of the graduated arc on the quadrant frame and slides the slide level along the index arm until its index is opposite the 1.8 mark of the scale on the index arm. Care must be taken in setting the slide to use the scale on the index arm which is on the same side of the quadrant as the graduated arc on the frame which was used in setting the index arm at 360 mils. After the slide has been set at the proper index, the clamp is tightened just sufficiently to hold the slide in place. (b) The command Quadrant (so much) indicates that the gunner's quadrant is to be used. (c) The announced elevation having been set on the gunner's quadrant, the SERVICE OF THE PIECE 609 piece loaded, and the breechblock closed, the chief of section places the quadrant on the quadrant seat with the words “line of fire” at the bottom and the arrow pointing toward the muzzle. The chief of section must be sure to use the arrow which appears on the same side of the quadrant as the scale which he is using. He stands squarely opposite the side of the quadrant and holds it firmly on the quadrant seat, parallel to the axis of the bore. It is important that he take the same position and hold the quadrant in the same manner for each subsequent setting, so that the quadrant bubble will in each case be viewed from the same angle. (d) The chief of section then causes No. 1 to elevate or depress the piece until the bubble is centered, being careful that the last motion of the bubble is from front to rear. The chief of section warns No. 1 when the bubble is approaching the center, in order that the final centering may be performed accurately. (2) To measure the elevation. At the command Measure the elevation, the piece having been laid, the chief of section sets the slide level of the index arm of the gunner's quadrant at zero and places the quadrant on the quadrant seat as in laying for eleva- tion ((1) above). He then moves the index arm until the bubble passes to the end of the vial away from the hinge of the index arm. He then slowly lowers the index arm until the bubble just passes to the end of the vial toward the hinge. He then allows the index arm to engage the arc and slides the level along the index arm until the bubble is accurately centered. He then removes the quadrant and reads and an- nounces the elevation thus set; for example, “Elevation, No. (so and so), (so much).” (3) To measure the minimum elevation or minimum range. (a) 1. Minimum elevation with the gunner's quadrant. The command is: MEASURE THE MINIMUM ELEVATION. The chief of section, sighting along the lowest element of the bore, causes No. 1 to operate the elevating mechanism until the line of sight just clears the crest. He then measures the quadrant elevation as de- scribed in (2) above and reports the angle read from the gunner's quadrant to the executive, thus, “Minimum elevation, No. (so and so), (so much).” 2. Minimum elevation with the elevation scale. The command is: MEASURE THE MINIMUM ELEVATION, SITE (SO MUCH). The chief of section causes No. 1 to set the announced site and to lay as described above. No. 1 then centers the elevation bubble with the range-and-elevation-scale knob and reads the elevation. The chief of section then reports the minimum elevation to the executive, thus, “Minimum elevation, No. (so and so), (so much), site (so much).” 3. Minimum range. The command is: MEASURE THE MINIMUM RANGE, SITE (SO MUCH). The chief of section causes the piece to be laid and the elevation bubble to be centered with the range-and-elevation-scale knob as described above. No. 1 then reads the range setting, and the chief of section reports this range as the minimum jº the executive, thus, “Minimum range, No. (so and so), (so much), site (so much).” } (b) When the executive announces the corrected minimum elevation, or the corrected minimum elevation (or range) and site, the chief of section records it in a notebook and causes the gunner to chalk, it on a convenient place on the carriage. (4) To indicate to the gunner the aiming point, the referring point, or the target. Whenever an aiming point, a referring point, or a target has been designated by the executive, the chief of section will make sure that he has properly identified the point in question. He will then indicate it to the gunner. If there is any possibility of misunderstanding, the chief of section will turn the sight until the horizontal and vertical hairs are on the point designated. (5) To follow fire commands. The chief of section will follow the fire commands mentally. He will not repeat the commands, but will be prepared to give any element of the last command to any cannoneer who has failed to hear it. (6) To indicate when the piece is ready to fire. When arm signals between the chief of section and the executive can be observed, the chief of section will extend his right arm vertically as soon as the gunner has called “Ready,” as a signal to indicate that the piece is ready to fire. When arm signals cannot be observed, the chief of section reports orally to the executive, “No. (so and so), ready.” FA1 (1) 610 SERVICE OF THE PIECE (7) To give the command to fire. When No. 5 can see arm signals made by the chief of section, the chief of section will give the command to fire by dropping his right arm sharply to his side. When arm signals cannot be used, the command No. (so and so) fire will be given orally. The chief of section will not give the signal or command to fire until all the cannoneers are in safe positions. (8) To report errors and other unusual incidents of fire to the executive. If for any reason the piece cannot be fired, the chief of section will report promptly to the executive that fact and the reason therefor; for example, “No. (so and so) out, misfire.” Whenever it is discovered that the piece has been fired with an error in laying, the chief of section will report that fact at once; for example, “No. (so and so) fired with incorrect deflection.” Whenever the gunner reports that the aiming stakes are out of alinement with the sight, the chief of section will report that fact and request instruc- tions (par. 30). Likewise, other unusual incidents that affect the service of the piece are promptly reported by the chief of section. (9) To conduct prearranged fire schedules. Whenever the execution of prearranged fires is ordered, the chief of section will conduct the fire of his section in strict con- formity to the schedules prescribed. (10) To record basic data. Data of a semipermanent nature will be recorded in a notebook by the chief of section. This includes such data as minimum elevation, base deflections, including aiming points used; prearranged fires when prepared schedules are not furnished; safety limits in elevation and deflection; number of rounds fired, with the date and hour; and calibration corrections when appropriate. (11) To observe and check the functioning of the matériel. The functioning of all parts of the matériel will be observed closely during firing. Before the piece is fired, the chief of section verifies the fact that the recoil mechanism contains the proper amount of oil and thereafter carefully observes the functioning of the recoil system. Any evi- dence of trouble (par. 44) is reported promptly to the executive. (12) To assign duties when firing with reduced personnel. Whenever the personnel of the section serving the piece is temporarily reduced in numbers below that indicated in this manual, the chief of section will make such redistribution of duties as will best facilitate the service of the piece. - 20. Gunner. a. Enumeration of duties. (1) (a) To center the bubbles on the sight mount. (b) To set or change the deflection. (c) To apply the deflection difference. (d) To lay for direction. (e) To call “Ready.” (f) To refer the piece. (g) To record base deflection. (h) To measure a deflection. (2) For indirect laying or direct laying, the gunner performs duties prescribed in (1) (a), (b), (c), (d), and (e) above. (3) When directed, the gunner performs the duties prescribed in (1) (f), (g), and (h) above. b. Detailed description of certain duties. . (1) To set or change the deflection. (a) To set the deflection. The gunner is first taught to read deflections set on the sight and then to set the deflections announced. At the command, for example, Deflection 1885, the gunner pushes the throw-out lever with his right hand and with his left hand turns the rotating head until the hundreds' graduation (18 in this case) is opposite the azimuth- circle index. He then releases the throw-out lever and grasping the azimuth-worm knob with his left hand with the thumb on top turns the azimuth-worm knob toward himself until the micrometer index is opposite the graduation 85 of the azimuth micrometer. The line of sight will then make a horizontal angle of 1885 mils with the axis of the bore. (b) To change the deflection. The gunner should be trained always to grasp the azimuth-worm knob with his left thumb on top, as the command for changing the SERVICE OF THE PIECE 611 deflection then will indicate the direction in which he should move his thumb in turn- ing the azimuth-worm knob. He also should be taught that turning the azimuth-worm knob toward the muzzle (away from him) decreases the deflection set on the sight and results in moving the muzzle to the right when the piece is laid with the new deflection. Similarly, turning the azimuth-worm knob toward the breech (toward himself) in- creases the deflection and results in moving the muzzle to the left when the piece is laid. The deflection having been set at 1885 mils if a subsequent command be, for example, Right 65, the gunner turns the azimuth-worm knob by moving his thumb away from himself until the micrometer index has moved 65 mils on the graduations of the azimuth micrometer. Since turning the azimuth-worm knob away from himself decreases the deflection, the resulting deflection will be 1820 mils. Should the command be Left (so much), the deflection setting is changed in a similar manner, except that the gunner moves his thumb toward himself. (2) To apply the deflection difference. (a) The command is: ON N.O. (SO AND SO) OPEN (CLOSE) (SO MUCH). The gunner of the piece indicated in the com- mand does not change the deflection set on his sight. Each of the other gunners changes his sight setting by the number of mils specified in the command if his piece is next in line to the piece indicated; by twice this number of mils if his piece is second in line from the piece indicated; by three times this number of mils if his piece is third in line from the piece indicated. (b) If the command is, for example, On No. 1 open 5, the gunner on No. 1 makes no change; the gunner on No. 2 turns the azimuth-worm knob by moving his thumb toward himself and sets off 5 mils once; the gunner on No. 3 turns the azimuth- worm knob in a similar manner, except that he sets off 5 mils twice, a total of 10 mils; the gunner on No. 4 turns his azimuth-worn knob in a similar manner, except that he sets off 5 mils three times, a total of 15 mils. (c) Should the command be, for example, On No. 3 close 10, the gunner on No. 1 turns the azimuth-worm knob by moving his thumb toward himself and sets off 10 mils twice, or a total of 20 mils; the gunner on No. 2 turns his azimuth-worm knob in a similar manner, except that he sets off 10 mils once; the gunner on No. 3 makes no change; the gunner on No. 4 turns his azimuth-worm knob by moving his thumb away from himself and sets off 10 mils once. (d) In turning the azimuth-worm knob the gunner must remember that the movement of the muzzle will follow the movement of his thumb. For example, grasp- ing the azimuth-worm knob with his left thumb on top, to move the muzzle to the right, his thumb moves toward the muzzle, and he can be taught to visualize the movement as pushing the muzzle away from him (to the right); to move the muzzle to the left, his thumb moves toward the breech, and he can be taught to visualize this movement as pulling the muzzle toward him (to the left). (e) In training gunners to apply the deflection difference, it will be found ad- vantageous to teach them to use the sight as a mechanical adding machine. For example, if the command is On No. 1 open 8, the gunner on No. 4 first sets off 8 mils, then after an imperceptible pause another 8 mils, and so on until he has set off 8 mils three times. This method requires no mental arithmetic. (f) When a deflection change and a deflection difference are announced at the same time, for example: Right 30, on No. 1 close 5, both of which affect the gunner's piece, he will first set off the deflection change and then apply the deflection difference. (3) To lay for direction. (a) Direct laying on a stationary target. The deflection having been set, the gunner traverses the piece by turning the traversing handwheel until the vertical hair of the sight is on his part of the target. If the amount of movement necessary to lay on the target is greater than can be obtained by traversing, the trails must be shifted. To shift the trails, the gunner commands or signals Muggle right (left). Nos. 2 and 5 working at the left and right trail handspikes, respectively, shift the trails so that the muzzle moves in the indicated direction, until commanded to stop by the gunner. The gunner then completes the laying by bringing the vertical hair of the sight on the target. 612 SERVICE OF THE PIECE (b) Indirect laying. The deflection having been set, the gunner brings the ver- tical hair of the sight on the aiming point by traversing the piece. If the amount of movement is greater than can be obtained by traversing, the trails are shifted as ex- plained in (a) above. (c) Procedure to insure accuracy. To take up lost motion, the final movement of the traversing handwheel should be such as to cause the vertical hair of the sight to approach the aiming point from the left. The gunner should habitually lay with the vertical hair of the sight on exactly the same portion of the aiming point or target for each round. (4) To call “Ready.” The piece having been laid for direction, the bubbles cen- tered, and No. 1 having called “Set,” the gunner verifies the laying, moves his head clear of the sight, and calls “Ready” to indicate that his piece is ready to be fired. (5) To refer the piece. The piece having been laid for direction, to refer the piece, the command is: 1. Aiming point (so and so), 2. REFER. Without disturbing the lay- ing of the piece, the gunner brings the vertical hair of the sight on the new aiming point (referring point). He then reads and announces the deflection thus set and records the deflection and the referring point on a convenient part of the carriage. Two referring points usually are used, one for day and another for night. A referring point should be at least 50 yards from the sight, preferably to the rear. Frequently it will be necessary to use the aiming stakes as referring points, particularly for night use. (6) To record base deflection. At the command Record base deflection, the gunner records the deflection set on the sight upon some convenient part of the carriage or upon a data board (par. 38). º (7) To measure a deflection. The command is: 1. Aiming point (so and so), 2. MEASURE THE DEFLECTION. The piece having been established in direction, the gunner turns the sight until the vertical hair is on the aiming point. He then reads and announces the deflection. 21. No. 1. a. Enumeration of duties. (1) (a) To set the angle of site. (b) To set the range or elevation. (c) To lay for range (elevation). (d) To call “Set.” (2) For indirect laying without the gunner's quadrant or for direct laying (except when using the elbow telescope as prescribed in par. 27), No. 1 performs the duties prescribed in (1) (a), (b), (c), and (d) above. For indirect laying with the gunner's quadrant, No. 1 performs the duties pre- scribed in (1) (c) and (d). b. Detailed description of certain duties. (1) To set the angle of site. No. 1 is first taught to read angle-of-site settings, and then to set announced angles of site. To set an angle of site, No. 1 turns the angle-of-site knob until the number of hundreds an- nounced is opposite the index of the angle-of-site scale and the tens and units opposite the index of the micrometer. In setting the angle of site, No. 1 must look squarely at the micrometer index. (2) To set the range or elevation. (a) Range. No. 1 is first taught to read range settings on the graduated range scale and then to set ranges. To set a range, No. 1 turns the range drum until the pointer is opposite the announced range, making sure that the last movement is in the direction of increasing range. (b) Elevation. The elevation may be set on the elevation scale. No. 1 is first taught to read elevations on the elevation scale and then to set announced elevations. Elevation is indicated by a scale graduated in hundreds of mils from zero to 800 and a micrometer scale graduated from zero to 100. To set an elevation, No. 1 turns the range drum until the announced elevation is set on the elevation and micrometer scales, making sure that the last movement is in the direction of increasing elevation. (3) To lay for range (elevation). The angle of site and range (elevation) having been set, No. 1 turns the elevation handwheel until the bubble of the angle-of-site level is centered, making sure that the last movement of the elevating handwheel is in the direction of decreasing range (elevation). In centering the bubble, No. 1 must be careful to look squarely at it. SERVICE OF THE PIECE 613 (4) To call “Set.” When No. 1 has completed his duties in laying the piece, and the breech has been closed, he calls “Set.” 22. No. 2. a. Enumeration of duties. (1) To load the piece. (2) When necessary, to man the left trail. (3) In volley fire, to call out the number of the round. b. Detailed description of certain duties. (1) To load the piece. No. 2 receives the round from No. 3 (in shrapnel fire from No. 4), grasping it with his right hand at the base of the case and his left hand in rear of the ogive. He inserts the round in the chamber, removes his left hand, pushes the round into the chamber with his right hand, and when he feels the round strike the extractor removes his right hand. At high eleva- tions it may be necessary for No. 2 to keep his closed fist against the base of the cart- ridge case until the round is firmly seated against the extractor and the closing motion of the breechblock has been started. No. 2 will be particularly careful to avoid striking the fuze against any portion of the matériel. To prevent premature bursts caused by pro- jectiles being struck on the fuze by the piece in recoil, a round to be loaded will be held well out of the path of recoil of the howitzer until the latter is again in battery. (AR 750-10.) (2) When necessary, to man the left trail. See paragraph 20b (3). (3) To call out the number of the round. To insure that the correct number of rounds is fired in volley fire, No. 2 calls out the range and the number of the round as he loads the piece; and as he loads the last round adds “Last round.” For example, when two rounds are to be fired at 2800, he calls out, “2800 one; 2800 two, last round.” He should not speak louder than is necessary to insure his being heard by the members of his own gun squad. 23. No. 3. a. Enumeration of duties. (1) To set the fuze setter. (2) To set fuzes when using the hand fuze setter or when shell is being fired. (3) To pass rounds to No. 2 when shell is being fired. b. Detailed description of certain duties. (1) To set the fuze setter. (a) The series of fire commands for initially opening fire with time-fuzed projectiles will contain the data to be set on the fuze setter. These commands are, for example, Corrector 28, 3600. For subsequent rounds, the corrector setting is increased (decreased) by a new com- mand Corrector 32 (26). (b) No. 3 is first taught to read data set on the fuze setter and then to set data announced. To set data on the bracket fuze setter, No. 3 turns the corrector-worm knob with his right hand until the movable index is opposite the graduation on the corrector scale, corresponding to the corrector announced. He then turns the range- worm crank until the graduation on the range scale, corresponding to the range an- nounced, is opposite the fixed index. (c) To set data on the hand fuze setter, No. 3 turns the corrector-worm knob until the graduated line on the corrector scale, corresponding to the corrector announced, is in coincidence with the index engraved on the rim of the case. He then turns the knob on the range-scale worm until the graduation on the range scale, corresponding to the range announced, is in coincidence with the index on the index bar. (d) If the range to be set on the fuze setter differs from that to be set on the piece, the command Fuze range (so much) will be given. In this case No. 3 sets the fuze range on the fuze setter, disregarding the range announced for the piece. (e) If the command Percussion is given, the fuze setter is not used. However, No. 3 keeps the range scale of the fuze setter set according to the ranges announced. He is thus ready to pass to time fire as soon as a corrector is announced. (f) To insure accuracy in setting the scales of the fuze setter, it is necessary that No. 3 look squarely at the scales and their indexes. To take up lost motion, the final movement of the scales should always be in a counterclockwise direction. (g) The fuze data having been set on the fuze setter, No. 3 calls “Cut” as a signal to No. 4 to set the fuze. (2) To set fuzes. (a) Time fuzes. No. 3 sets time fuzes only when the hand fuze setter is used. The fuze data having been set on the fuze setter as indicated above, 614 SERVICE OF THE PIECE to set the fuze, the projectile being held by No. 4, No. 3 places the fuze setter over the fuze. The fuze setter is then turnd in the direction indicated by the arrow on the fuze-setter case until the slot in the range-ring carrier engages the pin on the graduated time-train ring of the fuze. The guide plate and the range-ring carrier will then bear firmly on the fuze. No. 3 continues to turn the fuze setter in the direction indicated until the stop pin attached to the corrector-scale support engages with the fixed stop pin on the fuze and prevents further motion. When the fuze has been properly set, the pointer which is attached to the top of the corrector scale will register with the graduated line on the closing cap of the fuze. (b) M-39 fuzes. No. 3 assisted by No. 4 removes adhesive tape and shipping caps, and No. 3 inspects the setting of each fuze, which should be quick. This is indicated by the head of the striker extension being at the “in” position. To set the fuze for delay, No. 3 grasps the upper end of the striker extension and places it in the “out” position by turning it in a clockwise direction until further rotation is impossible. Turn- ing the striker extension in a counterclockwise direction until continuous clicking is heard sets the fuze at quick. (c) M-48 fuzes. No. 3 inspects the setting of each fuze, which should be quick. This is indicated by the screw driver slot in the fuze being turned toward SQ.. To set the fuze for delay, No. 3 turns the screw driver slot until it points toward delay. (3) To pass rounds to No. 2 in shell fire. No. 3 after setting the fuze passes the round to No. 2 in the most expeditious manner, and in such a way that No. 2 is enabled to grasp the base of the cartridge case with his right hand. 24. No. 4. a. Enumeration of duties. (1) To arrange ammunition and to clean and prepare it for firing. (2) To set the fuze when the bracket fuze setter is used. (3) To hold the round while No. 3 sets the fuze, when the hand fuze setter is used. (4) To pass the round to No. 2 in time fire. (5) To prepare charges in shell fire. b. Detailed description of certain duties. (1) To arrange ammunition and to clean and prepare it for firing. No. 4, when time, permits, arranges the rounds so that they are within easy reach. He inspects each projectile to see that it is free from sand and dirt and that the rotating band is not burred. Any foreign matter will be removed by wiping with a piece of waste. Projectiles having burred rotating bands should be placed aside temporarily until the burs can be removed with a file. (2) To set the fuze when the bracket fuze setter is used. When the command Corrector (so much) is given, No. 4 procures a round of shrapnel, removes the water- proof cap of the fuze, and inserts the point of the projectile in the bracket fuze setter, taking care that the lug nearest the point of the fuze engages in the groove in the fuze setter. When No. 3 has called “Cut,” No. 4 turns the projectile with a steady and uni- form motion in a clockwise direction until further movement is stopped. In turning the projectile, No. 4 stands to the rear of the fuze setter, facing to the right front. His left hand, back down, grasps the round at or near the forward end of the cartridge case. The palm of the right hand is placed on the base of the cartridge case, the fingers gras ing the edge of the base. While turning the projectile, No. 4 takes care to hold it #; against the guide and to keep the fuze well engaged by a steady pressure on the base of the cartridge case with his right hand. No. 4 then removes the round by lifting it di- rectly out of the fuze setter, taking care not to strike the lugs of the fuze against any part of the fuze setter. The time of burning may be read from the graduated ring of the fuze. When directed by the chief of section, No. 4 will read and announce the time of burning after setting the fuze. A time fuze which has been set for any desired time of burning can be reset to S (Safe) by setting the fuze-setter range ring to S, the corrector to normal (30), and resetting the fuze. The fuze should be inspected to see that the S on the graduated time ring of the fuze is in line with the marks on the upper time-train ring and on the body of the fuze. Fuzes set but not fired will be reset to S (Safe), inspected, and returned to the chest or other container by No. 4. If the command Percussion is given, No. 4, after removing the waterproof cap, passes the round directly to No. 2 for loading. SERVICE OF THE PIECE 615 (3) To hold the round while No. 3 sets the fuze, when the hand fuze setter is used. No. 4 holds the round while No. 3 sets the fuze. No. 4 procures the round, removes the waterproof cap, faces to the right, and partially kneels on the right knee. He places the base of the cartridge case on his right thigh just above the knee. He grasps the round with both hands, the right arm resting on his right thigh, the left arm braced against his left thigh. The round is held firmly, pointing upward in the gen- eral direction of No. 3's head, while No. 3 sets the fuze. (4) To pass the round to No. 2 in time fire. No. 4 passes the round to No. 2 in the most expeditious manner and in such a way that No. 2 is enabled to grasp the base of the cartridge case with his right hand. (5) To prepare charges in shell fire. The propelling charge in the cartridge case consists of four sections, as follows: The bottom one, charge I; the bottom two, charge II; the bottom three, charge III; and all four sections, charge IV. At the command for the charge to be used, No. 4 removes the projectile from the cartridge case (except in case of charge IV), and if the command, for example, is Charge III, removes the top section, thus leaving three sections in the cartridge case. He then replaces the cartridge case on the projectile and passes the round to No. 3. Unused powder sections are placed at a convenient and safe location, and at a convenient time disposed of as the executive may direct. 25. No. 5. a. Enumeration of duties. (1) To open and close the breech. (2) To fire the piece. (3) When necessary, to man the right trail. (4) To keep empty cartridge cases out of the way. (5) To use the rammer. b. Detailed description of certain duties. (1) To open and close the breech. (a) To open the breech. No. 5 grasps the operating handle with his right hand and compresses the lever latch. He rotates the lever to the right, sliding the breechblock to the right. As soon as the breech is open, No. 5 looks through the breech to see that it is clear. (b) To close the breech. No. 5 grasps the operating lever with his right hand and rotates the lever to the left, sliding the breechblock to the left. (c) Opening and closing the breech. When No. 5 understands the functioning of the breech mechanism, Nos. 5 and 2 are instructed in loading and unloading the piece. The breech being open, No. 5 rests his right hand lightly on the operating lever ready to close the breech. As the round is inserted and pushed home by No. 2, No. 5 will start the closing motion of the block as soon as he feels the jar of the round striking the extractor. No. 5 must be careful not to grasp the operating lever firmly as the round is pushed home, since to do so may cause the extractor to strip the rim on the cartridge case and cause a jam. The drill projectiles used for this instruction must be in good condition. To avoid damaging the projectiles when they are ejected, a mat or similar cushion should be placed at the point where they fall. If full-weight drill projectiles are used, No. 2, standing at the breech, receives the ejected round with both hands. (2) To fire piece. At the chief of section's command No. (so and so) fire, No. 5 with his left hand draws the lanyard smartly to the rear so as to trip the trigger arm. If the chief of section gives the command Stand clear, No. 5 steps outside the right wheel and fires the piece by leaning over so as to reach the lanyard. The chief of section may caution “With the long lanyard.” In this case, No. 5 attaches the lanyard guide pulley to the handle of one of the trails or to a stake driven at a convenient position between the trails, attaches the loop of the lanyard to the trigger knob, steps clear, and fires as previously described. No. 5 detaches the long lanyard immediately after each round is fired. In case of a misfire, the instructions contained in paragraph 36 will be followed. (3) When necessary, to man the right trail. See paragraph 20b (3). (4) To keep empty cartridge cases out of the way. No. 5 throws the empty car. tridge cases well to the rear of the left trail of the piece. (5) To use the rammer. The sponge and rammer will be handled by No. 5 only. The rammer is used to extract unfired rounds or cartridge cases which cannot be 616 SERVICE OF THE PIECE ejected by the extractor. To extract a cartridge case which cannot be ejected by the extractor, the bottom of the inside of the case is tapped lightly until it is loosened and can be pushed out of the chamber. No. 2, standing at the breech, receives the cartridge case in both hands. To extract an unfired round, the procedure prescribed in para- graph 35 will be followed. CHAPTER VIII ADDITIONAL INFORMATION; SERVICE OF THE PIECE 26. Accuracy in Laying. Sighting and laying instruments, fuze setters, and elevating and traversing mechanisms will be manipulated so as to minimize the effects of lost motion. This requires that the last motions in setting instruments and in laying be always in the directions prescribed. To insure accurate laying, the gunner and any other cannoneers who have duties in connection with laying the piece invariably will be required to verify the laying after the breech has been closed. When the piece must be established on uneven ground, it is desirable for accurate firing that the three points of support be leveled by pioneer work. 27. To Fire by Individual Sections with Direct Laying at Moving Targets. a. The chief of section observes the target, estimates its range and speed, and gives such di- rections and commands to the cannoneers as will aid them in laying and firing the piece. b. The gunner lays for direction with the panoramic sight; No. 1 lays for range with the elbow telescope, using the range lines. (This automatically compensates for the site of the target.) The piece is kept laid continuously by the gunner and No. 1. No. 2 loads the piece and No. 5 operates the breech and fires the piece, as rapily as possible, without regard to the operations of laying. c. At the command of the chief of section Right (left) (so much), the gunner sets the deflection change ordered (having previously set his deflection at zero), and tracks the target by traversing with the traversing handwheel. For the first round, being on the target and No. 1 having called “Set,” the gunner gives the command Fire. Subsequent rounds are fired without further command. d. No. 1 using the elevating handwheel keeps the elbow-telescope range line for the announced range continuously on the base of the target. For the first round only, No. 1 calls “Set” when the appropriate range line is on the base of the target. e. Firing is begun at the chief of section's command Commence firing and continues until the command Cease firing is given. f. The chief of section observes the fire and gives such changes in deflection and range as are indicated thereby. These changes are applied on the scale of the panor- amic sight and in the reticule of the elbow telescope by the gunner and No. 1, re- spectively, without stopping the fire. For maximum effectiveness, an available cannon- eer should be used to set changes in deflection, thus permitting the gunner to track the target continuously. 28. Fire at Will. a. The piece being in position and prepared for action, in case of sudden attack, when the target appears at a range of less than 500 yards, the execu- tive may command: 1. Target (so and so), 2. FIRE AT WILL. The chief of section repeats this command. (1) The gunner keeps the piece laid directly on his portion of the target through- out the firing. No. 1 keeps the 500-yard line of the elbow telescope on the base of the target. No. 3 sets corrector 30, range zero. No. 4, if shrapnel is used, sets fuzes continuously. (2) Firing is commenced at the command of the chief of section: NO. (SO AND SO). FIRE. The piece is loaded and fired as rapidly as possible until the command Cease firing, or until the enemy disappears from view or actually reaches the piece. b. In fire at will, refinements of laying are not attempted, rapidity of fire being of primary importance. Shrapnel, if available, will be used. If shrapnel is not available, shell, charge IV, set at delay will be used. In general, the procedure in firing shell is SERVICE OF THE PIECE 617 the same as with shrapnel except that No. 1 lays well below the lowest visible element of the target. 29. Aiming Stakes. When a suitable natural aiming point is not visible, the piece, after it has been laid initially for direction, is referred to the aiming stakes as described in paragraph 208 (5). Two aiming stakes are used for each piece. Each stake is equipped with a light for use in firing at night. One stake is set up in a convenient location at least 100 yards from the piece. The other stake is set up at the midpoint between the first stake and the piece, and is lined in by the gunner so that the vertical hair of the sight and the two aiming stakes are all in the same vertical plane. Any lateral displacement of the piece during firing can then be detected easily and corrected for as indicated in paragraph 30. For night use, the lights should be adjusted so that the far one will appear several feet higher than the near one. The two lights thus will clearly establish a vertical line on which the vertical hair of the sight can be laid. 30. Correction for Lateral Displacement. When the gunner notes that the piece is out of line with reference to the aiming stakes, he reports that fact to the chief of section. The gunner continues to lay the piece, using the far stake, until correction is authorized by the executive. The piece is then moved back into its original position, or a correction is made as follows: The gunner lays the piece by using the far stake, then refers to the near stake, and finally lays on the far stake with the new reading. The stakes are then realined by moving the near stake. This correction is effective only when the stakes have been equally spaced as indicated in paragraph 29. 31. Reporting Errors. Each member of the howitzer squad should be constantly impressed with the importance of reporting promptly to the chief of section any errors made by members of the howitzer squad. The chief of section will report errors im- mediately to the executive as prescribed in paragraph 198 (8). 32. Cease Firing. The command Cease firing normally is given to the howitzer squad by the chief of section, but in emergencies anyone present may give the command. At this command, regardless of its source, firing will cease immediately. If the piece is loaded, the chief of section will report that fact to the executive. Firing is resumed at the announcement of the range or elevation. 33. Suspend Firing. The command Suspend firing is given only when the battery is firing on a prearranged schedule and a temporary halt in the firing is desired. At this command, firing is stopped, but settings continue to be altered in conformity with the schedule. If the piece is loaded, the chief of section will report that fact to the executive. Firing will be resumed at the command Resume firing. 34. Changes in Data During Firing. Except in fire at moving targets, the announce- ment to the gun squad of any new element of firing data serves as a signal to stop all firing previously ordered but not yet executed. If the piece is not loaded at the an- nouncement of a new element of firing data, the new data will be set off and firing resumed at the announcement of the range or elevation. If the piece is loaded with shrapnel, and the new data require a change in the fuze setting, the piece will be unloaded (par. 35). If no change in fuze setting is required or if the piece is loaded with shell, the new data are set off, and the firing is resumed. 35. To Unload the Piece. a. When the command Unload is given, No. 1 brings the piece to the horizontal position, No. 5 opens the breech slowly, and No. 2, standing at the breech, receives the ejected round with both hands in the case of shrapnel and the cartridge case in the case of shell. With shell, and with shrapnel whenever the extractor fails to eject the round, the rammer must be used. b. No. 5 takes the sponge-and-rammer staff and inspects the rammer head to see that it is thoroughly clean and that the recess for the fuze is free from any foreign matter. Under the direct supervision of an officer, he inserts the rammer head in the bore and pushes it carefully in until it encloses the fuze and comes in contact with the projectile. He pushes the rammer head gently against the projectile and, if necessary, taps the rammer staff lightly to dislodge the projectile. He then pushes the projectile out of the breech while No. 2, standing at the breech, receives the round in both hands. 618 SERVICE OF THE PIECE 36, Misfires. In the event of a misfire, at least three attempts to fire the primer will be made. The breechblock will not be opened until at least 2 minutes have elapsed after the last attempt to fire (AR 750-10). Rounds which have misfired will be re- moved from the battery position and disposed of as prescribed in TR 1370-A. 37. Ammunition. Ammunition must be protected from damage, especially to rotating bands and cartridge cases. When it is received, it should be sorted into lots and placed in the best available storage. Ammunition data cards should be retained until after all ammunition pertaining thereto is expended. Protection should be provided against moisture, dirt, the direct rays of the sun, and, as far as practicable, against hostile artillery fire and airplane bombs. Protection against weather, dirt, and sun may be obtained by the use of paulins below and above the ammunition, and suitable dunnage below and between the layers. Protection against hostile fire may be obtained by the use of small dispersed stacks, trenches, or dugouts. 38. The Section Data Board. When positions are occupied for more than a few hours, a data board may be used by each section for recording such items as base de- flection, calibration corrections when appropriate, minimum range or elevation, data for primary defensive fire missions, and other data the need for which may be urgent. 39. Firing from the Wheels. In emergencies, the pieces may be fired from the wheels, provided the sight chest is first removed from the trails. In this case, the chief of section must watch the degree of traverse and elevation closely to be sure that the gun in recoil will not strike the trails. As soon as practicable, the piece should be placed on the firing base and the trails opened. CHAPTER IX CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF MATÉRIEL 40. General. a. This section covers such operations in the care and maintenance of the M3A1 howitzer as may be performed by a battery in the field. With obvious modifications it applies equally to the M2A1 and M3 carriages. b. Complete instructions for battery maintenance, including disassemblies, are found in the Technical Regulations and Standard Nomenclature Lists TR 1305-75E and SNL C-26. Operations not covered therein are the function of the Ordnance Department. c. In general, the battery is charged with preventive maintenance, that is, with routine cleaning, lubricating, and preserving. Certain classes of repairs, adjustments, and replacements of parts may also be made under the direction of an officer or the chief mechanic. Parts which may be drawn by a battery for replacement purposes are indicated in SNL C-26 by the symbol %. Unless specifically prohibited, such parts may be installed by or under the direction of the battery mechanic. For routine care and maintenance, specific duties are assigned to individuals, squads, or sections, and a strict accountability for the proper performance of such duties is enforced. d. In general, the following operations may be performed within the battery: (1) Draining and replenishing recoil liquid. (2) Disassembly, maintenance, and assembly of breech and firing mechanisms. (3) Removal or replacement of the following assemblies: (a) Top sleigh. (b) Tube assembly. (c) Breech ring. (d) Bottom sleigh. (4) Removal, adjustment, and replacement of the equilibrators. (5) Maintenance and adjustment of brake mechanism. (6) Removal, care, and maintenance of wheels and wheel bearings, including tires. (7) Maintenance of wheel latch mechanism. (8) Removal and replacement of gear-case covers for cleaning gear cases. (9) Minor operations necessary to replace certain parts, such as flexible joints, traversing and elevating stops, cradle trunnion pins, firing-base lock latch and lever, etc. SERVICE OF THE PIECE 619 41. Cleaning. a. Dirt and grit accumulated in traveling or from the blast of the piece in firing settle on the bearing surfaces, and in combination with the lubricant form a cutting compound. Powder fouling attracts moisture and hastens the forma- tion of rust. Dirt on nonbearing surfaces can usually be removed by water; lubricated or other greasy parts must be cleaned with dry-cleaning solvent applied with a rag. ºwing cleaning materials are issued by the Ordnance Department for use in the field: (1) Soda ash (dehydrated sal soda). Used for cleaning the bore, breech mechanism, and firing mechanism after firing. (2) Dry-cleaning solvent. For removing grease. It is preferred to kerosene because it does not leave a corrosive film, and to gasoline because it is less inflammable. (3) Crocus cloth. This is the coarsest abrasive permitted for cleaning rust and stains from bearing surfaces. (4) Emery cloth. Used for cleaning unfinished or nonbearing steel surfaces only. Issued in five degrees of coarseness, of which 00 is the finest. (5) Burlap, jute. Used for cleaning the bore. (6) Cotton waste, clean rags, and sponges. For general cleaning purposes. b. A division of duties for members of the howitzer squad in routine cleaning and maintenance is as follows: (1) The gunner: the telescope, telescope mount, sight bracket, and other sighting and laying equipment, including the gunner's quadrant. (2) Nos. 1 and 2: the breech mechanism, the firing mechanism, the breech ring, and the tube assembly. (3) No. 3: the fuze setter. (4) Nos. 4 and 5: the elevating and traversing mechanism, and the recoil slides and grooves. (5) Higher-numbered cannoneers assist in the operations as directed by the chief of section. c. Before firing, at lulls during firing, and immediately after firing, the piece should be thoroughly cleaned and lubricated. At other times it should be cleaned at intervals not exceeding 2 weeks, depending upon its use and its condition. The bore, breech mechanism, and firing mechanism should be cleaned as described in paragraph 45b. The top sleigh, tube assembly, breech ring, and bottom sleigh should be removed, cleaned, and lubricated. Particular emphasis should be placed on the proper cleaning, drying, and lubricating of the interrupted threads of the tube assembly and of the breech ring, the slides, and the unpainted bearing surfaces of each assembly. d. The exposed gears of the elevating and traversing mechanisms should be cleaned with dry-cleaning solvent, dried, and coated with graphite lubricating grease. After the gears are lubricated, the systems should be exercised to insure complete and even distribution of the lubricant. e. The moving parts of the equilibrators, firing base, firing base lock, cradle lock, and wheel latch mechanism should be cleaned and lubricated in order to insure their positive and ready action. 42. Lubrication. a. To facilitate identification, all oil holes and grease fittings should be made conspicuous by circling with bright red enamel. b. Light limber, M2. At least once every 6 months, the wheel bearings should be cleaned, and the bearings and the hub packed with fiber wheel-bearing grease. Every 2 weeks, or more often if necessary, the following lubrication operations should be performed: (1) The pressure lubricating gun filled with mineral lubricating grease is used on the spring shackles (2 fittings) and the limber-frame brackets (4 fittings). (2) The oiler filled with lubricating oil is used on the doubletree bolt and the moving parts of the pintle. (3) Oil is brushed on the edges of the spring leaves. c. Light caisson, M1. At least once every 6 months the wheel bearings should be cleaned, and the bearings and the hub packed with fiber wheel-bearing grease. Every § à + (2) PSTON ROO LATCH &LEVEQ FR + (2) TOP& ©OTTOM SLEIGH-SLIDING SURFACES * + (3) RECOIL INDICATOR A GI (3) RECOIL SLIDES & GRooves 5R + (5) TRAVERSING RACK à + (3) FIRING BASE (TRAVELING Lock) Hinge pin tº-H. (3) PINTLE pin-1 FITTING R+ (3) ELEVATING ARC * + (3) EQUILIBRATOR TRUNNION, SOCKET &cyLINDERS à + (2) HAND BRAKE LEVER-MOVING PARTS emi-º- (3) BRAKE CAM SHAFT – I FITTING .* * + (2) WHEELLATCH-SLIDING SURFACEs Oll. GUN HOW ADDLIED Fa BRUSH Oſº CLOTH SC HAND PACKING T-- a tº (2) BORE * + (2) HINGE & LATCH PIN ON CRAOLE HEAD CAP —-ep (3) SLEIGH SLIDE - 2 HOLES a + (2) plSTON ROD LOCK - SLIDING SURFACES T- * + (2) HINGE & LOCKING pills ON CQAOLE COVER. #Ts: (2) Elping SAFETY SHAFT-3 HOLES INCRAOLE WALL + (3) HAND BRAKE LEVER PIVOT-1 FITTING 2- a E, 2 HAND BRAKE LEVER-MOVING PARTS }_* + (3) HANO CºpakE CABLE CONDUIT-1 FITTING * PRESSURE LUBRICATING GUAJ Plate 4. Lubrication Chart, § * K.” i N. N ë N N \\ N a + (2) TRUNNION CAp LATCH&HINGE PllMS-2 * + (3) TRUNNION CAP-1 FITTING * + (3) BQAKE CAM BRACWET -1 FITTING m 4 (3) TRAVERSING ROULER Olleſ. HOUSING-1 FITTVNG > a ta (?) AXLE – EXPOSED DORTION * + (3) BRAKE ANCHOR PINS - 2 FITTINGS * + (3) TRAVERSING INTERMEDIATE SHAFT BEARING- I FITTING N- + (3) TRAVERSING SCQEW BEARING-1 FITTING N a 4- (3) TRAVERSING HANDWHEEL HANDLE e (3) TRAVERSING GEAR CASE, RIGHT Ns + (3) ELEVATING plbulCN SHAFT BRACKET - 1 FITTRNG ^ N * G. (2) FIRING HANDLE SHAFT-SLIDING SURFACES NN smº 4. (3) TRAVERSING NUT Olleſ. HOUSING-1 FITTING NN & E. (2) LANYARD pull EY BOLTS LEFT – TRAVERSING GEAR CASE (3) erº/ | FFTTING-INNER HUB-ELEVATING WOQM WHEEL CASE (3) + º- EXPOSED PORTION CRAOLE CLV p (3) D a 1 FITTING - CRAOLE TRAVELING LOCK (3) + º- CRADLE TRAVELING LOCK SLEEVE & plungBR (2) + ih SLEIGH TRAVELING LOCK (2) + dº SPONGE STAFF FASTENING (2) + A SLEIGH TRAVELING LOCK SLEEVE & plung EQ (2) + dº LOADING BARROW FASTENING pinS (3) + æ TRAIL BOX COVER HINGE & TURNBUCKLE (2) + æ SPADE LATCH BEARING (3) D a 1 FITTING - SPADE LATCH SHAFT (3) + s. 1 FITTING - SPADE SHAFT BEARING (3) + m, SERVICE & DUMMY COUPLING (3) D a SPADE HALF BEARANGS (2) C. R. NNN a B (2) eſ-BECH, FIRING & OPERATING MECHANISMS-NOTE (a) § a G, (3) ELEVATING SEGMENT & PINION,91GHT & LEFT N N a G (2) CRADLE CLIP - EXPOSED PORTION sm, 4 (3) CRADLE TRAVELING LOCK - 1 FITTING * + (2) CRADLE TRAVELING LOCK SLEEVE & puu.NGER * + (2) SLEIGH TRAVELING LOCK N * + (2) SLEIGH TRAVELING LOCK SLEEVE & PLUNGER. de + (2) HINGE PINS ON TRAIL BOX COVER. `--- + (3) SPADE LATCH SHAFT - 1 FITTING ~ a c & SpADE LATCH BEARING `--~ ~-m; 4 (3) SPADE SHAFT BEARING-1 FITTING T- a G (2) EMERGENCY & DuMMY COUPLING *- *~ - a c. (3) SPADE HALF GEARINGS T--- + (3) HANDSPIKE FULCRUM PIN-1 FITTING - d. 4 (2) HANOSPIKE FULCRUM HANDLE W H E N ADDL|ED G] DAILY WHEN IN CONSTANT SERVICE, OTHERWISE EVERY TWO WEEKS + EVEſºy TWO WEEKS e EVERY SIX MONTHS NOTE (a) Apply qraphite lubricoting grease to Firing mechanism housing. Safety plunger, Firing pin spring, and OLturako-spindle spring Aſter firing or washing lubricote bore, breech ond firing mechonisms quodront sight, sleigh slides,crádle clips, oxle, ond unpointed bearing surfaces. immediotely beſore firing and du-ng lulls, clean and oil breech, firing,and Sighting mechanisms ond bearing or sliding surfaces of cradle, Sleigh, and axle 155-MMI Howitzer. (b. : # # SERVICE OF THE PIECE 681 (2) Dry-cleaning solvent. For removing grease. It is preferred to kerosene be- cause it does not leave a corrosive film, and to gasoline because it is less inflammable. (3) Crocus cloth. This is the coarsest abrasive permitted for cleaning rust and stains from bearing surfaces. (4) Emery cloth. For cleaning unfinished or nonbearing steel surfaces only. It is issued in five degrees of coarseness, of which 00 is the finest. (5) Burlap, jute. For cleaning the bore. (6) Cotton waste, clean rags, and sponges. For general cleaning purposes. b. A division of routine cleaning and maintenance duties among members of the gun squad is as follows: (1) The gunner, the sighting equipment and the gunner's quadrant. (2) No. 1, the breechblock, the breech recess, and the powder chamber. (3) Nos. 2 and 4, the elevating mechanism, the traversing mechanism, and the axle. (4) No. 3, the fuze setter. (5) No. 5, the firing mechanism block. (6) Nos. 6 and 7, the bore. (7) Higher-numbered cannoneers assist in the operations as directed by the chief of section. 41. Lubrication. Lubrication instructions are covered in Plate 4. To facilitate identification, all oil holes and grease fittings should be made conspicuous by circling with bright red enamel. 42. Protection Against Chemicals. Whenever chemical attacks are anticipated, all bright parts should be covered with oil. After a gas attack, the oil is wiped off and fresh oil applied. If mustard or other persistent gas is used, absorbent objects may be deeply contaminated, and even hard surfaces may be dangerous for 6 to 8 days if the chemical is not neutralized. Surfaces should be sprinkled with calcium hypochlorite or chloride of lime, or painted with a whitewash made from either. After 2 to 6 hours the lime is washed off and the matériel rinsed thoroughly with water. When large quantities of water are available, warm (but not boiling) water should be used instead of calcium hypochlorite or chloride of lime. In all cleaning operations, the gas mask and special gasproof gloves must be worn. All cleaning rags, sticks, etc., are disposed of by burying. They must not be burned as the heat will disseminate dangerous vapor. 43. Recoil Mechanism. a. General. Battery maintenance of the recoil mechanism is limited to exterior cleaning and lubricating and to the measures necessary to main- tain the liquid in the recoil and counterrecoil cylinders at the proper level and the gas in the counterrecoil cylinders at the proper pressure The liquid used in both the recoil and counterrecoil systems is a mixture composed of equal parts of distilled water and grade A glycerine, with 4 ounces of chemically pure sodium hydroxide added to each 5 gallons of the mixture. Nitrogen is used in the counterrecoil system, but in an emergency atmospheric air may be pumped in by means of the pump furnished. Details of the operations follow: (1) To fill the recoil cylinder. (a) Elevate the howitzer to approximately 5 degrees 89 mils). ( ) (b) Remove the front plug and install the vent plug with the vent closed. (c) Remove the rear plug and install the filling plug. Assemble the funnel pipe and funnel to this plug. (d) Open the vent in the vent plug and pour the liquid into the funnel until the liquid runs out of the vent plug, then close the vent. (e) Remove the funnel and funnel pipe. (f) Open the vent and allow 100 cubic centimeters of liquid to flow out of the filling plug, then close the vent. (g) Remove the filling plug and install the rear plug. (h) Remove the vent plug and install the front plug. (2) To measure the pressure and the liquid in the counter-recoil system. (a) In mak- 682 SERVICE OF THE PIECE ing these tests the temperature of the atmosphere and the recoil liquid should be the same, and the liquid in the mechanism should be permitted to settle for some minutes. The howitzer must be in battery, and both the axle and the tube must be perfectly level as measured by the gunner's quadrant. (b) To test the pressure proceed as follows: 1. Open the cradle head cap and remove the gage cock body head. Assemble the pressure gauge to the adapter body, insuring that the adapter valve stem is fully drawn back and the adapter gasket is present. Assemble the wrench and the adapter to the gage cock body and tighten the union. 2. Using the gage cock body wrench, turn the gage body cock until the pointer stands at the lowest graduation on its scale. 3. Screw in the adapter stem slowly and read the pressure from the gage. Note the temperature, and compare the reading with that given on the correction pressure plate for that temperature. (c) To test the liquid level, close the adapter needle valve, opposite the stem of the gage, and turn the gage cock body in a counterclockwise direction by small angular movements. Stop after each movement and momentarily open the needle valve. When liquid begins to flow through the port on the bottom of the adapter, stop turning the gage cock and close both valves. The liquid level is satisfactory if the pointer stands between 0.5 above and 0.5 below the zero line. If the pointer is outside these limits, pump in or drain off liquid as indicated on the scale. (d) After securing a satisfactory liquid level, turn the gage cock body until the pointer stands at 1 and again observe the pressure. If the gage reading is high, exhaust the necessary amount of nitrogen by opening the adapter needle valve. If the reading is low add nitrogen to the system. (e) Dismount the adapter, screw on the body head, and close the cap. (3) To add liquid to the counterrecoil system. (a) Attach the pressure gage and adapter to the gage cock body as in (2) (b) 1 above. (b) Open the cradle bottom cover and remove the caps from the filling valve and from the filling needle valve. Assemble the long swivel of the filling tube, marked “sleigh,” to the filling valve body. Mount the liquid pump on its bracket, and connect the filling pipe to the pump. Pump a little liquid through the filling pipe and then attach it to the long swivel. Open the filling needle valve stem. Turn the gage cock body until the pointer stands at zero, and pump in liquid until, by trial openings of the adapter needle valve, the issuance of liquid from the adapter port shows that the proper level is reached. (c) Remove the pump and connections, replace the caps, and close the cradle bottom cover. (4) To add nitrogen to the counterrecoil system. (a) Mount the pressure gage adapter as in (2) and (3) above. (b) Open the cradle bottom cover, remove the two caps, and screw on the long swivel as in (3) above. (c) Attach the longer coupling of the filling pipe, marked “sleigh,” to the long swivel and attach the other coupling of the pipe to a cylinder of compressed nitrogen filled to a pressure of at least 525 pounds per square inch (47 kg. per sq. cm.). (d) Screw in the pressure gage adapter stem and note that the pressure is registering. Open fully the filling needle valve stem and gradually turn the handwheel of the gas-cylinder valve until the desired pressure is shown on the pressure gage. Close the valve of the gas cylinder. (e) Refer to the correction pressure plate, and check the pressure gage reading. When the pressure is in accord with the correction pressure plate, close the filling needle valve stem and gage-cock valve. Remove accessories, replace caps, and secure the covers. b. Operations prior to firing. Periodically, and always prior to firing, the volume of liquid in the recoil and counterrecoil cylinders and the gas pressure in the counterrecoil cylinder should be checked. SERVICE OF THE PIECE 683 c. Operations during firing. (1) During firing, the chief of section should observe carefully the operation of the recoil mechanism and frequently measure the length of recoil. To measure the length of recoil, he coats the edge of the sleigh with grease or chalk and adjusts the indicator until the pointer touches the sleigh. After the howitzer returns to battery, he measures the distance between the pointer and the far end of its trace on the sleigh. The following table gives the proper length of recoil at various elevations for the different charges: Powder charge Angle of elevation 7 | 6 | 5 | 4 | 3 | 2 | l in Inils Length of recoil in inches 178 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49.6 48. 43.3 39.8 37.0 33.5 30.3 356 . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº º & º ºs º ºs 50.4 48.8 44.9 41.3 38.2 35.0 31.9 711 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51.2 49. 46.1 43.3 40.1 37.4 34.2 (2) The chief of section should always verify the complete return of the piece to battery. (3) The chief of section should observe the functioning of the piece and take such action in the case of malfunctioning as is indicated in the following table: TABLE. I. DIFFICULTIES WITH RECOIL Malfunction Cause COrrection Howitzer fails to return Com- pletely into battery. (1) Expansion of liquid in re- coil cylinder. (2) Insufficient gas pressure or quantity of liquid in coun- terrecoil system. (3) Vent in counterrecoil cy- linder head stopped up. (1) Open recoil cylinder fill- ing plug and allow excess li- Quld to escape. (2) Test gas pressure and level of liquid. Replenish if necessary. (3) Clean vent hole. Howitzer returns to battery with too great a shock. (1) Insufficient liquid in re- coil cylinder. (2) Excess liquid or gas pres- Sure in counterrecoil System. (1) Test; add liquid to recoil cylinder. (2) Test; drain liquid or gas from counterrecoil system. Howitzer returns to battery too slowly. (1) Insufficient gas pressure. i (2) Excess friction on pack- Ilg.S. (1) Test; add gas or air. (2) Notify ordnance mainte- nance company. Howitzer recoils more than maximum distance allowed. (1) Insufficient liquid in either or both systems. (2) Insufficient gas pressure in counterrecoil system. (1) Test; refill to normal. (2) Test; add gas or air. 44. Barrel Assembly, Breech and Firing Mechanism. a. General. The howitzer is not retracted for travel. All unpainted metal surfaces must be kept clean and covered with a thin film of lubricating oil. b. Operations during firing. (1) Whenever the rate of firing permits, the bore should be swabbed with clean water and a sponge. (2) Before each round is loaded, No. 1 should look through the bore to see that no obstructions or particles of unburned propelling charge remain therein. (3) The breech and firing mechanisms must be kept lubricated. (4) The causes and corrections of malfunctioning of the breech and firing mech- anism are given in the following table: 684 SERVICE OF THE PIECE TABLE II. MALFUNCTIONING OF BREECH AND FIRING MECHANISM Malfunction Cause Correction Failure to fire after the (1) Damp or fouled vent hole ...(1) Wait at least 2 minutes, primer has discharged. through obturator spindle. (2) Damp charge. then remove primer and clean Vent hole with went cleaning bit. See paragraph 36. (2) Walt at least 10 minutes, then open the breech and re- move the charge. See para- graph 36. Failure to fire When proper percussion on primer is ob- tained (primer fails to ex- plode). Failure to fire after several pulls on the lanyard; no per- cussion on the primer. Defective primer. (1) Weak pull on the lanyard. (2) Firing mechanism block not screwed home. (3) Fouled firing pin. (4) Broken or deformed firing pin. Try to fire the piece two more times. Wait 2 minutes after the last failure, then replace the primer. See paragraph 36. (1) Pull lanyard with more force. (2) Screw the firing mechan- ism block fully home. (3) Remove firing mechanism block and disassemble. Clean off dirt and gummed oil with cleaning solvent. Dry and cover With lubricating oil. (4) Replace firing pin. IBreech mechanism does not operate freely. (1) Lack of lubricant between rack and breeckblock carrier. (2) Lack of lubricant or pres- ence of scoring in the threads of the carrier, the block, Or the breech receSS. (1) Open the breech, remove the Operating lever collar de- tent and collar, and raise the Operating lever to clear the rack. Depress the rack lock, ro- tate the breechblock to the left, and remove the rack. Clean and lubricate. (2) Disassemble the breech- 'block, thoroughly clean, and lu- bricate. If threads are scored the repair must be made by Ordnance personnel. Percussion hammer does not operate freely. Lack of lubricant or rough- ness on the shaft Or shaft bear- Disassemble, clean, and remove roughness. ings. c. Operations after firing. (1) As soon as possible after firing, the breechblock and the firing mechanisms should be disassembled and all parts cleaned and lightly oiled. (2) The bore, breech mechanism, and firing mechanism are washed with a solu- tion of 9% pound of soda ash or 1 pound of sal soda in 1 gallon of water. Cleaning of the bore is accomplished by means of burlap stitched to the sponge on the rammer staff. No attempt should be made to remove copper fouling. When all powder fouling has been removed, the bore is swabbed with clear water, using burlap stitched around the end of the rammer staff. The bore is dried with clean burlap and then coated with lubricating oil, either light or heavy depending on the weather. The slush brush should be used for this purpose. The cleaning process should be repeated on suc- cessive days if there is evidence of sweating. If the piece is not to be kept in constant service, the parts should be slushed with rust-preventive compound instead of oil. (3) In disassembly or assembly operations a steel hammer should not be used directly on any part. A copper drift or a block of wood should be interposed, or a copper hammer should be used. (4) If the howitzer has been retracted in order to clean the cradle clips and slides, the piston-rod lock lever must be lashed with copper wire after the piece is returned to the firing position. (5) In retracting the howitzer the sleigh locks should be all the way in, to prevent spreading of the cradle by a sudden impact of the sleigh. (6) Especial care should be exercised to prevent scoring of the gas check seat in the breech recess. Any deformation of this part should be reported to the ordnance maintenance company. 45. Wheels. a. General. Every six months, or oftener if necessary, the wheels, hubs, and brake drums should be removed from the spindles. Old grease is removed from SERVICE OF THE PIECE 685 the hub cavities, and the hub and roller bearings are cleaned with solvent. After being dried, the hub and bearings are packed with clean wheel-bearing grease. b. Test of wheel-bearing adjustment. At all halts during a march, the chief of section or a designated cannoneer should feel the wheel hubs to insure that they are not over- heated. When overheating occurs, or when there is excessive side play, the bearings should be readjusted. The test for side play is accomplished with the wheel jacked up, by placing a bar between the tire and the ground, and by holding one finger on the cage of the outer bearings. If a barely perceptible shake is felt when the bar is worked up and down, and if the wheel rotates without drag, the adjustment is correct. When a wheel bearing is repacked, the test should be repeated after a few days of operation. c. Adjustment of wheel bearings. (1) The bearings must be properly in place and packed, and the hub must be correctly seated. (2) While the hub is revolved, the adjusting nut and dowel are screwed tightly against the outer bearing until the hub binds. The adjusting nut and dowel are then unscrewed enough to allow the wheel to rotate freely but without end play. (3) The adjusting lock ring, the thin lock washer, and the jam nut are replaced, the latter screwed tightly. (4) The disk and rim wheel assembly is replaced. (5) The adjustment is verified by testing with a bar (b above). If correct, an unused portion of the thin lock washer is bent over the jam nut. (6) The hub cap is replaced. d. Tires. Tires should be frequently examined for undue or uneven wear. They should be maintained at an air pressure of 40 pounds, both in travel and firing. 46. Brakes. a. General. Battery personnel is charged with the proper operation and care of the brake mechanism and with limited maintenance to include removal and replacement of the brake anchor pins and brake shoes. It is forbidden to disassemble any part of the relay emergency valve or the brake diaphragms. b. Routine inspections of brake system. (1) After coupling and before moving. (a) The reservoir air pressure as indicated by the dash gage must be at least 70 pounds for full effective operation of the air brakes and in any case must be greater than 40 pounds. (b) As the driver slightly depresses the air-brake pedal of the prime mover the operation of all parts of the brake mechanism should be observed for proper functioning. (2) Daily. (a) The carriage air reservoir should be drained to remove any condensa- tion. (b) With a full air reservoir, the emergency hose between the prime mover and the howitzer should be disconnected to verify that the air brakes work automatically. (3) Every 2 weeks. All exterior moving parts of the air- and hand-brake systems should be lubricated with lubricating oil, and the interior parts requiring lubrication should be lubricated with mineral lubricating grease through the fittings provided. During constant service, particularly in adverse weather, this caretaking should be performed more often. (4) Monthly. The air- and hand-brake mechanisms should be completely cleaned, tested, lubricated, and, if necessary, adjusted at least once a month. (a) Hand brake. Each hand-brake lever should be set and the position of the ratchet pawl noted. If in the last tooth of the segment, the brake shoes should be adjusted. (b) Power brake. The power brakes should be tested with the howitzer coupled to the prime mover and an air pressure of at least 70 pounds. When the prime mover is moving forward at about 2 miles per hour, a light foot pressure on the brake pedal should cause the carriage power brakes to be applied in advance of those on the prime mover. If not, the carriage brakes should be adjusted. (5) Every 6 months. In addition to the prescribed monthly inspection, every 6 months the air-brake system should be tested for leakage by means of soapsuds applied 686 SERVICE OF THE PIECE to all joints with the'system under pressure. In general, if after the permissible tightening of joints, a 2-inch bubble forms in 5 seconds the carriage should be returned to the ordnance maintenance company for adjustment. The relay emergency valve should be tested as follows: (a) Couple the howitzer to the prime mover and build up an air pressure of at least 70 pounds. (b) With the brakes released, cover the exhaust port with soapsuds. Any leakage indicates improper seating of the intake valve. (c) Apply the brakes and again apply soapsuds to the exhaust port. Any leakage indicates that the relay valve diaphragm is not seating properly. (d) Disconnect the emergency hose from the prime mover and cover the open end of the coupling with soapsuds. Any leakage is from the emergency valve (lower) diaphragm. (e) With the emergency hose disconnected as in (d) above, cover the exhaust port with soapsuds. Any leakage in excess of that noted in test (b) above is from the emergency valve. (f) If there is excessive leakage on any one of the above tests, or if the brakes fail to apply when the emergency hose is disconnected, notify the ordnance maintenance Company. (6) Miscellaneous ordnance adjustments. The frequent cleaning of the strainer in the lower portion of the relay emergency valve, the annual replacement of diaphragms, and the annual disassembly, cleaning, and packing of the slack adjusters are performed by ordnance personnel. 47. Miscellaneous Parts of Carriage. a. Axle and traversing mechanism. (1) On long road marches the traversing rollers may dig pits into the axle unless the Belleville spring compressors are unscrewed so as to allow the weight of the howitzer and carriage to be borne by the axle housing bushings instead of by the rollers. (2) When traveling at high speed, too sudden application of the brakes may cause damage to the traversing-nut support. (3) Leather axle dust gaskets on the outer ends of the axle housing must be kept tight on the axle to prevent entrance of grit. The axle dust gasket rings must have sufficient clearance from the axle to prevent scoring of the axle in travel. (4) Hard traversing may be caused by lack of lubrication, by improper adjustment of traversing rollers, or by pits or scoring on the axle. In the latter case repair must be made by the ordnance maintenance company. (5) Failure to engage the axle traveling lock in travel results in damage to the traversing mechanism and undue wear on the tires. b. Cradle traveling lock. Care should be exercised to engage both right and left cradle traveling locks in travel. c. Piston-rod lock lever. The piston-rod lock lever must be lashed in the locked position with copper wire. 48. Sighting Equipment. a. General. Battery personnel are not permitted to dis- assemble any part of the quadrant sight or panoramic telescope, but tests and adjust- ments should be made in the presence of an officer as hereinafter described. Only those tools provided by the Ordnance Department should be used. Difficulties which cannot be corrected should be reported to the ordnance maintenance company. In general, the sights are correct— (1) In direction, if the deflection scales read zero when the line of sighting is in a plane parallel to the vertical plane passing through the axis of the bore. (2) In elevation, if the algebraic sum of the range and site settings indicates the same angle above the horizontal that is measured with an accurate gunner's quadrant on the tube. (3) If there is no excessive lost motion between the sights and the tube. b. Testing equipment. Equipment used in testing sights consists of bore sights and a SERVICE OF THE PIECE 687 gunner's quadrant. The target for bore-sighting may be a distant terrain object, more than 1000 yards away, or a test target for use in close proximity. In the latter case the displacement of the axis of sighting from the axis of the bore must be correctly shown. For this howitzer the sight adjustment is 15.7 inches to the left of and 7.46 inches higher than the axis of the bore. Aiming stakes with wooden blocks or markers attached make a suitable test target. In direction tests these may be canted as the carriage is canted, making leveling of the trunnions unnecessary. c. Gunner's quadrant. To test the gunner's quadrant, set the scales at zero, place it on the leveling plates of the piece, and center the quadrant bubble with the elevating handwheel. Then reverse the quadrant on its seat. The bubble should center itself. If it does not, it should be adjusted by the Ordnance Department at the earliest op- portunity. If it must be used, apply a correction in the appropriate sense equal to one-half the error determined in the end-for-end test. d. Quadrant sight, M1918A1. The following tests and adjustments should be made: (1) Test of the cross level. The panoramic telescope should be in place. (a) Center the cross-level bubble. (b) Lay the vertical hair of the telescope on the target. (c) Elevate the howitzer to its maximum elevation, at the same time elevating the quadrant sight. If the vertical hair moves either to the right or left of the target, the cross-leveling device is out of adjustment. (d) To correct the adjustment, turn the cross-leveling worm handwheel to such a position that the howitzer can be elevated or depressed to the full extent with- out deflecting the vertical hair from the target. With the special wrench provided, loosen the cross-level holder set screw and carefully move the holder until the bubble in the vial is centered. Retighten the set screw. Recheck. (2) Test of the angle-of-site bubble for elevation. (a) Set the elevation scale at zero, site at 300. (b) Lay the tube horizontal with the gunner's quadrant. (c) Note whether the angle-of-site bubble has centered itself. If not, adjust it to the center by means of the angle-of-site worm. Loosen the set screw on the micrometer side of the worm, unscrew the plug in the end of the worm by means of the special wrench, and set the micrometer at zero by turning the sleeve, without dis- turbing the bubble. Retighten the plug and the set screw. Recheck. e. Panoramic telescope, M6. The following tests and adjustments should be made, the telescope being firmly clamped in place, the piece trunnions leveled, and the quadrant sight cross-leveled: (1) Test for direction (vertical cross hair). (a) Bore-sight on the target. (b) Turn the vertical hair of the telescope to the target, using the azimuth micrometer of the telescope. Take the reading. (c) The reading should be zero on both the azimuth (window) scale and the micrometer scale. If not, loosen the micrometer set screw, turn the micrometer to zero without disturbing the vertical hair, and then tighten and recheck. If the azimuth- window index is not exactly at zero, loosen the set screws and move the index. Tighten and recheck. (2) Test for elevation (horizontal cross hair). (a) Set the elevation scale of the quadrant sight at zero. (b) Bore-sight on the target. (c) Put the horizontal hair of the telescope on the target, using the elevation micrometer on the head of the telescope. Take the reading. (d) The reading should be 300 on the elevation scale on the head of the telescope and zero on the elevation micrometer. If the micrometer does not read zero, loosen the micrometer, set screw, and without disturbing the horizontal hair turn the micrometer to zero. Tighten and recheck. In making this adjustment do not remove the micrometer knob. - 688 SERVICE OF THE PIECE f. Adjustment of the hand fuze setter, M1913A1. (1) To eliminate looseness in either worm gear, loosen the worm clamp plug screw, thus releasing pressure on the clamp plug. By means of a screw driver turn the worm case clockwise in its eccentric bushing. Retighten the worm clamp plug screw. (2) To eliminate end play in either worm shaft, remove the knob, loosen the clamp plug screw, and screw in the bronze plug with a wrench. Retighten the clamp screw. Replace the knob SERVICE OF THE PIECE SECTION 5 155-MM GUN M1, AND M1918 CONTENTS Paragraphs Chapter I. Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2 Chapter II. Posts; Mounting and Dismounting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-10 Chapter III. Movements of Carriages, M1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Chapter IV. Movements of Carriages, M1918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-14 Chapter V. To Place Gun in Firing Position, M1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-34 Chapter VI. To Place Gun in Firing Position, M1918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-50 Chapter VII. Duties in Firing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51-74 Chapter VIII. Additional Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75-90 Chapter IX. Care and Maintenance, M1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91-100 Chapter X. Care and Maintenance, M1918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101-108 Note: Chapters I, II, VII, and VIII refer to 155-mm Gun, M1 and M1918. All para- graphs refer to both models except those marked specifically for 1 Model Chapters III, V and IX deal with M1 only. Chapters IV, VI and X deal with M1918 only. CHAPTER I ORGANIZATION 1. Composition. The personnel of a gun section consists of: a. Chief of section. b. (1) M1. Gun squad, consisting of a gunner and eight cannoneers, numbered from 1 to 8, inclusive. (2) M1918. Gun squad, consisting of a gunner and seven cannoneers, numbered from 1 to 7, inclusive. c. (1) M1. Ammunition squad, consisting of an ammunition corporal and four cannoneers, numbered from 9 upward. (2) M1918. An ammunition squad, consisting of an ammunition, camouflage and chemical corporal (hereafter designated “ammunition corporal”), and five cannoneers, numbered from 8 upward. d. Drivers as prescribed in Tables of Organization. 2. Formation. a. Order of formation. (1) The personnel of a gun section is formed as shown in Plate 1. (2) Drivers, if present, form in single rank in rear of the ammunition squad or as directed by the chief of section. b. To form. (1) The place of formation is indicated and the command given, for example, 1. In front (rear) of your pieces, or 1. On road facing park, 2. FALL IN. The chief of section indicates to the gunner the place where the right of the section is to rest and, upon taking position 2 paces in front of and facing the point where the center of the front rank of the section is to rest, repeats the command Fall in. The gunner hastens to place himself, faced in the proper direction, at the point where the right of the section is to rest. Other members of the section move at the double time and assemble at attention in their proper places. (2) For the first formation of the gun sections for any drill or exercise, the caution, “As gun sections,” precedes the first command. (3) The gun and ammunition squads of a section may be formed separately. The 689 690 SERVICE OF THE PIECE gunner or ammunition corporal indicates the squad and the place of formation, for example, 1. Gun (ammunition) squad, 2. In front (rear) of piece, 3. FALL IN. The gunner or ammunition corporal hastens to place himself, faced in the proper direction, at the point where the right of the squad is to rest. Other members of the squad move at the double time and assemble at attention in their proper places. The chief of section, if present, supervises the formation. CS 2 pâces 12||11|10|9|A|8 || 7 |6||5||4|3|2|T|G|. Fig. 1. M1 gun section. 2 /?rées LZL6 || 5 || 4 || 3T3TZTGT , ſ , 4% L/2ZZIZoºlò Ac) Fig. 2. M1918 gun section. Plate 1. Formation of 155-mm Gun Section. c. To call off. (1) The command is: CALL OFF. The cannoneers call off in numerical order, starting with No. 1. The gunner, ammunition corporal, and drivers do not call off. (2) After having called off, if a subsequent formation is ordered, the members of the section fall in at once in their proper order. CHAPTER II POSTS; MOUNTING AND DISMOUNTING 3. M1 Posts of Gun Section. Gun or ammunition squads when formed separately may be posted in the same position as prescribed for the section or in any other posi- tion desired. a. Pieces coupled. (1) In front of piece. The section is in line facing to the front, its rear and center 2 paces from the front of the prime mover. (2) In rear of piece. The section is in line facing to the front, the chief of section 1 pace from the muzzle of the piece. b. Pieces uncoupled or in battery. The section is in line in rear of the piece facing to the front, the chief of section 1 pace from the end of the drawbar or on the line of and midway between the trail spades. 4. M1918 Posts of the Gun Section. Gun or ammunition squads when formed separately may be posted in the same position as prescribed for the section or in any other position desired. a. Pieces limbered. (1) In front of the piece. The section is in line facing to the front, its rear and center two paces from the end of the drawbar or from the front of the prime mover. (2) In rear of the piece. The section is in line facing to the front, the chief of section one pace from the muzzle of the piece. SERVICE OF THE PIECE 691 b. Pieces unlimbered. The section is in line facing to the front, the chief of section on the line of and midway between the trail spades. 5. To Post the Gun Section. a. The sections having been marched to the vicinity of the pieces are posted at the command Sections in front (rear) of your pieces. Each chief of section marches his section to its piece and posts it in the position indicated. b. The sections are caused habitually to approach the front (rear) of the pieces from the right if the left section is in front, or from the left if the right section is in front. G Plate 2. M1, Posts of Cannoneers, Pieces Coupled. 6. M1 Posts of Cannoneers. a. Pieces coupled. The members of the gun section are posted as shown in Plate 2, all facing the front. b. Pieces in battery. See Plate 5. 7. M1918 Posts of the Cannoneers. a. Pieces limbered. The members of the gun section are posted as shown in Plate 3, all facing the piece. b. Pieces unlimbered. See Plate 9. 8. To Post Cannoneers. a. The command is: 1. Cannoneers, 2. POSTS. Each chief of section repeats the command Posts. The members of the section leave the ranks, if formed, and move at the double time to their posts. b. For preliminary instruction, the sections on entering the park are first posted with their carriages, and the cannoneers are then sent to their posts by the fore- going command. The command is general, however, and is applicable when the cannoneers are in or out of ranks, at a halt or marching, and when the pieces are coupled, limbered, or in battery. 9. To Mount Cannoneers. a. In each gun section, the chief of section is mounted 692 SERVICE OF THE PIECE on the prime mover, and other personnel in a truck, or as prescribed by the battery commander. b. The command is: 1. Cannoneers, prepare to mount, 2. MOUNT. At the first command, the members of the section move at the double time to positions on the ground convenient for mounting. At the second command, all mount as prescribed by the battery commander. § Fº * N WN ſº Q *m-. lſ) s TS *A * * |S, S. s|S §§ W. S. N– \! Plate 3. M1918, Posts of Cannoneers, Pieces Limbered. c. If the command is: 1. Cannoneers, 2. MOUNT, the members of the section execute, at the command Mount, all that has been prescribed for the commands Can- noneers, prepare to mount and Mount. 10. To Dismount Cannoneers. a. The command is: Cannoneers, prepare to dismount, 2. DISMOUNT. At the first command, the members of the section prepare to dismount. At the second command, they jump to the ground and take their posts at the double time. b. If the command is: 1. Cannoneers, 2. DISMOUNT, the members of the section execute, at the command Dismount, all that has been prescribed for the commands Cannoneers, prepare to dismount and Dismount. CHAPTER III MOVEMENTS OF CARRIAGES, M1 ONLY 11. General. a. The weight of this matériel prevents movements of the carriages by hand. b. Before starting or resuming a march, the following inspections of the matériel will be made: (1) Chief of section. The chief of section will inspect the carriage to see that the air-brake hose connections between the limber and the carriage and between the limber and the prime mover are correctly made; that the mechanical brakes are released; that the cradle and traveling locks are secure; that the trails are clamped and locked se- curely to the limber; and he will cause the driver of the prime mover to test the air brakes on the prime mover and the carriage by operating them. (2) No. 1. No. 1 will inspect the limber drawbar locking pin and the trail base locking pin to verify that both are unlocked. (3) Gunner. The gunner will inspect the tires on the carriage to verify that all are in good condition and have proper air pressure. CHAPTER IV MOVEMENTS OF THE CARRIAGE, M1918 ONLY 12. General. a. The weight of the 155-mm gun matériel prevents movements of the carriages by hand. b. Before starting or resuming a march, the chief of section will inspect the piece to see that the trail-clamping bolts and the traveling-bar clip screws are securely tightened, the brakes in proper working order, and the spring eye pins properly lubricated. c. If caterpillar bands are attached to the limber wheels, the chief of section will caution the driver against making turns on a radius such as will cause the plates of the bands to catch under the trails, and the cannoneer in the best position to see will call out when he sees such an accident is likely to occur. 13. To Attach the Caterpillar Bands. The command is: ATTACH CATERPILLAR BANDS, GUN WHEELS (AND LIMBER WHEELS). a. Caterpillar bands are provided for each gun carriage and limber wheel. Each band consists of 12 segments, 12 shoes, 12 caterpillar-band segment pins, and 24 fasten- ing pins (for caterpillar-band segment pin). When not in use, each band is trans- ported completely assembled in the piece prime mover or in the equipment trailer, de- pending upon the type of transportation provided. ſ\º ( = - Aſºº |--— % sº Ş ºn I N £ºs §§ Nº C O Ög OCA) Søcond mathod Plate 4. M1918, Methods of Attaching Caterpillar Bands. b. Caterpillar bands may be attached by several different methods. The choice of method is largely dependent upon the space available and the condition of the roadbed. Two methods are described below. (1) First method. The chief of section repeats the command and cautions, “First method.” Nos. 1 to 12, inclusive, remove a complete band from the prime mover or the equipment trailer. Nos. 1 to 8, inclusive, then space themselves evenly along the side of the band fartherest from the wheel and, carrying the band, plate side up, place it over the top of the wheel in such manner that when the ends of the band are re- leased the forward end will rest lightly on the ground directly in front of the wheel (Plate 3). Bands are placed on all wheels specified in the command in like manner. Meanwhile the gunner and the ammunition corporal procure the necessary tools to connect the bands. When the bands have been placed in position, the chief of section directs the driver to move the carriage forward slowly. When the wheels have rolled over and cleared the first segments of the forward ends of the bands, Nos. 6 and 8, working on the right wheel of the piece under the supervision of the gunner, and Nos. 5 and 7, working on the left wheel of the piece under the supervision of the ammunition corporal, remove the pins at the ends of the bands, draw the ends of the bands together, and replace the pins. If bands are being placed on the limber wheels also, Nos. 10 and 12 work on the right wheel, and Nos. 9 and 11 work on the left wheel, of the limber. (2) Second method. The chief of section repeats the command and cautions, 693 694 SERVICE OF THE PIECE “Second method.” The even-numbered cannoneers, working on the right side of the piece under the supervision of the gunner, and the odd-numbered cannoneers, working on the left side of the piece under the supervision of the ammunition corporal, place the bands on the ground, plate side down, in front of each gun wheel. As the space between the gun and limber wheels is insufficient to permit the bands to be laid at full length, the forward end of each band is folded back (Plate 4). If bands are to be attached to the limber wheels also, they must be placed with their rear ends several feet in front of the limber wheels in order to allow space for the forward ends of the bands for the gun wheels to be unfolded when the piece is moved forward. Also, the width of the prime mover may necessitate spreading or folding back the forward ends of the bands. The bands are alined so that the raised part will be centered between the dual rubber tires when the wheels move forward. While the bands are being placed in position, the gunner and the ammunition corporal procure the necessary tools to connect the bands. When the bands have been placed in position, the chief of section directs the driver to move the carriage forward slowly. Three cannoneers at the forward end of each band unfold and aline the segments as the space becomes available. When the axle of any wheel is over the seventh segment from the rear end of the band for that wheel, the carriage is halted and the rear end of the band lifted up, placed over the wheel, and held in place. The carriage is then moved forward again. When the axle of any wheel is over the second segment from the front end of the band for that wheel, the carriage is halted and the pin at the end of the band removed, the ends of the band drawn together, and the pin replaced and securely fastened. Nos. 6 and 8, working under the supervision of the gunner, connect the band on the right wheel of the piece. Nos. 5 and 7, working under the supervision of the am- munition corporal, connect the band on the left wheel of the piece. If bands are being placed on the limber wheels also, Nos. 10 and 12 work on the right wheel, and Nos. 9 and 11 work on the left wheel, of the limber. c. The chief of section inspects each caterpillar band to insure that all the segment pins and fastening pins are in good condition and in their proper places. 14. To Detach the Caterpillar Bands. The caterpillar bands are always removed before traveling on hard roads. The command is: DETACH CATERPILLAR BANDS. Bands are detached as follows: a. The chief of section repeats the command. Nos. 6 and 8, working under the supervision of the gunner, and Nos. 5 and 7, working under the supervision of the ammunition corporal, disconnect the bands on the right and left gun wheels, respec- tively, at the first joint above the ground at the rear of the wheels. After the bands have been disconnected, the pins, loose shoes, and other parts are replaced in their proper positions, so that each band will be complete. The chief of section then directs the driver to move the carriage forward, thus unrolling the bands on the ground. b. If bands have been attached to the limber wheels, they are disconnected similarly, after the bands on the gun wheels have been unrolled on the ground. If an attempt is made to remove the bands from gun and limber wheels simultaneously, they will overlap on the ground, causing much difficulty in their removal. c. The bands from the right wheels are placed in the piece prime mover or in the equipment trailer by the even-numbered cannoneers, and those from the left wheels similarly by the odd-numbered cannoneers. The gunner and ammunition corporal replace the tools in the tool chests. CHAPTER V TO PLACE THE GUN IN THE FIRING POSITION AND IN THE TRAVELING POSITION, M1 ONLY 15. To Execute Action Rear. a. The guns ordinarily will be put into position individually in the most convenient manner, being maneuvered by the prime movers so that the muzzles point in the desired direction. The command is: ACTION REAR. b. In general, the chief of section gives the necessary commands and supervises the work of the section. The gunner directs the work of the gun squad, and the am- munition corporal directs the work of the ammunition squad. Specific duties requir- ing execution at a given time are listed in succeeding paragraphs. Even-numbered can- noneers work on the right side when the piece is coupled and the left side when the piece is uncoupled. c. In the preliminary instruction of the gun squads, and whenever conditions require close supervision of the detailed duties of the individual cannoneers, placing of the pieces in position is executed by successive steps by the use of the following commands: 1. By detail, 2. Action rear, 3. UNCOUPLE, 4. REMOVE COVER, 5. IN FIRING POSITION, 6. ATTACH FRONT SPADES, 7. UNLIMBER, 8. LOWER CARRIAGE, 9. SPREAD TRAILS AND ATTACH SPADES, 10. PREPARE FOR ACTION. NoTE. The operations of Unlimber and Lower carriage are executed simultaneously. d. Upon completion of the duties prescribed in any given step, cannoneers will either take their posts or take position preparatory to performing their duties in the next step, as may be prescribed by the chief of section. When the cannoneers are sufficiently instructed, all the steps will be executed simultaneously at the single command Action fºº?". e. The prime mover, the limber, and other transportation habitually will be removed from the position of the piece during the execution of the command Action rear. 16. To Uncouple. The command is: 1. By detail, 2. Action rear, 3. UNCOUPLE. a. Description of operation. The cut-out cocks on the prime mover are closed to prevent escape of air when the brake lines are disconnected. The emergency and service brake lines are disconnected from the prime mover. The lunette of the drawbar is disconnected from the pintle of the prime mover, which moves forward. The limber drawbar locking pin is engaged. b. Duties of members of gun section. (1), No. 1. (a) Closes service (left) cut-out cock on prime mover and uncouples service brake line from prime mover. (b) Receives emergency brake line from No. 2, couples it to service brake line, laying the two over the drawbar of the limber. (c) Unlatches the pintle latch and, assisted by No. 2, raises the drawbar from the pintle hook. (d) Signals the driver to move the prime mover forward. (e) Assists No. 2 in engaging the limber drawbar locking pin. (2) No. 2. (a) Closes emergency (right) cut-out cock and uncouples emergency brake line from prime mover, passing it to No. 1. (b) Assists No. 1 in raising the drawbar from the pintle hook. (c) Assisted by No. 1, engages the limber drawbar locking pin. (3) Nos. 3 to 12. Unload equipment and accessories from the prime mover and personnel trucks, placing them on the ground opposite the right bogie wheels. (4) Driver. Upon signal from No. 1, moves prime mover forward about 10 yards. 17. To Remove Gun Cover. The command is: REMOVE COVER. Under super- vision of the ammunition corporal, Nos. 9 to 12 remove the cover, fold it, and place it on the ground on line with and about 3 yards to the right of the right rear bogie wheel. For detailed description of the operation see paragraph 90. 18. To Place Gun in Firing Position. The command is: IN FIRING POSITION. a. Description of operation. The two piston rod nuts are removed, using the two piston rod nut wrenches. The breech cover is removed. The tube is unfastened from the traveling lock. The breechblock is opened. The retracting cable is attached to 695 696 SERVICE OF THE PIECE the hook under the breech, the bar placed across the face of the breech, and the cable passed over the sheave, so that the free end emerges from under the sheave. The loop in the free end of the retracting cable is attached to the pintle of the prime mover, which has taken position about 10 yards in rear of the gun, and the prime mover pulls the gun into firing position, by moving forward. Before the gun is pulled into firing position, it should be started forward a distance of not less than one-half inch, by inserting the point of a pinch bar into the top of the recoil piston rod hole in the recoil lug and exerting a pry between the rear face of the recoil lug and the top of the traveling lock frame. Failure to do this may result in excess strain on the axle of the retracting sheave, causing bending. After the gun is in firing position, the piston rod nuts are replaced and tightened. The cradle lock is unlocked after the gun has been pulled into firing position and the piston rod nuts replaced. Unlocking the cradle lock with the gun in traveling position may result in the breech descending, causing damage to the carriage and possible injury to personnel. b. Duties of members of gun section. (1) Chief of section. (a) Supervises work of the cannoneers. (b) Gives the necessary commands for placing the gun in firing position. (c) Unlocks cradle lock. (2) Gunner. (a) Unlocks tube from traveling lock by turning the eccentric pin. (b) When preparations for pulling gun into firing position are complete, signals driver of prime mover to pull the gun into firing position. (c) Checks piston rod nuts when No. 3 calls “Secure.” (3) No. 1. (a) Removes breech cover, placing it with accessories near the right bogie wheels and opens the breech block. - (b) Assists chief of section in unlocking cradle lock by operating the elevating handwheel to take pressure off the lock. (4) No. 2. Assists No. 1 to operate the elevating mechanism by operating the brake-control lever, (5) No. 3. (a) Unlocks tool chest and secures piston rod nut wrenches. (b) Unscrews piston rod nuts, placing them on the trail to his right. (c) Calls “Ready” when nuts have been removed. (d) Replaces piston rod nuts when gun has been pulled into firing position and screws them tight with piston rod nut wrenches, then backs off to nearest castel- lations and inserts cotter pins. (e) Calls “Secure” when piston rod nuts and cotter pins have been replaced. (f) Replaces piston rod nut wrenches in tool chest. (6) No. 4. (a) Procures retracting cable, passing one end to No. 11. (b) Attaches retracting cable to hook under breech, places the bar across the face of the breech, and assisted by No. 11, passes cable through sheave so that cable emerges under sheave. (c) When gun is in firing position, assisted by No. 11, detaches retracting cable from gun and places it with accessories. (7) No. 11. (a) Assists No. 4 to attach retracting cable to gun. (b) Attaches end of retracting cable to pintle of prime mover. (c) Assists No. 4 to detach retracting cable and place it with the accessories when gun is in traveling position. (8) Remaining cannoneers. Complete the unloading of accessories, placing them near the left bogie wheels. 19. To Attach Front Spades. The command is: ATTACH FRONT SPADES. a. Description of operation. Small pits are dug underneath the trails at points where the front spades will rest. These pits should not be deeper than is necessary to permit attachment of spades to the trails. Eight to twelve inches will usually be sufficient. The front spades are removed from their carrying position on the trail and placed in position underneath the bottom carriage. They are then forced up against the bottom carriage using crowbars if necessary, and keyed in position. b. Duties of members of gun section. (1) Nos. 5, 7, and 9. After No. 5 has secured a shovel and dug a pit for the right front body spade, with Nos. 5 and 7 SERVICE OF THE PIECE 697 working outside the trail and No. 9 inside, remove the right front spade, place it in position and attach it with the key. (2) Nos. 6, 8, and 10. After No. 6 has secured a shovel and dug a pit for the left front body spade, with Nos. 6 and 8 working outside the trail and No. 10 inside, remove the left front spade, place it in position, and attach it with the key. 20. To Unlimber. The command is: UNLIMBER. a. Description of operation. The air brake lines from the limber to the carriage are disconnected. The gun carriage lines are fastened to dummy connections located near the ends of the trails. The limber lines are drawn together and laid on the limber. The trail locking pins are disengaged. The cover on the lifting mechanism is removed, the lifting mechanism lock disengaged, and the lifting screw operated to lower the trails to the ground. The limber is rolled away from the trails. The traveling lock cable is loosened and removed. The keys attaching the traveling lock to the trails are removed. The traveling lock is then removed and placed with the accessories near the right bogie wheels. b. Duties of members of gun section. (1) No. 1. (a) Disconnects service brake line between limber and carriage, and attaches the dummy coupling on the trail to the carriage end. (b) Receives limber end of emergency brake line from No. 2 and couples it to limber end of service line, placing both on top of limber. (c) Unlocks the left trail locking pin. (d) Assists No. 2 in operating lifting mechanism to lower trails to ground. (e) Assisted by Nos. 2, 3, 4, 11, and 12, removes limber. (f) Removes traveling lock assisted by Nos. 2, 3, 4, 11, and 12. (2) No. 2. (a) Disconnects emergency brake line between limber and carriage and attaches the dummy coupling on the trail to the carriage end. (b) Passes the limber end of the emergency brake line to No. 1. (c) Unlocks the right trail locking pin. (d) Disengages the lifting mechanism lock. (e) Assists No. 1 in operating lifting mechanism to lower trails to ground. (f) Assists No. 1 in removing limber. (g) Assists No. 1 in removing traveling lock. (3) No. 3. (a) Removes lifting screw cover and places it with accessories. (b) Assists No. 1 in removing limber. (c) Removes locking pins from right traveling lock key and removes key. (d) Assists No. 1 in removing traveling lock. (4) No. 4. (a) Assists No. 1 in removing limber. (b) Removes locking pins from left traveling lock key and removes key. (c) Assists No. 1 in removing traveling lock. (5) No. 11. (a) Assists No. 1 in removing limber. (b) Unfastens traveling lock cable. (c) Assists No. 1 in removing traveling lock. (6) No. 12. (a) Assists No. 1 in removing limber. (b) Assists No. 1 in removing traveling lock. 21. To Lower Carriage. The command is: LOWER CARRIAGE. a. Description of operation. The locking plate and covers are removed from the bogie lifting screws. The bogie support cables are attached. The ratchet wrenches are placed on the bogie screws and are operated in unison to lower the carriage to the ground and to raise the bogie so that the bogie wheels clear the ground. This operation should be performed while the trails are being lowered. b. Duties of members of gun section. (1) Chief of section. (a) Closely supervises the operation to see that the wrenches are worked in unison so that the bogie is kept level while being raised. (b) Coordinates this operation with the lowering of the trails. (2) No. 5. (a) Secures the ratchet wrench from its position on the right trail and places it on the right bogie screw. (b) Assisted by Nos. 7 and 9, and working in unison with the operators of the 698 SERVICE OF THE PIECE left bogie wrench, he lowers the carriage to the ground and raises the bogie sufficiently high for the wheels to clear the ground. (c) Places wrench with other section equipment. (3) No. 6. (a) Secures the ratchet wrench from its position on the left trail and places it on the left bogie screw. (b) Assisted by Nos. 8 and 10, and working in unison with the operators of the right bogie wrench, he lowers the carriage to the ground and raises the bogie sufficiently high for the wheels to clear the ground. (c) Places wrench with other section equipment. (4) No. 7. (a) Removes locking plate. (b) Assists No. 5 in lowering carriage. (5) No. 8. (a) Removes lifting screw covers. (b) Assists No. 6 in lowering carriage. (c) Replaces lifting screw covers. (6) No. 9. (a) Attaches the two right bogie support cables. (b) Assists No. 5 in lowering carriage. (7) No. 10. (a) Attaches the two left bogie support cables. (b) Assists No. 6 in lowering carriage. (8) No. 12. Removes muzzle cover, placing it with accessories near the right bogie wheel. 22. To Spread Trails and Attach Rear Spades. The command is: SPREAD TRAILS AND ATTACH SPADES. a. Description of operation. The trails are spread until they rest against the trail stops on the bottom carriage. Pits are dug beneath the ends of each trail for the spades. The spades are removed from their brackets on the trails and placed in position under the ends of the trails. They are then pried with crowbars into their seats in the trail and are attached to the trails by keys. b. Duties of members of gun sections. (1) No. 1. (a) Spreads the right trail until it is stopped by the trail stop on the bottom carriage. (b) Secures a shovel and marks the position of the spade. (c) Closes trail to clear location of the pit for the spade and digs a small pit to fit the spade. (d) Assisted by Nos. 3 and 11, places spade in pit. (e) Secures a crowbar and forces spade against trail while No. 3 inserts key. (2) No. 3. (a) Removes spade from right trail and assists No. 1 to place it under end of trail. (b) Places key in slot when No. 1 forces spade into position. (3) No. 11. Assists Nos. 1 and 3. (4) Nos. 2, 4, and 12. Perform the same operations for the left trail. 23. To Prepare for Action. The command is: PREPARE FOR ACTION. Duties of members of the gun section are as follows: a. Chief of section. (1) Supervises the work of the cannoneers. (2) Inspects the matériel. (3) Makes certain that the recoil and counterrecoil mechanisms contain the proper amount of oil, receives the report of the ammunition corporal, and when the members of the section have completed their duties, reports to the executive, “Sir, No. (so-and-so) in order,” or reports any defects which the section cannot remedy without delay. b. Gunner. (1) Procures panoramic telescope from its carrying case and places it in position on the gun. (2) Operates the traversing mechanism. (3) Levels the cross-level bubble. (4) Supervises the setting up of the aiming posts. (5) Takes his post. c. No. 1. (1) Procures the lanyard, vent cleaning bit, an oiler, and some waste, placing them convenient for use. (2) Procures a box of primers and places them on the right trail of the piece. (3) Removes the firing mechanism and opens the breech. SERVICE OF THE PIECE 699 (4) Cleans and oils the firing mechanism. (5) Assisted by No. 5, examines the breechblock, primer vent, breech recess, and gas check pad, and cleans and oils any part requiring it. (6) Tests the functioning of the counterbalance, making such adjustments as ap- pear necessary. (7) Takes his post. d. No. 2. (1) If the piece is in a state of Secure piece, removes the breech cover. (2) Remove the gunner's quadrant from its case and sets it at “150.” (3) Places quadrant on seat. (4) Releases the brake control lever lock and assists No. 3 in elevating the piece by operating the brake control lever. (5) Takes his post. e. No. 3. (1) From position outside the right trail, cross levels the quadrant mount, and assisted by No. 2, who operates the brake control lever, operates the elevating handwheel to level the quadrant bubble. (2) Takes his post. f. No. 4. (1) If the piece is in a state of Secure piece, removes the muzzle cover. (2) Procures an aiming post and under supervision of the gunner sets it up to the left front (rear) 50 yards from the gun. (3) Takes his post. l g. No. 5. (1) Secures a bucket of water and places it to the left of the end of the eft trail. (2) Procures sponge, assembles it on two sections of the rammer staff, and places it with its head resting on the bucket. (3) Takes his post. h. No. 6. (1) Procures an aiming post and under direction of the gunner sets it up to the left front (rear) 100 yards from the gun. (2) Takes his post. i. No. 7. (1) Procures loading rammer and, assisted by No. 8, assembles three sections of staff and places rammer in prolongation of tube and 10 yards to the rear. (2) Assists in cleaning projectiles. (3) Takes his post. j. No. 8. (1) Assists No. 7 in assembling rammer. (2) Places loading tray near position of projectiles. (3) Assists in cleaning projectiles. § Takes his post. k. No. 9. (1) Removes the adhesive sealing strips or loosens the caps of three charges. (2) Assists in cleaning projectiles. (3) Takes his post. l. No. 10. (1) Removes the adhesive sealing strips or loosens the caps of three charges. (2) Assists in cleaning projectiles. (3) Takes his post. m. No. 11. (1) Procures the fuze wrench and fuze setter. (2) Opens a box of each type of fuze on hand and places boxes convenient for use. (3) Takes his post. n. No. 12. (1) Procures tools and materials for cleaning projectiles. (2) Assists in cleaning projectiles. i. (3) Takes his post. o. Ammunition corporal. (1) Supervises the work of the ammunition section. (2) Reports to the chief of section the number of each type of projectile, powder charge, and fuze on hand in the section. (3) Takes his post. 24. Posts of Cannoneers, Pieces in Battery. The members of the gun section are posted as follows (Plate 3): a. Chief of section. The chief of section goes where he can control the service of the piece, hear the commands, and perform his duties effectively. b. Gunner. Inside the left trail, immediately in rear of and facing the telescope mount. 700 SERVICE OF THE PIECE c. No. 1. Eighteen inches to the right of the right side of the breech on line with the rear face of the breechblock carrier facing to the left. d. No. 2. Twelve inches inside the right trail and on line with the rear end of the brake control lever facing to the front. e. No. 3. Immediately outside the right trail, opposite and facing the elevating handwheel. (6) (8) (2)(1)(O(9)(A) At ommunition shelter Plate 5. M1, Posts of Cannoneers, Pieces in Battery. f. No. 4. Abreast of and 2 yards to the left of the right trail spade facing to the front. g. No. 5. Abreast of the left trail spade and 1 yard to the right of it, facing to the front. h. No. 6. One yard in rear of No. 4. i. No. 7. Abreast of No. 4 and to his right. j. No. 8. One yard in rear of No. 7. &. Ammunition corporal and Nos. 9 to 12. At the ammunition shelter in line facing to the front. 25. To Prepare to Travel. a. In the preliminary instruction of the gun squad, and whenever conditions require close supervision of the detailed duties of individual can- noneers, preparing the carriages for traveling is executed in successive steps by use of the following commands: 1. By detail, 2. March order, 3. SECURE PIECE, 4. REMOVE REAR SPADES AND CLOSE TRAILS, 5. LIMBER, 6. RAISE CARRIAGE, 7. IN TRAVELING POSITION, 8. DETACH FRONT SPADES, 9. REPLACE COVER, 10. COUPLE. If it is intended only to execute Secure piece, the command is: SECURE PIECE. b. Upon the completion of the duties prescribed in any given step, cannoneers will SERVICE OF THE PIECE 701 either take their posts or take position preparatory to performing their duties in the next step as may be prescribed by the chief of section. When the cannoneers are suffi- ciently instructed, all the steps will be executed successively at the single command, March order. 26. To Secure Piece. The command is: 1. By detail, 2. March order, 3. SECURE PIECE, or, if it is intended to execute only Secure piece, the command is: SECURE PIECE. a. Description of operation. The piece is secured as the first step in preparing to travel or to protect the matériel from the weather when firing is to be interrupted for several hours. The bore, powder chamber, breech recess and breechblock are cleaned, thoroughly dried, and covered with a thin coating of light engine oil. The sighting equipment is placed in the chest. The breech and muzzle covers are placed on the piece as directed by the chief of section. If so directed by the executive, the gun cover is replaced. b. Duties of members of gun section. (1) Chief of section. (a) Directs the work of the cannoneers in cleaning the bore and the powder chamber. (b) Inspects the matériel to insure that all duties have been properly performed and makes certain that the piece is not left loaded, and in Secure piece that the mem- bers of the section have completed their duties. (c) Reports to the executive, “Sir, No. (so-and-so), in order,” or reports any defects which the section cannot remedy without delay. (2) Gunner. (a) Brings gun to center of traverse. (b) Removes the panoramic telescope, placing it in the carrying compartment on the carriage and locks case. (3) No. 1. (a) Cleans and oils the firing mechanism and primer vent. (b) Returns unused primers to No. 12. (c) Returns lanyard to tool chest. (d) When directed by the chief of section, assists in cleaning bore and powder chamber. (e) Closes the breech and locks the percussion hammer in the traveling position. (f) Replaces breech and muzzle cover. (4) No. 2. (a) Sets quadrant at 150 and assists No. 3 in leveling the quadrant bubble by operating the brake control lever. (b) Replaces quadrant in its case and places it in tool chest. (c) Assists in cleaning the bore and powder chamber when directed by the chief of section. (5) No. 3. (a) Operates elevating handwheel to level quadrant bubble. (b) Assists in cleaning bore and powder chamber when directed by the chief of Sect1On. (6) No. 4. Assists in cleaning bore and powder chamber when directed by the chief of section. l (7) Nº. 5. (a) Assisted by Nos. 9 and 10, prepares a solution of soda ash (or sal soda). (b) Assists in cleaning bore and powder chamber when directed by the chief of section. (c) Returns sponge and bucket to tool chest. (8) No. 6. (a) Assembles rammer staff for cleaning bore. (b) Assists in cleaning bore and powder chamber when directed by the chief of section. (9) No. 7. Assists in cleaning the bore and powder chamber. (10) No. 8. (a) Places loading tray with accessories. (b) Assists in cleaning bore and powder chamber. (11). No. 9. (a) Assists No. 5 in preparing soda ash (or soda) solution. (b) Assists in cleaning bore and powder chamber. (c) Disassembles rammer staff. (12), No. 10. (a) Assists, No. 5 in preparing soda ash (or sal soda) solution. (b) Assists in cleaning bore and powder chamber. 702 SERVICE OF THE PIECE (13) No. 11. (a) Closes all powder containers and places them under paulin. (b) Assists No. 12 in storing fuzes, primers, and projectiles. (c) Replaces in tool chest materials used to clean projectiles. (14) No. 12. (a) Receives primers from No. 1 and places them in primer boxes. (b) Replaces fuze wrench and hand fuze setter in tool chest. (c) Closes fuze and primer boxes. (d) Stores ammunition. (15) Ammunition corporal. (a) Verifies the numbers and types of projectiles, primers, fuzes, and charges remaining, and reports them to the chief of section. (b) Supervises the storage of the powder, fuzes, primers, and projectiles. 27. To Remove Rear Spades and Close Trails. The command is: REMOVE REAR SPADES AND CLOSE TRAILS. a. Description of operation. The rear spade keys are removed. The spades are detached from the trails and placed in their carrying brackets inside the trails. The spade keys are placed in the carrying pockets on the outside of the left trail. The trails are then closed. Closing of the trails must be completed before the bogie is lowered sufficiently to take the weight of the carriage off the ground. b. Duties of members of gun section. (1) No. 1. (a) Secures a crowbar and when No. 3 has removed the keys of the spade on the right trail, assisted by No. 11, removes the spade from the trail and places it in its seat inside the right trail. (b) Assisted by Nos. 3 and 11, closes right trail. (2) No. 3. (a) Secures a hammer and removes the key of the right spade. (b) Assists No. 1 in removing spade and placing it in its seat on the trail. (c) Assists No. 1 in closing right trail. (3) No. 4. Procures both aiming posts and places them with accessories. (4) No. 11. (a) Assists Nos. 1 and 3 in removing right rear spade. (b) Assists Nos. 1 and 3 in closing right trail. (5) Nos. 2, 4, and 12. Perform duties similar to those of Nos. 1, 3, and 11 in removing the left rear spade, placing it in its seat inside the left trail, and in closing left trail. 28. To Limber. The command is: LIMBER. a. Description of operations. The traveling lock is placed in its position on the trails. The traveling lock keys are put in place. The locking pins are placed in the keys. The traveling lock cable is attached and tightened. The limber is rolled to position over the trails so that the elevating screw engages in its seat on the trails. The elevating screw is then operated to raise the trails until they are in position in the spring-supported seat, clamped there by the lifting screw, and the lifting screw cover is replaced. The trail locking pins are fastened. The brake hose connections between the limber and carriage are made. The limber drawbar locking pin is disengaged. b. Duties of members of gun section. (1) No. 1. (a) Replaces traveling lock assisted by Nos. 2, 3, 4, 11, and 12. (b) Assisted by Nos. 2, 3, 4, 11, and 12, rolls limber over trails, guiding lifting screw into trail slots. (c) Assisted by No. 2, operates lifting screw to raise trails. (d) Engages the right trail locking pin. (e) Connects the service brake line between the limber and the carriage, first removing and placing dummy coupling in its traveling position on the right trail. (2) No. 2. (a) Assists No. 1 in rolling limber over the trails. (b) Assists No. 1 in operating lifting screw to raise trails. (c) Engages the left trail locking pin. (d) Connects the emergency brake line between the limber and the carriage, first removing and placing dummy coupling in its traveling position on the left trail. (e) Disengages the limber drawbar locking pin. (f) Checks to see that the trail base locking pin is in the “out” position. (3) No. 3. (a) Assists No. 1 in replacing traveling lock. (b) Installs right traveling lock key and replaces locking pins. (c) Assists No. 1 in replacing limber. SERVICE OF THE PIECE 703 (d) Replaces lifting screw cover. (4) No. 4. (a) Assists No. 1 in replacing traveling lock. (b) Installs left traveling lock key and replaces locking pin. (c) Assists No. 1 in replacing limber. (5) No. 11. (a) Assists No. 1 in replacing traveling lock. (b) Attaches and tightens the traveling lock cable. (c) Assists No. 1 in replacing limber. (6) No. 12. (a) Assists No. 1 in replacing traveling lock. (b) Assists No. 1 in replacing limber. 29. To Raise Carriage. The command is: RAISE CARRIAGE. a. Description of operation. The ratchet wrenches are placed on the bogie lifting screws and the screws are operated to lower the bogie until the carriage has been lifted into its traveling position, as indicated by the red pointers on the bottom carriage alining with the red marks on the bogie. The bogie support cables are placed in traveling position. The cradle lock is locked to the cradle, the gun being moved and traversed in elevation as is necessary to permit engagement of the lock. The bogie screw covers are replaced and the locking plate is placed on the bogie screws. b. Duties of members of gun section. (1) Gunner. When carriage has been raised to traveling position, assists in locking the cradle lock by placing piece in proper posi- tion of traverse. (2) No. 3. When carriage has been raised to traveling position, assists in locking the cradle lock by placing piece in proper position of elevation. (3) No. 5. (a) Secures ratchet wrench from right trail. (b) Assisted by Nos. 7 and 9, operates wrench on right bogie screw to raise carriage to traveling position. (c) Replaces bogie screw covers and locking plate. (4) No. 7. (a) Assists in operating right ratchet wrench. (b) Removes right bogie support cables and secures ends for travel. (5) No. 9. Assists in operating right ratchet wrench. (6) Nos. 6, 8, and 10. Perform the same duties as Nos. 5, 7, and 9, respectively, to remove the left bogie support cables and operate the ratchet wrench on the left bogie screw to raise the carriage into traveling position. (7) Chief of section. When the carriage has been raised into position, secures cradle lock. 30. To Place Gun in Traveling Position. The command is: IN TRAVELING POSITION. a. Description of operation. After the cradle lock has been locked and the traveling lock is in position on the trails, the piston rod nuts are unscrewed. Under no circum- stances will the gun be moved from firing position until the cradle lock is locked. The prime mover takes position about 10 yards in rear of the limber drawbar, facing to the rear. One end of the retracting cable is engaged to the hook underneath the breach end of the tube. The other end of the coupling is attached to the pintle of the prime mover. The driver of the prime mover, by movement of the prime mover, draws the tube into traveling position. The tube is locked with the traveling lock. The piston rod nuts are replaced and screwed tight. b. Duties of members of gun section. (1) Gunner. When the gun is in traveling position, locks tube to the traveling lock. (2) No. 1. When the gun is in traveling position, secures breech cover. (3) No. 3. (a) Secures, the piston rod nut wrenches from the tool chest and un- screws the piston rod nuts, placing them on the right trail. (b) When the gun is in traveling position, replaces piston, rod nuts, screwing them tight and replacing cotter pins. Replaces piston rod nut wrenches in the tool chest. (4) No. 4. Secures, the retracting cable. Passes one end to No. 11 and attaches the other end to the hook in the breech end of the tube. When the gun is in traveling position, releases cable and, assisted by No. 11, places it with accessories. (5) No. 11. Receives one end of the retracting cable from No. 4 and attaches it 704 SERVICE OF THE PIECE to the pintle of the prime mover. When the gun is in traveling position, assists No. 1 to remove cable and places it with accessories. (6) Driver of prime mover. Places prime mover in position to pull the gun into traveling position and operates the prime mover as directed. (7) Chief of section. (a) Verifies that cradle lock has been locked before piston rod nuts are removed. (b) Supervises the operation of pulling the gun into traveling position. 31. To Detach Front Spades. The command is: DETACH FRONT SPADES. a. Description of operation. The spade locking keys are removed. The spades are loosened from the bottom carriage using a crowbar if necessary. They are then placed in their brackets on the outside of the trails. b. Duties of members of gun section. (1) No. 5. (a) Working outside the trail, secures the crowbar and forces right spade up against the bottom carriage while spade key is removed. (b) Assisted by Nos. 7 and 9, removes spade and replaces it in its brackets on the right trail. (2) No. 7. Working between the trails, assists No. 5 in removing spade and placing it in its brackets. (3) No. 9. (a) Secures hammer and drives out spade key. (b) Assists in replacing spade in its brackets on the trail. (c) Replaces hammer in tool chest. (4) Nos. 6, 8, and 10. Perform the same duties as Nos. 5, 7, and 9, respectively, in removal of the left spade and in replacing it in its brackets on the left trail. 32. To Replace Gun Cover. The command is: REPLACE COVER. Under super- vision of the ammunition corporal, Nos. 9 to 12 place the gun cover in position and fasten it securely to the carriage. For detailed description of the operation see para- graph 90. 33. To Couple. The command is: COUPLE. a. Description of operation. The prime mover is backed until the lunette on the limber drawbar can be placed over the hook of the pintle of the prime mover. The emergency and service brake lines of the limber are connected to the emergency and service brake lines of the prime mover. The cut-out cocks on the prime mover are opened. r; Duties of members of gun section. (1) No. 1. (a) Signals driver of the prime mover to maneuver the prime mover so that the lunette of the limber drawbar can be placed over the hook of the pintle of the prime mover. (b) Assisted by No. 2, places the lunette of the limber drawbar over the hook of the prime mover pintle and locks the pintle latch. (c) Receives the service brake line from No. 2, makes the service brake line connection between the limber and the prime mover, and opens the service cut-out cocks on the prime mover. (2) No. 2. (a) Assists No. 1 in coupling the limber to the prime mover. (b) Disconnects the limber emergency and service brake lines, passing the service line to No. 1. (c) Connects the emergency brake line from the limber to the prime mover and opens the emergency cut-out cock on the prime mover. 34. To Load Accessories. After the carriage has been coupled to the prime mover, the accessories are loaded in the vehicles of the section by all the cannoneers under direction of the chief of section. CHAPTER VI TO PLACE GUN IN FIRING POSITION AND IN TRAVELING POSITION, M1918 ONLY 35. To Execute Action Rear. a. The guns ordinarily will be put into position individually in the most convenient manner, being maneuvered by the prime movers so that the muzzles point in the desired direction. The command is: ACTION REAR. b. In general, the chief of section gives the necessary commands and supervises the work of the section. The gunner directs the work of the gun squad, and the ammuni- tion corporal directs the work of the ammunition squad. Specific duties requiring execution at a given time are listed in succeeding paragraphs. Even-numbered cannon- eers work on the right side when the piece is limbered and the left side when the piece is unlimbered. c. In the preliminary instruction of the gun squads, and whenever conditions require close supervision of the detailed duties of the individual cannoneers, placing of the pieces in position is executed in successive steps by use of the following commands: 1. By detail, 2. Action rear, 3. SET BRAKES, 4. UNCOUPLE, 5. In firing position, 6. UNLIMBER, 7. SPREAD TRAILS AND ATTACH SPADES, 8. UNSHACKLE SPRING AND DIG RECOIL. PIT, 9. PREPARE FOR ACTION. d. Upon the completion of the duties prescribed in any given step, cannoneers will either take their posts or take position preparatory to performing their duties in the next step, as may be prescribed by the chief of section. When the cannoneers are sufficiently instructed, all the steps will be executed successively, at the single command Action rear. e. The prime mover, the limber, and other transportation habitually will be removed from the position of the piece during the execution of the command Action rear. 36. To Set Brakes. The command is: 1. By detail, 2. Action rear, 3. SET BRAKES. a. Description of the operation. The hand brakes on the piece are set firmly to prevent movements of the carriage during subsequent operations. If the brakes are not securely set, the gun carriage may move when the jacks are being used to raise the trails. Such movement will cause the jacks to slip and the trails to fall. While the brakes are being set, the tools and accessory equipment are unloaded. b. Duties of the members of the gun section. (1) Nos. 1 and 2. (a) Disconnect the brake cable from the prime mover and the carriage and place it at the position of the tool chests. (b) Disconnect the safety chain, and wind it around the drawbar of the limber. (2) Nos. 6 and 7. Set the hand brakes on the piece. * (3) Chief of section. When the hand brakes have been set, verifies the setting of the brakes. t (4) Other cannoneers. (a) Place the chests end to end in a line extending toward the limber, 1 foot from the right gun-carriage wheel, the end of the first chest opposite the rear of the wheel. (b) Place the jack beam crosswise underneath the trails immediately in front of the gun-carriage wheels. (c) Place a jack, and wooden block suitable for use under the jack, adjacent to each end of the jack beam. (d) Place the wooden crowbars, end to the front, two on each side of the limber, 1 foot outside of and parallel to the limber wheels. (e) Place wooden blocks in position, one pile of blocks under each trail, im- mediately in rear of the limber frame. A block with iron rings fastened in each end will be placed as the bottom block in each pile. (f) Place the remaining equipment on the line established by the chests and adjacent to the chest farthest from the right gun-carriage wheel. 37. To Uncouple. The command is: UNCOUPLE. , Nos. 1 and 2 hasten to the drawbar. If the brake cable and safety chain have not been detached, No. 1 detaches the brake cable from the prime mover and the carriage and places it at the position FA1 (1) 705 706 - SERVICE OF THE PIECE of the tool chests, and No. 2 detaches the safety chain from the prime mover and winds it about the drawbar of the limber. No. 1 unlatches the pintle latch, and both raise the drawbar from the pintle hook. No. 1 signals the driver to move the prime mover forward. 38. To Place the Gun in the Firing Position. The command is: IN FIRING POSITION. a. Description of the operation. The traveling lock which supports the breech in the traveling position is unfastened from the trails. Pinions mounted on each end of traveling lock are meshed with the translating racks on each trail and are turned by ratchet wrenches. As the pinions are turned, they travel along the translating racks and bring the gun into battery. Operation of the two wrenches must be synchronized. When the gun has been moved forward into battery sufficiently to free the breech cover, the gun covers are removed. When the gun has been moved into battery, the recoil and counterrecoil piston-rod nuts (assembled in the recoil lug of the breech ring) are screwed on to the ends of the recoil and counterrecoil piston rods by means of a wrench provided for that purpose. The breech is elevated slightly, and the traveling lock is detached from the breech ring and removed. b. Duties of the members of the gun section (1) Nos. 1 and 2. (a) Remove the wooden covers from the gun translating racks. (b) Assisted by No. 3, release the fastenings of the breech section of the gun cover. (c) No. 2 procures two ratchet wrenches and passes one to No. 1. (d) Unfasten the traveling-lock clip screws and attach the ratchet wrenches to the pinion shafts in the traveling lock. (e) Operate the ratchet wrenches simultaneously, under supervision of the gun- ner, until the gun has been moved into battery. (f) Remove the ratchet wrenches; No. 1 passes his wrench to No. 2, who re- places both wrenches in the tool chest. (g) Screw down the traveling-lock clip screws and replace translating-rack covers. (h) Remove the traveling-lock when it has been unlocked from the recoil lug by No. 3. No. 2 places the traveling lock adjacent to the tool chest. (2) No. 3. (a) Assists Nos. 1 and 2 in releasing the fastenings of the breech section of the gun cover. (b) Procures the piston-rod nut wrench with handle, an oiler, and waste. (c) Takes position between the trails underneath the gun. (d) As soon as the motion of the gun into battery releases the breech section of the gun cover, places the gun cover to the right of the piece. - (e) Guides the lug of the jack beam through the eye of the rear maneuvering lug on the bottom carriage as Nos. 4 to 7 lift the beam. Secures the beam to the bottom carriage with the key provided for that purpose. (f) Cleans and oils the threads on the recoil and counterrecoil piston rods. (g) Attaches the recoil and counterrecoil piston-rod nuts when the gun has been moved into battery. (h) Screws on the nuts with the piston-rod nut wrench, taking care to see that the nuts are screwed on as far as they will go. (i) Signals the gunner to elevate the breech until the pinions of the traveling lock are disengaged from the translating racks. j) Loosens the traveling-lock locking screw, removes the locking-screw nut from the T-slot in the underside of the recoil lug, and pushes the traveling lock to the rear of the breech. (k) Returns the piston-rod nut wrench with handle, oiler, and waste to the tool chest. (3) Nos. 4 and 5. (a) Unfasten and remove the front section of the gun cover. Place the breech and front sections of the gun cover near the tool chests. (b) Obtain oilers and waste, and clean and oil the exposed slides on the gun and cradle. No. 4 returns the oilers and waste to the tool chests. (c) Assisted by Nos. 6 and 7, raise the jack beam and place jacks under the ends thereof. SERVICE OF THE PIECE 707 (d) Remain in postion at the jacks, awaiting the next command. (4) No. 6. (a) Removes the muzzle cover and places it near the tool chests. (b) Assists No. 7 in placing blocks under the trails. (c) Assists Nos. 4, 5, and 7 in lifting the jack beam. (d) Assists No. 4 in placing a jack under the right end of the jack beam. (e) Obtains a small steel crowbar, inserts it in the lifting handle on the body of the jack, and holds the jack in position. (5) No. 7. (a) Assisted by No. 6, places blocks under the trails, immediately in rear of the limber frame. (b) Assists Nos. 4, 5, and 6 in lifting the jack beam. (c) Assists No. 5 in placing a jack under the left end of the jack beam. (d) Obtains a small steel crowbar, inserts it in the lifting handle on the body of the jack, and holds the jack in position. (6) Nos. 8 to 12. Release the spade fastenings, and place the fastenings in their brackets on the trails. 39. To Unlimber. The command is: UNLIMBER. a. Description of operation. (1) The limber is disconnected from the gun carriage by disconnecting the brake cables and the trail clamping bolts (Plate 6). The trail clamping bolts are disengaged. The horizontal and vertical drawbar keys are inserted in their seats. (2) The trails are raised by means of jacks placed under the ends of the jack beam attached to the bottom carriage. As the trails are raised, blocks are placed Plate 6. M1918, Limber in Position Under Trails. underneath them to prevent the trails from falling in case the jacks should slip. Two sizes of blocks are provided for this purpose, 10 by 12 by 24 inches and 4 by 12 by 42 inches. The bottom block of each pile should have an iron ring in the center of each end, to which are attached pieces of rope with a snap at one end, permitting the piles to be moved by cannoneers standing clear of the trails. (3) After the trails are raised, the limber is moved by hand and coupled to the prime mover. b. Duties of members of the gun section. (1) Nos. 1 and 2. (a) Disconnect the brake cables between the limber and the piece. (b) Loosen the trail clamping bolts, and detach them from the trail clamping- bolt pins. p (c) Insert the horizontal and vertical drawbar keys. (d) Working on the drawbar of the limber, assisted by Nos. 3, 9, and 11 work- 708 SERVICE OF THE PIECE ing on the left limber wheel, and Nos. 8, 10, and 12 working on the right limber wheel, move the limber at the chief of section's command Remove limber, and under the direction of No. 1 place the lunette over the pintle of the prime mover, No. 1 closing the pintle latch. (2) Nos. 3 and 8 to 12. Assist Nos. 1 and 2 to move the limber from under the trails and to couple it to the prime mover. (3) Nos. 4 to 7. Operate the jacks to raise the trails. When the trails have been raised sufficiently to free the limber, Nos. 4 and 5 place additional blocks under the trails (Plate 7). (4) Chief of section. when the limber is free, commands Remove limber. 40. To Spread the Trails and Attach the Spades. The command is: SPREAD TRAILS AND ATTACH, SPADES. a. Description of the operation. The trails are lowered until their outer ends are approximately 30 inches above the ground. The trail spades and the clamping trail transom are removed from the trails. The trail connecting pin is removed and the trail locking-bolt nuts unscrewed sufficiently to be in position to lock the inner ends of the trails when the trails have been spread. The trails are spread slowly and evenly while two cannoneers, using hand ropes, move the piles of blocks under the trails. Care must be taken to keep sufficient blocking under the trails until the trail spades have been attached. When the trails have been spread until stopped by the trail lock- ing bolts, the trail spades are attached to the trails. With the trail spades in position, outlines for the spade pits are marked on the ground. The trails are closed sufficiently to clear the space required for digging the spade pits. These pits are dug sufficiently large and deep to permit seating the spades so that the ends of the trails will be within 6 inches of the surface of the ground. When the pits have been completed, the trails are opened until stopped by the trail locking bolts. The trail locking-bolt nuts are screwed down until the trails are securely locked. The trails are lowered and the blocks and jacks removed. b. Duties of the members of the gun section. (1) Nos. 1 and 2. (a) Remove sufficient blocking from under the trails to permit their being lowered until their ends are approximately 30 inches from the ground. - (b) Assist Nos. 3 and 8 to 12 to remove the trail spades from their position on the trails. SERVICE OF THE PIECE 709 (c) Unscrew the trail locking-bolt nuts seven or eight turns and clean the lock- ing-bolt seats in the semicircular notches in the forward extensions of the trails. (d) Oil the locking bolts and the trail hinge pins. (e) Assist Nos. 3 and 8 to 12 to attach the spades and to dig the spade pits. (f) Screw down the trail locking-bolt nuts when the trails have been spread to their final position. Care should be taken to see that the lugs on the lower ends of the bolts are properly seated in the recesses provided for them. - (2) Nos. 4 to 7. (a) Lower the trails until their ends are approximately 30 inches from the surface of the ground. (b) Nos. 6 and 7 carefully hold the jacks in position while the trails are being moved. Nos. 4 and 5, by means of hand ropes, keep piles of blocks under each trail while the trails are being moved. (c) Remove the blocking and lower the trails completely at the appropriate time. (d) Unlatch the jack beam from the rear maneuvering lug when the jacks have been lowered sufficiently. The jack beam is dropped to the ground and the jacks re- moved. - (3) Nos. 3 and 8 to 12. (a) No. 3 removes the trail connecting pin when the trails have been lowered until their ends are approximately 30 inches above the sur- face of the ground. (b) Assisted by Nos. 1 and 2, remove the trail spades from the trails, the one fartherest from the breech first, and place them at points that will be approximately 1 yard in rear of the ends of the trails when the trails are spread. (c) Remove the clamping trail transom and place it adjacent to the tool chests and in prolongation of the line thereof away from the right piece wheel. (d) No. 3 removes the trail connecting pin when the clamping trail transom has been removed. (e) Spread the trails slowly and evenly until stopped by the trail locking bolts. (f) Assisted by Nos. 1 and 2, attach the right and left trail spades. (g) Close the trails sufficiently to permit digging the spade pits. (h) Assisted by Nos. 1 and 2, dig the spade pits. (i) Spread the trails with spades attached until stopped by the trail locking bolts. (4) Chief of section. Marks on the ground the outlines of the spade pits. 41. To Unshackle the Spring and to Dig the Recoil Pit. The command is: UNSHACKLE SPRING AND DIG RECOIL. PIT. a. Description of the operation. (1) The jacks are adjusted under the front maneu- vering lugs, taking care to see that the jack blocks will not interfere with the removal of the spring eye pins. The bottom carriage is raised until the spring is relieved of the weight of the carriage. The spring eye pin safety clips are released by pressing in on the spring eye pin safety clip locks. ' The safety clips are pressed downward and the spring eye pins removed from their seats through the lower shackles and the ends of the spring (Plate 8). The shackles are pushed outward from the ends of the spring and the spring eye pins replaced in the shackles. The jacks are lowered until the axle comes into contact with the gun centering pins located in the axle housing. The axle pivot pin is inserted in its seat extending through the axle housing and the axle. (2) A recoil pit is dug to prevent the breech from striking the ground when it is fired with a quadrant elevation greater than approximately 300 mils. To determine its dimensions, elevate the gun to a quadrant elevation of 350 mils, and place a straightedge board on top of the gun, one end just touching the ground. Traverse the gun through its arc, allowing the board to mark a line on the ground. Elevate the gun to its maximum quadrant elevation. Place the board under the recoil mechanism and traverse as before, allowing the board to mark a second line on the ground. Re- move the earth between the indicated lines to a depth of 32 inches. Check the clearance at various elevations by measuring the length of recoil from the lowest point on the face of the breech in prolongation of the underside of the recoil mechanism. If the piece wheels sink into the ground during firing, the clearance must be checked from time to time. 710 SERVICE OF THE PIECE (3) With practice, the chief of section can indicate the outlines of the recoil pit without resorting to the method described above. However, in every case, he should check the clearance as previously described. Plates 9 and 10 show horizontal and vertical details of a typical recoil pit. b. Duties of the members of the gun section. (1) Nos. 1 and 2. (a) Remove the spring eye pins when the spring has been relieved of the weight of the carriage. If there is any difficulty in withdrawing the spring eye pins, first remove the shackle adjusting bolt pins and swing the shackle adjusting bolts downward. The upper and lower shackles may then be moved laterally, facilitating removal of the spring eye pins. Plate 8. M1918, Unshackling Gun Axle Spring. 1. Jack blocks. 8. Shackle adjusting bolt. 2. Jacks. 9. Shackle adjusting bolt safety clip. 3. Front maneuvering lugs, 10. Axle pivot pin cap. 4. Spring eye pin safety clip (opened). 11. Gun centering pins. 5. Spring eye pin (partly withdrawn). 12. Trail locking bolt nut. 6. Lower spring shackle. 13. Trail hinge pin. 7. Upper spring shackle. (b) Push the lower shackles away from the ends of the spring and replace the spring eye pins in the shackles. - (c) Assist in digging the recoil pit. (2) No. 3. (a) Collects the blocks and places them to the left of the tool chests. (b) Assists in digging the recoil pit. (3) Nos. 4 to 7. (a) Adjust the jacks under the front maneuvering lugs. (b) Raise the bottom carriage until the spring is relieved of the weight of the carriage. (c) Lower the bottom carriage until the axle comes into contact with the gun centering pins and the hole in the axle is accurately alined with the hole in the axle housing through which the axle pivot pin is inserted. If necessary, one jack is raised slightly and the other lowered, so as to slide the bottom carriage laterally on the axle until the pivot pin can be inserted. (d) Remove the jacks and jack blocks and place them to the left of the tool chests after the pivot pin has been fully inserted in its seat. (e) Assist in digging the recoil pit. (4) Nos. 8 to 12. (a) Remove the jack beam and place it parallel to the gun, with its forward end opposite the left end of the tool chest farthest from the gun. (b) Assisted by all the other members of the gun section, dig the recoil pit. SERVICE OF THE PIECE 711 (5) Gunner. (a) Cleans and oils the axle pivot pin and, inserts it in its seat at the proper time. ge (b) Attaches the sighting platform to the left trail and bottom carriage if he desires to use the platform, otherwise places one or more blocks of wood in the proper position on which to stand while performing his duties during firing. (c) Assists the chief of section in checking the dimensions of the recoil pit. (6) Chief of section. (a) Marks on the ground the outlines of the recoil pit. (b) Assisted by the gunner, checks the dimensions of the recoil pit. Aºecoz/A2A } – —l [6] *S- AC and Nos. 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12 at ammuni- tion shelter, unless otherwise ordered. Plate 9. M1918, Posts of Cannoneers, Pieces in Battery. i 42. To Prepare for Action. The command is: PREPARE FOR ACTION. Duties of the members of the gun section are as follows: a. Chief of section. (1) Supervises the work of the cannoneers. (2) Inspects the matériel, makes certain that the recoil and counterrecoil mechan- isms contain the proper amount of oil, receives the report of the ammunition corporal, and, when the members of the section have completed their duties, reports to the executive, “Sir, No. (so and so) in order,” or reports any defects which the section cannot remedy without delay. b. Gunner. (1) Procures the panoramic sight and places it in position on the quadrant sight. º (2) Operates the traversing and elevating mechanisms. (3) Levels the cross level. (4) Takes his post. c. No. 1. (1) If the piece is in a state of Secure piece (par. 45), assisted by Nos. 2 and 3, removes the breech section of the gun cover and places it to the left of the tool chests. (2) Procures the lanyard, vent cleaning bit, an oiler, and some waste, and places them in the box or tray which No. 2 has placed in position near the right trail. (3) Unlocks the percussion-hammer lock bolt. (4) Opens the breech after No. 2 has removed the firing mechanism. (5) Examines the breechblock, primer vent, breech recess, and gas check pad, and cleans and oils any part requiring it. (6) Tests the functioning of the counterbalance, making such adjustments as ap- pear necessary (par. 57). (7) Takes his post. 712 - SERVICE OF THE PIECE d. No. 2. (1) If the piece is in a state of Secure piece, assists Nos. 1 and 3 to remove the breech section of the gun cover. (2) Procures the box of primers, the spare firing mechanism, and some waste, and places a box or tray in a position convenient to both himself and No. 1. (3) Removes the firing mechanism from its seat in the breechblock. (4) Examines the firing mechanisms, and cleans and oils them. (5) Takes his post. e. No. 3. (1) If the piece is in a state of Secure piece, assists Nos. 1 and 2 to remove the breech section of the gun cover. |PLAN cº- 4” x 4" SZTEEEEE|3:REEEEEEEEEETºžSAT T T ~ TT f sº ºsmº ºmº ºmº sº * * * Ş :* 4" × 6* s R& º º : º º: §T * = § N tº) * º $2. *-g Nº. NS S 1- V V ºğ\%N &VºžV&VäS& ! | | SECTION ON A-A |s 6'-O" —-i-O"is- Plate 10. M1918, Platform for Gun Carriage. (2) Assembles the sponge to the short end section of the staff and places it, staff to the rear, with the head resting on the bucket or tub of water placed in position by No. 5. (3) Assembles the rammer to the long end section of the staff and places it in rear of the piece convenient for use. * (4) Examines the bore and powder chamber and sponges the powder chamber with water. * (5) Takes his post. f. No. 4. (1) If the piece is in a state of Secure piece, assisted by No. 5, removes the front section of the gun cover and the muzzle cover and places them to the left of the tool chests. (2) Sets up the aiming stakes under the supervision of the gunner (par. 77). (3) Procures the 25-cm rule and measures the position of the replenisher piston and the oil index in the rear end of the counterrecoil cylinder and reports same to the chief of section. . (4) Cleans the replenisher-piston guide and the two holes in the center of the spanner-wrench holes. (5) Cleans the 3-mm hole on the underside of the replenisher, 1% inches from the rear end. * (6) Procures the gunner's quadrant. (7) Takes his post. SERVICE OF THE PIECE - 713 g. No. 5. (1) If the piece is in a state of Secure piece, assists No. 4 to remove the front section of the gun cover and the muzzle cover. (2) Assisted by No. 6, gets a tub or large bucket filled with water and places it immediately in rear of the rear edge of the recoil pit, near the left trail spade. (3) Takes his post. h. No. 6. (1) Assists No. 5 in procuring and placing in position a tub or bucket full of water. (2) Takes his post. i. No. 7. (1) Distributes waste to the members of the section. (2) Procures the loading tray. (3) Takes his post. 1. No. 8. (1) Procures the fuze setter and the fuze wrench. Places the fuze setter in a convenient position near the time-fuzed projectiles. He carries the fuze wrench in his pocket. (2) Cleans and oils the fuze setter. (3) Opens a box of each type of fuze on hand and places the boxes in a position convenient for use. (4) Takes his post. k. Nos. 9 and 10. (1) Open several powder containers. (2) Take their posts. l. Nos. 11 and 12. (1) Procure tools and materials for preparing projectiles for firing. (2) Clean several projectiles of each type on hand. & (3) Take their posts. m. Ammunition corporal. (1) Supervises the work of Nos. 8 to 12. (2) Reports to the chief of section the number of each type of projectile, powder charge, and fuze on hand in the section. (3) Takes his post. r 43. Posts of the Cannoneers, Carriages Unlimbered. The members of the gun section are posted as follows (Plate 9): a. Chief of section. The chief of section goes where he can control the service of the piece, hear commands, and perform his duties effectively. A convenient post is 1 yard in rear of the rear edge of the recoil pit and 1 yard to the right of the left train spade. 4. b. Gunner. On the sighting platform, or on a block of wood inside the left trail, immediately in rear of and facing the sight support. The sighting platform provided for the use of the gunner is inconveniently high for a man of average stature, and its use is optional. - c. No. 1. Eighteen inches to the right of the right side of the breech on line with the rear face of the breechblock carrier, facing to the left. d. No. 2. Two feet to the rear of No. 1, facing to the front. e. No. 3. At rear edge of the recoil pit just inside the left trail spade, facing the front. f. No. 4. Eighteen inches to the left of the left side of the breech, opposite the quadrant seat on the breech ring, facing to the right. g. No. 5. Two feet in rear of No. 7, facing to the front. h. No. 6. At the rear edge of the recoil pit, on line with and 6 inches to the left of No. 7, facing to the front. i. No. 7. At the rear edge of the recoil pit just inside the right trail spade, facing to the front. 44. To Prepare to Travel. a. In the preliminary, instruction of the gun squads, and whenever conditions require close supervision of the detailed duties of the individual cannoneers, preparing the carriages for traveling is executed in successive steps by use of the following commands: 1. By detail, 2. March order, 3. SECURE PIECE, 4. SHACKLE SPRING AND FILL RECOIL. PIT, 5. DETACH SPADES AND CLOSE TRAILS, 6. LIMBER, 7. IN TRAVELING POSITION, 8. COUPLE. If it is in- tended only to execute secure piece, the command is: SECURE PIECE. b. Upon the completion of the duties prescribed in any given step, cannoneers will either take their posts or take position preparatory to performing their duties in the next 714 SERVICE OF THE PIECE step, as may be prescribed by the chief of section. When the cannoneers are sufficiently instructed, all the steps will be executed successively at the single command March order. 45. To Secure the Piece. The command is: 1. By detail, 2. March order, 3. SECURE PIECE, or if it is intended to execute only secure piece, the command is: SECURE PIECE. a. Description of the operation. The piece is secured as the first step in preparing to travel or to protect the matériel from the weather when firing is to be interrupted for several hours. The bore, powder chamber, breech recess, and breechblock are cleaned, thoroughly dried, and covered with a thin coat of light lubricating oil. The sighting equipment is placed in the chest. The gun covers are placed on the piece as directed by the chief of section. b. Duties of the members of the gun section. (1) Chief of section. (a) Directs the work of the cannoneers in cleaning the bore and the powder chamber. (b) Inspects the matériel to insure that all duties have been properly performed and makes sure that the piece is not left loaded, and in Secure piece when the mem- bers of the section have completed their duties, reports to the executive “Sir, No. (so-and-so) in order” or reports any defects which the section cannot remedy without delay. (2) Gunner. (a) Brings the gun to a horizontal position in the center of the traveſ SC. (b) Removes the panoramic sight and places it in its chest. (3) No. 1. (a) Cleans the surface of the breechblock and the primer vent and applies a light coating of oil. (b) Closes the breech. - (c) Locks the percussion hammer in the traveling position. (d) Returns the lanyard, vent cleaning bit, oiler and waste to the tool chests. (e) Assisted by Nos. 2 and 3, replaces the breech section of the gun cover. (4) No. 2. (a) Inserts a cleaned and oiled firing mechanism in its seat, taking care to see that the firing mechanism does not contain a primer. (b) Returns unused primers to the ammunition corporal. (c) Cleans and oils the spare firing mechanism and returns it to the tool chests, taking care to .see that it does not contain a primer. (d) Returns the waste and the box or tray to the tool chest. (e) Assists No. 1 in replacing the breech section of the gun cover. (5) No. 3. (a) Places the sponge and rammer with the accessory equipment on the left of the tool chests. * (b) Assists No. 1 in replacing the breech section of the gun cover. (6) No. 4. (a) Replaces the gunner's quadrant and the 25-cm rules in their proper places in the chests. (b) Makes sure that the oil pump, oil screw filler, and the supply of recoil oil are properly packed for transportation. (c) Assisted by Nos. 5 and 6, replaces the muzzle cover, and the front section of the gun cover, as directed by the chief of section. (7) No. 5. (a) Oils the top and bottom carriages. (b) Assists No. 4 in replacing the muzzle cover and the front section of the gun cover. (8) No. 6. Assists No. 4 in replacing the front section of the gun cover. (9) No. 7. Places the loading tray with the accessory equipment to the left of the tool chest. & (10) No. 8. (a) Returns unused fuzes to the ammunition corporal. (b) Replaces the hand fuze setter in its proper place in the instrument chest. (c) Replaces the fuze wrench in the tool chest. (d) Assists in storing ammunition. (1i) Nos. 9 and 10. Close powder containers and store them. (12) Nos. 11 and 12. (a) Replace in tool chest the tools and materials used in preparing projectiles for firing. (b) Store projectiles. SERVICE OF THE PIECE 715 13) Ammunition corporal. (a) Supervises work of the ammunition squad. (b) Takes such steps as may be necessary to insure that the powder, fuzes, primers, and projectiles are properly stored and placed under appropriate shelter. 46. To Shackle the Spring and to Fill the Recoil Pit. The command is: SHACKLE SPRING AND FILL RECOIL. PIT. -. a. Description of the operation. The jacks are adjusted under the front maneuvering lugs and raised until the pivot pin can be withdrawn and the bottom carriage raised until the ends of the gun axle spring are in a position convenient for attachment to the lower spring shackles. The spring eye pins are inserted in their seats. The spring eye pin safety clips are closed and inspected to see that they are properly locked by the safety-clip locks. The jacks are lowered and removed. The recoil pit is filled in. b. Duties of the members of the gun section. (1) Nos. 1 and 2. (a) Remove the spring eye pins from the lower spring shackles, and clean and lubricate them with graphite grease and light lubricating oil. (b) At the proper time, replace the spring eye pins in their seats through the lower spring shackles and the bushings in the ends of the gun axle spring. (c) Push the spring eye pin safety clips into their closed position, taking care to insure that they are securely locked by the safety-clip locks. (2) No. 3. (a) Takes down the aiming stakes and aiming stake lights. (b) Places the aiming stakes with the other accessory equipment, and packs the aiming-stake lights in the chests or containers provided for that purpose. (3) Nos. 4 to 7. (a) Adjust the jacks under the front maneuvering lugs and elevate the bottom carriage, if necessary, until the axle pivot pin is free in its seat. (b) Elevate the bottom carriage until the ends of the gun axle spring may be attached to the lower spring shackles. (c) Lower the jacks and remove them when the gun axle spring has been prop- erly attached to the lower spring shackles. (4) Nos. 8 to 12. Fill in the recoil pit. (5) Gunner. At the appropriate time, removes the axle pivot pin and closes the axle pivot-pin cap. 47. To Detach the Spades and to Close the Trails. The command is: DETACH SPADES AND CLOSE TRAILS. a. Description of the operation. The spade clamp-bolt lock nuts are unscrewed sufficiently to permit the spade clamp bolts to be swung outward clear of the trails. The jack beam is attached to the bottom carriage, and the jacks adjusted under the ends of the beam and operated until the ends of the trails are approximately 1 foot above the surface of the ground. The trails are closed and coupled together. Blocking is kept under the trails at all times while they are supported by the jacks. b. Duties of the members of the gun section. (1) Nos. 1 and 2. (a) Assisted by No. 3, unscrew the spade clamp-bolt lock nuts and swing the spade clamp bolts outward, free of the trails. (b) Unscrew the trail locking-bolt nuts while the trails are being raised. (c) Screw down the trail locking-bolt nuts after the trails have been closed. (2) No. 3. (a) Guides the lug of the jack beam, through the eye of the rear maneuvering lug of the bottom carriage and secures the beam with the key provided. (b) Assists Nos. 1 and 2 in unscrewing the spade clamping bolts. (c) Places blocks under each trail. (d) Assists in closing the trails. (e) Iñserts the trail connecting pin. (f) Places additional blocking under the trails as they are being raised. (3) Nos. 4 to 7. (a) Place the jack beam in position and raise it while No. 3 guides the lug on the beam through the eye of the rear maneuvering lug on the bottom carriage. (b) Place the jacks in position under the ends of the jack beam and operate them sufficiently to take up the slack. (c) When all the spade clamp bolts have been detached from the trails, operate the jacks until the ends of the trails are approximately 1 foot above the ground. 716 SERVICE OF THE PIECE (d) Nos. 4 and 5, by means of hand ropes, keep blocks under the trails while they are being closed. Nos. 6 and 7 hold the jacks firmly in position during this operation. (4) Nos. 8 to 12. Assisted by No. 3, swing the trails together, slowly and evenly, taking care to see that the trails are brought together on the exact center line of the carriage. 48. To Limber. The command is: LIMBER. a. Description of the operation. (1) The prime mover, having brought the limber within 2 yards of the ends of the trails, is uncoupled. It may be used to pull the spades out of the ground. (2) The trails are raised, and the limber is placed underneath, care being taken to insure that the rear corners of the limber frame are accurately seated in the brackets of the limber stops on the underside of the trails. * (3) The clamping trail transom is put in its place on the trails, and the two spades placed on the trail, the one nearest the breech first. (4) The trail clamping bolts are then attached to the trail clamping-bolt pins, and the trail clamping-bolt nuts are screwed down until the trails are loosely clamped to the limber. (5) The brake cables are connected between the limber and the piece. g b. Duties of the members of the gun sections. (1) Nos. 1 and 2. (a) Uncouple the limber from the prime mover. (b) Attach a towing chain or cable to the pintle and to the maneuvering rings on the corners of the spades farthest from the prime mover. (c) On signal from No. 1, the left and right spades are withdrawn from the ground by the prime mover. (d) After the trails have been raised, working on the drawbar, assisted by Nos. 3 and 8 to 12 on the wheels, move the limber into position underneath the ends of the trails. (e) After the clamping trail transom is in position, assist Nos. 3 and 8 to 12 in placing the left spade on the trails in the position nearest the breech of the piece, and the right spade in the position farthest from the breech. (f) Attach the trail clamping bolts to the trail clamping-bolt pins and screw down the trail clamping-bolt nuts until the trails are loosely clamped to the limber. (g) Connect the brake cables. (h) Remove the horizontal and vertical drawbar keys from their seats in the drawbar. - (2) No. 3. (a) Places extra blocking under the trails as they are raised. (b) Assists Nos. 1, 2, and 8 to 12 in moving the limber underneath the trails, working on the left limber wheel. * (c) Assists Nos. 8 to 12 in placing the clamping trail transom in position across the trails. (d) Assists Nos. 1, 2, and 8 to 12 in placing the spades on the trails. (e) Removes blocking from under the trails after the limber has been placed in OSIt1On. p (f) Secures the spades in their traveling position on the trails, assisted by No. 8. (3) Nos. 4 to 7. (a) Raise the trails high enough to permit the limber to be placed in position underneath them. (b) After the limber is in position, lower the trails slowly until they come to rest in their proper position on the limber frame. º (c) Lower the jacks, unlatch the jack beam, remove the jack beam, jacks, and jack blocks, and load them into the truck. ”, (4) Nos. 8 to 12. (a) Assisted by No. 3, place the clamping trail transom in position across the trails. (b) Assist Nos. 1, 2, and 3 in moving the limber into position. Nos. 9 and 11 work on the left limber wheel. Nos. 8, 10, and 12 work on the right limber wheel. (c) Assisted by Nos. 1, 2, and 3, place the spades in traveling position on the trails. (d) No. 8 assists No. 3 in securing the spades in their traveling position on the trails. SERVICE OF THE PIECE 717 49. To Place the Gun in the Traveling Position. The command is: IN TRAVELING POSITION. Duties of the members of the gun section are as follows: a. Nos. 1 and 2. (1) Remove the translating-rack covers and unscrew the traveling- bar clip screws. (2) Procure the traveling lock and two ratchet wrenches. Assisted by No. 3, place the traveling lock across the trails underneath the breech ring and seat it on the trans- lating racks. (3) Attach the ratchet wrenches to the traveling-lock pinions, and at the proper time operate the wrenches simultaneously until the ends of the traveling lock are properly seated under the traveling-lock clip screws. (4) Screw down the traveling-lock clip screws’ until the traveling lock is firmly locked in position. (5) Replace the translating-rack covers. (6) Return the ratchet wrenches to the tool chest. (7) Adjust the breech cover for the gun in traveling position. b. No. 3. (1) Procures the piston-rod nuts wrench, with the handle, and takes position between the trails underneath the breech. (2) Assists Nos. 1 and 2 in placing the traveling lock in position. (3) Signals the gunner to lower the breech until the traveling-lock locking-screw nut can be inserted in the T-slot on the underside of the recoil lug. (4) Inserts the traveling-lock locking-screw nut, slides it home, and turns it until the traveling lock is firmly attached to the recoil lug. (5) Unscrews the recoil and counterrecoil piston-rod nuts. (6) Returns the piston-rod nuts wrench, with handle, to the tool chest. (7) Assisted by No. 4, adjusts and fastens the front section of the gun cover. c. No. 4. Assists No. 3 to adjust and fasten the front section of the gun cover. d. Gunner. (1) On signal from No. 3, depresses the breech until the traveling lock can be attached to the recoil lug. - (2) Supervises the operation of the ratchet wrenches by Nos. 1 and 2, in order that the gun may be moved into the traveling position smoothly and without delay. 50. To Couple. The command is: COUPLE. a. Description of the operation. The drawbar of the limber is attached to the pintle of the piece prime mover. The prime mover is then backed slowly until the limber frame is forced back firmly against the limber stops on the bottom plates of the trails. While the prime mover holds the limber in this position, the trail clamping-bolt nuts are screwed down tightly. The brake cables are connected to the prime mover and the carriage, and the safety chain fastened to the prime mover. b. Duties of the members of the gun section. (1) Chief of section. (a) Signals the driver to back the prime mover until Nos. 1 and 2 can attach the drawbar of the limber to the pintle of the prime mover. (b) Signals the driver to back the prime mover slowly until the rear corners of the limber frame are forced firmly against the limber stops on the bottom plates of the trails. tº (c) When Nos. 1 and 2 have finished tightening the trail clamping-bolt nuts, signals the driver to move the piece forward until the gun-carriage wheels have cleared the recoil pit. - (d) Inspects the section and reports to the executive, “Sir, No. (so and so) in order,” or reports any defects which the section cannot remedy without delay. (2) Nos. 1 and 2. (a) Take position, one on each side of the drawbar of the limber, and raise the drawbar to a horizontal position. (b) As the pintle of the prime mover is brought into position, place the lunette of the drawbar over the hook of the pintle. No. 2 closes the pintle latch. (c) When the limber frame has been forced back firmly against the limber stops, screw down tightly the trail clamping-bolt nuts. (d) Connect the brake cables and the safety chain between the prime mover and the carriage. 718 SERVICE OF THE PIECE (3) Nos. 3 and 4. (a) As soon as the lunette of the limber is engaged with the pintle of the prime mover, release the hand brakes on the piece. (b) Assist in loading equipment. & (4) Nos. 5 to 12. Load the ammunition into transportation. e (5) All members of the section. Load all the remaining tools, accessory equip- ment, gun platform, etc., on to the transportation provided for that purpose. CHAPTER VII DUTIES IN FIRING 51. M1 General. In general, the duties in firing are as follows: a. The chief of section is responsible that all duties are properly performed, all commands executed, and all safety precautions taken. b. The gunner sets the deflection, levels the cross level, and lays the piece for direction. c. No. 1 opens and closes the breech, removes and inserts the firing mechanism, removes fired primers and inserts new primers, and fires the piece. d. No. 2 operates the gunner's quadrant and operates the brake control lever. e. No. 3 cross levels the quadrant mount and lays the piece for elevation. f. Nos. 4 and 6 carry projectiles on the loading tray and insert and remove the loading tray from the breech recess. , * g. No. 5 brings up and inserts the powder charge. h. No. 7 rams projectiles and swabs the powder chamber. i. No. 8 rams projectiles and cleans the face of the breechblock. j. Nos. 9 and 10 prepare powder charges. k. No. 11 fuzes projectiles and sets fuzes. l. No. 12 prepares projectiles. m. The ammunition corporal is responsible that ammunition is properly stored, handled, and prepared for firing; supervises the ammunition squad (par. 88). 52. M1918 General. In general, the duties in firing are as follows: a. The chief of section is responsible that all duties are properly performed, all commands executed, and all safety precautions observed. ... b. The gunner sets the deflection, angle of site, and elevation; levels the cross level; and lays the piece for direction and elevation. c. No. 1 opens and closes the breech and fires the piece. d. No. 2 removes and inserts the firing mechanism, removes fired primers and in- serts new primers, and assists No. 3 to ram projectiles. e. No. 3 swabs the powder chamber and breech recess and assisted by No. 2 rams projectiles. f. No. 4 operates the gunner's quadrant and measures the position of the replenisher 1Stoſl. p g. No. 5 brings up and inserts the powder charge. h. Nos. 6 and 7 carry projectiles on the loading tray and insert and remove the loading tray from the breech recess. - i. No. 8 fuzes projectiles, operates the fuze setter, and sets fuzes. j. Nos. 9 and 10 prepare powder charges. k. Nos. 11 and 12 prepare projectiles. l. The ammunition corporal is responsible that ammunition is properly stored, handled, and prepared for firing; supervises the ammunition squad (par. 88). 53. Chief of Section. a. Enumeration of duties. M1, M1918. (1) To measure the minimum elevation. (2) To indicate to the gunner the aiming point, the referring point, or the target. (3) To follow fire commands. (4) To indicate when the piece is ready to fire. (5) To give the command to fire. (6) To report errors and other unusual incidents of fire to the executive. SERVICE OF THE PIECE 719 (7) To direct the cannoneers to wash and clean the bore. (8) To conduct prearranged fire schedules. (9) To record basic data. (10) To observe and check frequently the functioning of the matériel. (11) To inspect, fuzes before loading. (12) To assign duties when firing with reduced personnel. (13) To verify the adjustment of the sighting equipment. b. Detailed description of certain duties. (1) M1. To measure minimum elevation. (a) The command is: MEASURE MINIMUM ELEVATION. The chief of section, sighting along the lowest element of the bore, causes No. 3 to operate the elevating mechanism until the line of sight just clears the crest. He then causes No. 2 to measure, by means of the gunner's quadrant, the elevation at which the gun is laid. The chief of section checks the reading set on the gunner's quadrant and reports to the executive, “Minimum elevation, No. (so-and-so), (so much).” (b) When the executive announces the corrected minimum quadrant elevation, the chief of section records it in a notebook and causes No. 3 to chalk it on the side of the gun. (2) M1918. To measure the minimum elevation. (a) 1. With the gunner's quadrant. The command is: MEASURE THE MINIMUM QUADRANT ELEVA- TION. The chief of section, sighting along the lowest element of the bore, causes the gunner to operate the elevating mechanism until the line of sight just clears the crest. He then causes No. 4 to measure, by means of the gunner's quadrant, the elevation at which the gun is laid. The chief of section checks the reading set on the gunner's quadrant and reports to the executive, “Minimum elevation, No. (so and so), (so much).” 2. With the quadrant sight. The command is: MEASURE THE MINIMUM ELEVATION, SITE (SO MUCH). The chief of section causes the piece to be laid as described above. The gunner then sets the angle of site announced and operates the knob of the elevating-scale drum until the bubble of the elevation level is centered. He then reads the elevation setting on the elevating-scale drum, and the chief of section reports to the executive, “Minimum elevation, No. (so and so), (so much), site (so much).” (b) When the executive announces the corrected minimum quadrant elevation, or the corrected minimum elevation and site, the chief of section records it in a note- book and causes No. 4 to chalk it on the side of the gun. (3) M1, M1918. To indicate to gunner the aiming point, referring point, or target. Whenever an aiming point, a referring point, or a target has been designated by the executive, the chief of section will make sure that he has properly identified the point in question. He will then indicate it to the gunner. If there is any possibility of misunderstanding, the chief of section will turn the telescope until the horizontal and vertical hairs are on the point designated. (4) M1, M1918. To follow fire commands. The chief of section will follow the fire commands mentally. He will not repeat the commands but will be prepared to give any element of the last command to any cannoneer who has failed to hear it. (5) M1, M1918. To indicate when piece is ready to fire. When arm signals between the chief of section and the executive can be observed, the chief of section will extend his right arm vertically as soon as the gunner has called “Ready,” as a signal to indicate that the piece is ready to fire. When arm signals cannot be observed, the chief of section reports orally to the executive, “No. (so-and-so) ready.” (6) M1, M1918. To give command to fire. When No. 1 can see arm signals made by the chief of section, the chief of section will give the command to fire by dropping his right arm sharply to his side. When arm signals cannot be used, the command No. (so-and-so) fire will be given orally. The chief of section will not give the signal or com- mand to fire until all the cannoneers are in safe positions. (7) M1, M1918. To report errors and other unusual incidents of fire to executive. If for any reason the piece cannot be fired, the chief of section will report promptly to 720 SERVICE OF THE PIECE the executive that fact and the reason therefor; for example, “No. (so-and-so) out, misfire.” Whenever it is discovered that the piece has been fired with an error in laying, the chief of section will report that fact at once; for example, “No. (so-and-so) fired with incorrect deflection.” Whenever the gunner reports that the aiming posts are out of alinement with the telescope, the chief of section will report that fact and request instructions (par. 77). Likewise, other unusual incidents that affect the service of the piece are promptly reported by the chief of section. (8) M1, M1918. To direct washing of bore. During lulls in firing and at least after every 10 rounds, the chief of section will direct the cannoneers to wash the bore. For this operation, it is necessary to assemble the bore brush with all sections of the staff. Water should be used freely to assist in cooling the gun. Care will be taken to avoid injuring the rifling at the muzzle by dragging the rammer staff along the lowest element of the bore. (9) M1, M1918. To conduct prearranged fire schedules. Whenever the execution of prearranged fires is ordered, the chief of section will conduct the fire of his section in strict conformity to the schedule prescribed. (10) M1, M1918. To record basic data. Data of a semipermanent nature will be recorded in a notebook by the chief of section. This includes such data as minimum elevations; base deflections, including aiming points used; prearranged fires when pre- pared schedules are not furnished; safety limits in elevation and deflection; number of rounds fired, with the date and hour; and calibration corrections when appropriate. (11) M1. To observe and check functioning of matériel. The functioning of all parts of the matériel will be observed closely during firing. Before the piece is fired, the chief of section verifies the fact that the recoil and counterrecoil systems contain the proper amount of oil and that the pressure in the counterrecoil system is normal. Thereafter he carefully observes the functioning of the recoil and counterrecoil systems. Before the opening of fire and every tenth round thereafter, he measures the position of the replenisher piston. To measure the position of the replenisher piston he inserts the rule into the opening in the rear face of the replenisher until it comes in contact with the replenisher piston. He then reads the graduation on the rule which is flush with the rear face of the replenisher. Any evidence of trouble (pars. 84, 95, and 96) is reported promptly to the executive. (12) M1918. To observe and check the functioning of the matériel. The functioning of all parts of the matériel will be observed closely during firing. Before the piece is fired, the chief of section verifies the fact that the recoil and counterrecoil systems con- tain the proper amount of oil and that the pressure in the counterrecoil system is normal. Thereafter he carefully observes the functioning of the recoil and counterrecoil systems. Any evidence of trouble (pars. 105 and 106) is reported promptly to the executive. (13) M1, M1918. To assign duties when firing with reduced personnel. Whenever the personnel of the section serving the piece is temporarily reduced in numbers below that indicated in this manual, the chief of section will make such redistribution of duties as will best facilitate the service of the piece. (14) M1918. To inspect fuzes before loading. Long fuzes (Mk. III and Mk. IIIA) must be handled with the greatest care. The chief of section will inspect each long fuze just before the piece is loaded. He will see that the lead-foil hood and tarred tape are removed after the fuze has been screwed into the projectile and while the round is on the loading tray ready for loading. He will then examine the fuze to see that the brass spiral is in its proper place, that the weighted end of the brass spiral does not project beyond its supporting washer, and that the safety pin is in its proper position. If the spiral is not in place, there is danger of a premature explosion in the gun, and the fuze must be removed and reported to the executive for safe disposition (AR 750-10). (15) M1. To verify adjustment of panoramic telescope. See TM 9-350. (16) M1918. To verify the adjustment of the sight. See TR 1305-155C. 54. M1 Gunner. a. Enumeration of duties. (1) (a) To set or change the deflection. (b) To apply the deflection difference. (c) To center the cross-level bubble. SERVICE OF THE PIECE 721 (d) To lay for direction. (e) To call “Ready.” (f) To refer the piece. (g) To record base deflection. (h) To measure a deflection. p (i) To assist the chief of section in verifying the adjustment of the telescope. ) (2) For indirect laying, the gunner performs duties in (1) (a), (b), (c), (d), and (e) above. a (3) For direct laying, the gunner performs duties in (1) (a), (c), (d), and (e) above. (4) When directed, the gunner performs duties in (1) (f), (g), (h), and (i) above. 55. M1918 Gunner. a. Enumeration of duties. (1) (a) To set or change the deflection. (b) To apply the deflection difference. (c) To set the angle of site. (d) To set the elevation. (e) To center the cross-level bubble. (f) To lay for direction. (g) To lay for elevation. (h) To call “Ready.” (i) To refer the piece. (j) To record base deflection. (k) To measure a deflection. (1) To measure an angle of site. (m) To assist the chief of section in verifying the adjustment of the sight. (2) For indirect laying, the gunner performs duties (a), (b), (c), (d), (e), (f), (g), and (h). e º (3) For direct laying, the gunner performs duties (a), (d), (e), (f), (g), and (h). (4) When directed, the gunner performs duties (i), (j), (k), and (1). b. M1, M1918. Detailed description of certain duties. (1) To set or change deflection. (a) To set deflection. The gunner is first taught to read deflections set on the telescope and then to set the deflections announced. At the command, for example, Deflection 1885, the gunner first sets the zero of the azimuth micrometer opposite the fixed azi- muth index, if it is not already so set. He then pushes the throwout lever with his left hand and with his right hand turns the rotating head until the hundreds’ graduation (18 in this case) is opposite the azimuth circle index. He then releases the throwout lever and, grasping the azimuth worm knob with his left hand with the thumb on top, turns the azimuth worm knob to the left until the micrometer index is opposite the graduation 85 of the counterclockwise graduations on the azimuth micrometer. The line of sighting will then make a horizontal angle of 1885 mils with the axis of the bore. (b) To change deflection. The gunner should be trained always to grasp the azimuth worm knob with his left thumb on top, as the command for changing the de- flection then will indicate the direction in which he should move his thumb in turning the azimuth worm knob. He should also be taught that turning the azimuth worm knob to the right decreases the deflection set on the telescope (sight M1918) and results in moving the muzzle to the right when the piece is laid with the new deflection. Similarly, turning the azimuth worm knob to the left increases the deflection and re- sults in moving the muzzle to the left when the piece is laid. The deflection having been set at 1885 mils, if a subsequent command be, for example, Right 65, the gunner turns the azimuth worm knob by moving his thumb to the right until the micrometer index has moved from zero to 65 on the clockwise graduations of the azimuth micro- meter. As turning the azimuth worm knob to the right decreases the deflection, the resulting deflection will be 1820 mils. If the command is Left (so much), the deflection setting is changed in a similar manner, except that the gunner moves his thumb to the left and follows the counterclockwise graduations of the azimuth micrometer. (2) To apply deflection difference. (a) The command is: ON NO. (SO-AND-SO) OPEN (CLOSE) (SO MUCH). The gunner of the piece indicated in the command 722 SERVICE OF THE PIECE does not change the deflection set on his telescope. Each of the other gunners changes his telescope (sight M1918) setting by the number of mils specified in the command if his piece is next in line to the piece indicated; by twice this number of mils if his piece is second in line from the piece indicated; by three times this number of mils if his piece is third in line from the piece indicated. * (b) If the command is, for example, On no. 1 open 5, the gunner on No. 1 makes no change; the gunner on No. 2 turns the azimuth worm knob by moving his thumb to the left, Away from the piece indicated in the command, and sets off 5 mils once; the gunner on No. 3 turns the azimuth worm knob in a similar manner, except that he sets off 5 mils twice, or a total of 10 mils; the gunner on No. 4 also turns his azimuth worm knob in a similar manner, except that he sets off 5 mils three times, a total of 15 mils. (c) If the command is, for example, Om no. 3 close 10, the gunner on No. 1 turns the azimuth worm knob by moving his thumb to the left, Toward the piece indi- cated in the command, and sets off 10 mils twice or a total of 20 mils; the gunner on No. 2 turns his azimuth worm knob in a similar manner, except that he sets off 10 mils once; the gunner on No. 3 makes no change; the gunner on No. 4 turns his azimuth worm knob by moving his thumb to the right and sets off 10 mils once. (d) It should be noted that in making the deflection changes involved in apply- ing the deflection difference, each gunner turns the azimuth worm knob by moving his thumb away from the piece indicated if the command is Open, and toward the piece indicated if the command is Close; also that the muzzles of the pieces will be moved in similar directions when the pieces are laid after the deflection difference has been set. (e) In training gunners to apply the deflection difference, it will be found advan- tageous to teach them to use the telescope (sight M1918) as a mechanical adding machine. For example, if the command is On no. 1 open 8, the gunner on No. 4 first sets off 8 mils, then after an imperceptible pause another 8 mils, etc., until he has set off 8 mils three times. This method requires no mental arithmetic. (f) When a deflection change and a deflection difference are announced at the same time, for example, Right 30, on no. 1 close 5, both of which affect the gunner's piece, he will first set off the deflection change and then apply the deflection difference. (3) M1. To center cross level bubble. The gunner first uncovers the level by re- volving the cover downward with his right thumb. He then operates the leveling worm until the bubble is centered. (4) M1918. To center the cross-level bubble. The gunner first uncovers the level by revolving the cover downward with his right thumb. He then loosens the leveling clamp, operates the leveling worm until the bubble is centered, and tightens the clamp. The leveling worm must not be operated until the leveling clamp has been loosened. (5) M1, M1918. To lay for direction. (a) Direct laying. The deflection having been set, the gunner traverses the piece until the vertical hair of the panoramic telescope (sight M1918) is on his part of the target. Laying for direction usually is accomplished simultaneously with laying for elevation. (b) Indirect laying. The deflection having been set and the cross level leveled, the gunner brings the vertical hair of the telescope (sight M1918) on the aiming point by traversing the piece. (c) Procedure to insure accuracy. To take up lost motion, the final movement of the traversing handwheel should be such as to cause the vertical hair of the sight to approach the aiming point from the left. The gunner should habitually lay with the vertical hair of the telescope (sight M1918) on exactly the same part of the aiming point or target for each round. (6) M1, M1918. To call “Ready.” The piece having been laid for direction and elevation, and No. 3 (No. 1 M1918) having called “Set,” the gunner verifies the laying, stands clear of the telescope, (sight M1918) and calls “Ready,” to indicate that his piece is ready to be fired. (7) M1, M1918. To refer the piece. The piece having been laid for direction, to refer the piece, the command is: 1. Aiming point (so-and-so), 2. REFER. Without dis- SERVICE OF THE PIECE 723 turbing the laying of the piece, the guner brings the vertical hair of the telescope (sight M1918) on the new aiming point (referring point). He then reads and announces the deflection thus set and records the deflection and the referring point on the side of the gun. Two referring points usually are used, one for day and another for night. A re- ferring point should be at least 50 yards from the telescope, (sight M1918) preferably to the rear. Frequently it will be necessary to use the aiming posts as referring points, particularly for night use. (8) M1, M1918. To record base deflection. At the command Record base deflec- tion, the gunner records the deflection set on his telescope (sight M1918) upon some convenient part of the carriage or upon data boards (par. 89). (9) M1, M1918. To measure deflection. The command is: I. Aiming point (so- and-so), 2. MEASURE DEFLECTION. The piece having been established in direction, the gunner turns the telescope (sight M1918) until the vertical hair is on the aiming point. He then reads and announces the deflection. (10) M1918. To set the angle of site. The gunner is first taught to read angle-of-site settings, and then to set announced angles of site. To set an angle of site, the gunner turns the micrometer drum with his right hand until the number of hundreds announced is opposite the index of the angle-of-site scale and the tens and units opposite the index of the micrometer. In setting the angle of site, it is necessary that the gunner look squarely at the micrometer drum. (11) M1918. To set the elevation. The gunner is first taught to read elevations set, and then to set announced elevations. The elevating-scale drum is graduated in mils, which are read as an index line through a window in the drum housing. To set the elevation, the gunner turns the knob of the elevating-scale drum until the number of mils of elevation announced is opposite the index. To make a large change in elevation, the gunner presses the eccentric-spring case with his left hand, thus throwing the elevating worm out of mesh. By pushing on the sight shank with his right hand, the elevating- scale drum may be set rapidly at an approximate elevation. The spring case is then re- leased and the exact elevation set by turning the knob. Even though the gunner's quadrant is being used in laying the piece for elevation, the gunner will set the elevation announced on the elevating-scale drum and the angle of site at 300 in order that the centering of the cross-level bubble will correct accurately for difference in level of wheels (cant). (12) M1918. To lay for elevation. In all cases of laying for elevation, the last move- ment of the elevating handwheel must be in the direction of depression so as to raise the breech, thereby taking up any lost motion in the elevating mechanism. (a) Direct laying. The announced elevation having been set, with the elevation index of the panoramic sight at 3 (300), the elevation micrometer of the panoramic sight at zero, and the angle of site of the quadrant sight at 300, the gunner lays for clevation by manipulating the elevating handwheel until the horizontal hair of the sight is at the base of the target. (b) Indirect laying. 1. With the quadrant sight. The angle of site and the elevation having been set, the gunner turns the elevating handwheel with his right hand until the bubble of the elevation level is centered. The last movement of the handwheel must be such that the bubble moves from front to rear. In centering the bubble the gunner must be careful to look squarely at it. 2. With the gunner's quadrant. See paragraph 58 b (2). (13) M1918. To measure an angle of site. The command is: 1. Target (so and so), 2. MEASURE THE SITE. The piece having been laid on the target for direction, the gunner sets the angle-of-site mechanism of the quadrant sight at 300 and the elevation at zero, and centers the bubble of the elevation level by operating the elevating handwheel. He then brings the horizontal hair of the sight to the base of the target by operating the elevation micrometer of the sight. The reading of the elevation index and the elevation micrometer of the sight is the measure of the angle of site of the target. The gunner announces the angle of site thus measured. 724 SERVICE OF THE PIECE 56. M1 No. 1. a. Enumeration of duties. (1) To remove the firing mechanism. (2) To open the breech. * (3) To clean and oil the breechblock. (4) To remove the fired primer. (5) To insert a primer in the firing mechanism. (6) To close the breech. (7) To insert and seat the firing mechanism. (8) To fire the piece. (9) To clean and oil the firing mechanisms. b. Detailed description of certain duties. (1) To remove firing mechanism. No. 1 presses back the firing mechanism latch with his right hand and unscrews the firing mechanism with his left hand. (2) To open breech. No. 1 pushes down the breechblock operating lever catch until it is disengaged, and pulls the breechblock operating lever to a horizontal position, swinging the operating lever toward the muzzle of the gun until the breech is fully open. (3) To clean and oil breechblock. Immediately upon opening the breech after a round has been fired, No. 1 cleans the primer vent by pushing and pulling the vent cleaning bit through the vent several times. From time to time he will oil the rack, rack lock, percussion hammer operating shaft bearings, and other moving parts of the breech mechanism with light lubricating oil. (4) To remove fired primer. No. 1 holds the firing mechanism in his left hand with primer holder facing him. He grasps the primer with his right hand and slides the base of the primer out from the primer holder. (5) To insert primer in firing mechanism. No. 1 holds the firing mechanism in his left hand with the primer holder uppermost. With his right hand he inserts the base of a new primer in the holder and slides it into its proper seat. (6) To close breech. No. 1 grasps the handle of the operating lever and swings it toward the breech and up until the breech is fully closed and the breechblock operating lever catch engaged. - (7) To insert and seat firing mechanism. The firing mechanism will not be inserted until the breechblock is completely closed and locked. No. 1 inserts the firing mech- anism in the housing, taking care that the front end of the primer has entered the ob- turator spindle plug. He then seats the mechanism by turning the block handle in a clockwise direction until it has engaged the latch. It is important to make sure that the firing mechanism is Screwed home and latched in position, as it is possible to fire the piece even though the mechanism is not completely in its proper firing position. If this occurs, damage to the breechblock and injury to personnel may result. Should a primer be slightly oversize or the primer seat dirty, the mechanism will stick before it has been fully seated. Force should not be exerted to seat the mechanism, but it should be removed and the primer seat cleaned, or another primer inserted. Unfired primers to be discarded are turned over to the ammunition corporal. (8) To fire piece. When the gunner calls “Ready,” No. 1 unlocks the percussion hammer lock bolt. At the chief of section's signal or command No. (so-and-so) fire, No. 1 grasps the handle of the lanyard with his right hand and without raising his hand pulls strongly with a quick movement, prolonged sufficiently to insure the hammer hitting the firing pin. He then' quickly releases the handle. Under no circumstances will No. 1 grasp the lanyard until the gunner has called “Ready” and stepped clear of the telescope. If the chief of section commands Stand clear, No. 1 stands outside the right trail and wheel, and at the command or signal Fire pulls the lanyard as previously described. The chief of section may caution, “With the long lanyard.” In this case, No. 1 attaches the long lanyard, steps clear or takes cover as may be directed, and fires as previously described. No. 1 detaches the long lanyard immediately after each round is fired. In case of a misfire, the instructions contained in paragraph 87 will be followed. (9) To clean and oil firing mechanisms. Two firing mechanisms are provided for each piece, and they should be used alternately. As soon as one mechanism is in- serted in the breechblock, No. 1 will clean and oil the other and insert a new primer for SERVICE OF THE PIECE 725 use with the next round. During lulls in firing, both mechanisms will be cleaned and oiled thoroughly. 57. M1918 No. 1. a. Enumeration of duties. (1) To open the breech. (2) To clean and oil the breechblock. (3) To close the breech. - (4) To call “Set.” (5) To fire the piece. (6) To adjust the counterbalance. b. Detailed description of certain duties. (1) To open the breech. No. 1 grasps the operating-lever handle with his left hand, pressing the handle down to release it from the lever catch. He pulls the operating lever sharply toward him, swings the entire breech mechanism to the right to the end of its movement, and releases the handle. Toward the end of the movement the speed should be lessened in order that the operat- ing-lever latch may engage its catch without shock. The percussion-hammer lock bolt will be locked immediately after the breech is opened, and this bolt will not be un- locked until after the breechblock has been fully rotated and locked in the closed position, and the piece is ready to be fired. (2) To clean and oil the breechblock. Immediately upon opening the breech after a round has been fired, No. 1 wipes off the powder residue from the obturator spindle, gas check pad, gas check pad seat, and the threaded sectors of the breech recess and breechblock with a cloth slightly dampened with light lubricating oil. He then cleans the primer vent by pushing and pulling the vent cleaning bit through the vent several times. From time to time he will oil the rack, rack lock, percussion-hammer operating- shaft bearings, and other moving parts of the breech mechanism with light lubricating oil. (3) To close the breech. No. 1 grasps the operating-lever handle with both hands, pressing it down to release the catch, and swings the breech mechanism to the left until the front face of the block carrier is flush with the face of the breech and the operating lever has reached the end of its movement. He then releases the handle, thus engaging the breechblock-carrier level latch. In order to facilitate the closing of the breech, the breechblock and breech recess must be kept clean and oiled and the counterbalance adiusted. J (4) To call “Set.” The breech having been closed and the firing mechanism inserted, No. 1 calls “Set.” t (5) To fire the piece. When the gunner calls “Ready,” No. 1 unlocks the percus- sion-hammer lock bolt. At the chief of section's signal or command No. (so and so) fire, No. 1 grasps the handle of the lanyard with his right hand and without raising his hand pulls strongly with a quick movement, prolonged sufficiently to insure the hammer hitting the firing pin. He then quickly releases the handle. Under no circum- stances will No. 1 grasp the lanyard until the gunner has called “Ready” and stepped clear of the sight. If the chief of section commands Stand clear, No. 1 stands outside the right trail and wheel, and at the command or signal Fire pulls the lanyard as previously described. The chief of section may caution, “With the long lanyard.” In this case, No. 1 attaches the long lanyard, steps clear or takes cover as may be directed, and fires as previously described. No. 1 detaches the long lanyard immediately after each round is fired. In case of a misfire, the instructions contained in paragraph 87 will be followed. - (6) To adjust the counterbalance. When large changes in elevation are made, it may be necessary to change the adjustment of the counterbalance to facilitate opening and closing the breech. To adjust the counterbalance, No. 1 inserts a pin in the lug of the counterbalance regulating screw and turns the screw so as to move the counter. balance regulating-screw nut farther from or nearer to the spindle of the breechblock carrier (farther if the elevation is increased, nearer if the elevation is decreased). To facilitate rapid adjustment, No. 1 may mark the position of the counterbalance regulating. screw nut for various elevations. 58. M1 No. 2. a. Enumeration of duties. (1) To set announced elevations on the gunner's quadrant. \ 726 SERVICE OF THE PIECE (2) To hold the gunner's quadrant on the quadrant mount. (3) To operate the brake control lever. (4) To measure the position of the oil index. (5) To measure the elevation. b. Detailed description of certain duties. (1) To set announced elevations on gunner's quadrant. No. 2 is first taught to read settings on the gunner's quadrant and then to set the elevations announced. To set an elevation on the gunner's quadrant, for ex- ample 361.8 mils, No. 2 sets the upper edge of the head of the index arm opposite the 360 mark of the graduated arc on the quadrant frame, and slides the slide level along the index arm until its index is opposite the 1.8 mark of the scale on the index arm. Care must be taken in setting the slide to use the scale on the index arm which is on the same side of the quadrant as the graduated arm on the frame which was used in setting the index arm at 360 mils. After the slide has been set, the clamp is tightened just sufficiently to hold the slide in place. (2) To hold gunner's quadrant on quadrant mount. The announced elevation having been set on the gunner's quadrant, the piece loaded, and the breech closed, No. 2 places the gunner's quadrant on the quadrant seat on the quadrant mount with the words “line of fire” at the bottom, and the arrow pointing toward the muzzle. He must be sure to use the arrow which appears on the same side of the quadrant as the scale which he is using. He holds the quadrant firmly on the quadrant seat while No. 3 lays the gun for elevation. (3) To operate brake control lever. No. 2, while the gun is being laid for elevation by No. 3, grasps the handle of the brake control lever in his left hand, and uses his weight to depress it, releasing the clutch, and permitting elevation of the gun. When the gun has been elevated so that the bubble of the gunner's quadrant is centered, No. 2 releases the brake control lever, thus locking the elevating mechanism in position. (4) To measure position of oil index. No. 2, using the rule, measures the position of the oil index before the opening of fire and after every tenth round thereafter, or more often if so directed by the chief of section. To measure the position of the oil index, No. 2 holds one end of the rule firmly against the cylinder head of the counterrecoil cylinder, with the edge of the rule parallel to and in close proximity to the oil index. He reads on the rule the graduation opposite the end of the oil index. Readings on the position of the oil index are reported to the chief of section (par. 95b). (5) To measure elevation. At the command Measure elevation, the piece having been laid, No. 2 sets the slide level of the index arm of the gunner's quadrant at zero and places the quadrant on the quadrant seat as in laying for elevation. He then moves the index arm until the bubble passes to the end of the vial away from the hinge of the index arm. He then slowly lowers the index arm until the bubble just passes to the end of the vial toward the hinge. He then allows the index arm to engage the arc and slides the level along the index arm until the bubble is accurately centered. He then removes the quadrant and reads and announces the elevation thus set, for example, “Ele- vation, No. (so-and-so), (so much).” 59. M1918 No. 2. a. Enumeration of duties. (1) To remove the firing mechanism. (2) To remove the fired primer. (3) To assist No. 3 in ramming the projectile. (4) To insert a primer in the firing mechanism. (5) To insert and seat the firing mechanism. (6) To clean and oil the firing mechanisms. b. Detailed description of certain duties. (1) To remove the firing mechanism. No. 2 presses back the firing-mechanism latch with his right hand and unscrews the firing mechanism with his left hand. (2) To remove the fired primer. No. 2 holds the firing mechanism in his left hand with the notch in the primer seat plug facing up. He then grasps the primer with his right hand and slides the base of the primer out from the primer seat plug. (3) To assist No. 3 in ramming the projectile. At the moment No. 3 places the rammer head against the base of the projectile, No. 2, standing on the right of the SERVICE OF THE PIECE 727 rammer staff, grasps the staff with both hands, his right hand in front of the left hand of No. 3 and his left hand between the hands of No. 3. At No. 3's command Home, No. 2 assists No. 3 in pushing the projectile slowly until it has cleared the threads of the breech recess. Then, taking a new grip on the rammer staff so far back that it is necessary for him to lean his body backward, at No. 3's command Ram he swings his body forward simultaneously with No. 3, ramming the projectile home with a long, powerful stroke. No. 2 then releases the rammer staff. (4) To insert a primer in the firing mechanism. No. 2 holds the firing mechanism in his left hand with the seat of the primer plug uppermost. With his right hand he inserts the base of a new primer in the plug and slides it into its proper seat. (5) To insert and seat the firing mechanism. The firing mechanism will not be inserted until the breechblock is completely closed and locked. No. 2 inserts the firing mechanism in the housing, taking care that the front end of the primer has entered the obturator-spindle plug. He then seats the mechanism by turning the block handle in a clockwise direction until it has engaged the latch. It is important to make sure that the firing mechanism is Screwed home and latched in position, as it is possible to fire the piece even though the mechanism is not completely in its proper firing position. If this occurs, damage to the breechblock and injury to personnel may result. Should a primer be slightly oversize, or the primer seat dirty, the mechanism will stick before it has been fully seated. Force should not be exerted to seat the mechanism, but it should be removed and the primer seat cleaned, or another primer inserted. Unfired primers to be discarded are turned over to the ammunition corporal. (6) To clean and oil the firing mechanisms. Two firing mechanisms are provided for each piece, and they should be used alternately. As soon as one mechanism is in- serted in the breechblock, No. 2 will clean, and oil the other and insert a new primer for use with the next round. During lulls in firing, both mechanisms will be cleaned and oiled thoroughly. 60. M1 No. 3. a. Enumeration of certain duties. (1) To cross level the quadrant ImOunt. (2) To lay the piece for elevation. b. Detailed description of certain duties. (1) To cross level quadrant mount. No. 3 turns the cross leveling knob until the cross level bubble is centered. After the gun is laid in elevation, and before the gunner's quadrant is removed from its seat, he will verify the cross leveling of the quadrant mount. +& (2) To lay piece for elevation. No. 3 places himself so that he faces the quadrant mount and grasping the elevating handwheel with both hands, operates it to elevate or depress the piece until the bubble of the gunner's quadrant is exactly centered. The last movement will be in the direction in which the handwheel is hardest to turn. When he has verified the centering of both the cross level and quadrant bubbles, No. 3 will call “Set.” After firing, if the elevation is too great for convenient loading, No. 3 will de- press the gun to an elevation suitable for easy loading and ramming. 61. M1918 No. 3. a. Enumeration of duties. (1) To swab the powder chamber. (2) To inspect the bore. (3) Assisted by No. 2, to ram the projectile. b. Detailed description of certain duties. (1) To su'ab the powder chamber. After each round, No. 3 sponges out the powder chamber immediately after No. 1 opens the breech. The sponge, attached to the short end section of the staff, is dipped into water and then pushed through the powder chamber, including the forcing cone, and with- drawn. (2) To inspect the bore. As soon as No. 3 has swabbed the powder chamber, he inspects the bore for injuries to the gun or for burning fragments of powder bags or other objects in the bore. Burning fragments or other objects remaining in the bore must be removed before reloading. Any injury to the gun will be reported at once to the chief of section. (3) Assisted by No. 2, to ram the projectile. As soon as the loading tray has been placed in the breech recess, No. 3 places the rammer head squarely against the base of 728 SERVICE OF THE PIECE the projectile. Taking position on the left of the rammer staff, he grasps the rammer staff about midway of its length with his hands well apart. No. 2, on the right of the rammer staff, also grasps the staff, his left hand midway between the hands of No. 3 and his right hand in front of the left hand of No. 3. No. 3 then commands: HOME, at which command the two cannoneers move slightly forward, pushing the projectile slowly until it has cleared the threads of the breech recess. They then shift their grips farther back along the rammer staff, at the same time leaning their bodies backward. No. 3 then commands: RAM. At this command, they swing their bodies forward, ram- ming the projectile home with a long, powerful stroke. No. 3 then measures the depth of seating of the projectile by noting which reference mark on the staff is opposite the face of the breech. Uniformity of ramming is essential to accuracy of fire. Firm seating of the projectile is essential to prevent its slipping back into the powder chamber and resting on the charge, especially at high elevations. By making reference marks on the rammer staff for the different types of projectiles, and by assuring himself that the proper mark is flush with the face of the breech after ramming, No. 3 checks the uniformity of ramming and the firm seating of the projectile. 62. M1 Nos. 4 and 6. a. Enumeration of duties. (1) To bring up the projectile on the loading tray. - j (2) To insert the loading tray in the breech recess and to remove the tray. b. Detailed description of certain duties. (1) To bring up projectile on loading tray. Nos. 4 and 6 place a fuzed projectile on the loading tray, grasp the handles of the tray and raise it with the front slightly higher than the rear; carry the projectile to a position about 2 yards in rear of the breech, and place it on the ground unless the round is to be fired at once. - (2) To insert loading tray in breech recess and to remove tray. Nos. 4 and 6 insert the lip on the bottom of the loading tray in the breech recess and hold the tray in position until the projectile has been pushed from the tray. When the projectile has been pushed from the tray, Nos. 4 and 6 remove the tray from the breech recess, No. 6 releases his grip on the handles, and No. 4 carries the tray to the position of the projectiles. 63. M1918 No. 4. a. Enumeration of duties. (1) To set announced elevations on the gunner's quadrant. (2) To assist the gunner in laying for elevation when the gunner's quadrant is used. (3) To measure the elevation. w (4) To measure the position of the replenisher piston and the oil index. b. Detailed description of certain duties. (1) To set announced elevations on the gun- ner's quadrant. No. 4 is first taught to read settings on the gunner's quadrant and then to set the elevations announced. To set an elevation on the gunner's quadrant, for example 361.8 mils, No. 4 sets the upper edge of the head of the index arm opposite the 360 mark of the graduated arc on the quadrant frame, and slides the slide level along the index arm until its index is opposite the 1.8 mark of the scale on the index arm. Care must be taken in setting the slide to use the scale on the index arm which is on the same side of the quadrant as the graduated arc on the frame which was used in setting the index arm at 360 mils. After the slide has been set, the clamp is tightened just sufficiently to hold the slide in place. The command Quadrant (so much) indicates that the gunner's quadrant is to be used. (2) To assist the gunner in laying for elevation when the gunner's quadrant is used. The announced elevation having been set on the gunner's quadrant, the piece loaded, and the breech closed, No. 4 places the gunner's quadrant on the quadrant seat on the top of the breech ring with the words “line of fire” at the bottom and the arrow pointing toward the muzzle. He must be sure to use the arrow which appears on the same side of the quadrant as the scale which he is using. He stands squarely opposite the side of the quadrant and holds it firmly on the quadrant seat, parallel to the axis of the bore. It is important that he take the same position and hold the quadrant in the same manner for each subsequent setting, so that the quadrant bubble will in each case be viewed from the same angle. No. 4 then signals the gunner to elevate or depress the piece until the bubble is centered, being careful that the last motion of the bubble is from front to rear. SERVICE OF THE PIECE - 729 No. 4 warns the gunner when the bubble is approaching the center, in order that the final centering may be performed accurately. - (3) To measure the elevation. At the command Measure the elevation, the piece having been laid, No. 4 sets the slide level of the index arm of the gunner's quadrant at zero and places the quadrant on the quadrant seat as in laying for elevation. He then moves the index arm until the bubble passes to the end of the vial away from the hinge of the index arm. He then slowly lowers the index arm until the bubble just passes to the end of the vial toward the hinge. He then allows the index arm to engage the arc and slides the level along the index arm until the bubble is accurately centered. He then removes the quadrant and reads and announces the elevation thus set, for example, “Elevation, No. (so and so), (so much).” (4) To measure the position of the replenisher piston and the oil index. No. 4, using the 25-cm rule, measures the position of the replenisher piston and of the oil index before the opening of fire and after every tenth round thereafter, or more often if so directed by the chief of section. To measure the position of the replenisher piston, No. 4 inserts the 25-cm rule into the opening in the center of the rear face of the re- plenisher and pushes it until it comes into contact with the replenisher piston. No. 4 then reads on the rule the graduation which is flush with the rear face of the replenisher. To measure the position of the oil index, No. 4 holds one end of the 25-cm rule firmly against the cylinder head of the counterrecoil cylinder, with the edge of the rule parallel to and in close proximity to the oil index. He reads on the rule the graduation opposite the end of the oil index. Readings on the position of the replenisher piston and the oil index are reported to the chief of section (par. 105 b.). 64. M1 No. 5. a. Enumeration of duties. To bring up the powder charge and to insert it into the powder chamber. b. Detailed description. No. 5 receives a prepared powder charge from No. 9 or 10 and brings it up to the breech immediately after the projectile has been rammed. No. 5 will take care to avoid having an exposed powder charge near the gun at any time other than that indicated above. No. 5 places the charge in the chamber lashed end to the front, and pushes it in until the base of the charge is flush with the rear end of the chamber. The charge is placed so that the igniter pad comes directly in front of the vent, in order to insure the ignition of the charge. To insure transmission of the flash from the primer to the charge, when the breech is closed, the obturator spindle should come into contact with the base of the charge, push it forward to its final position, and remain in contact with it. 65. M1918 No. 5. a. Enumeration of duties. To bring up the powder charge and to insert it into the powder chamber. b. Detailed description. No. 5 receives a prepared powder charge from Nos. 9 and 10 and brings it up to the breech immediately after the projectile has been rammed. No. 5 will take care to avoid having an exposed powder charge near the gun at any time other than that indicated above. No. 5 places the charge in the chamber, lashed end to the front, and pushes it in until the base of the charge is flush with the rear end of the chamber. The charge is placed so that the igniter pad comes directly in front of the vent, in order to insure the ignition of the charge. To insure transmission of the flash from the primer to the charge, when the breech is closed, the obturator spindle should come into contact with the base of the charge, push it forward to its final position, and remain in contact with it. 66. M1 No. 7. a. Enumeration of duties. (1) To ram projectiles. (2) To swab the powder chamber. (3) To inspect the bore. b. Detailed description of certain duties. . (1) To ram projectiles. As soon as the loading tray has been placed in the breech recess, No. 7 on the right of the rammer staff, and assisted by No. 8 on the left, places the head of the rammer against the base of the projectile and pushes it into the breech until it is off the loading tray. When the loading tray has been removed, Nos. 7 and 8, turning their backs to the breech, shift their grip to about midway of the rammer staff, arms extended. No. 7 commands: HOME, at 730 SERVICE OF THE PIECE which command they lean slightly forward, and then commands: RAM. At this com- mand they throw their weight to their rear (toward the breech), at the same time using their arms to add power to the stroke. Uniformity of ramming is an absolute essential to the accuracy of fire. Firm seating of the projectile is necessary to prevent it slipping back into the powder chamber and resting on the charge, especially at high elevation. & (2) To swab powder chamber. After each round, No. 7 sponges out the powder chamber immediately after No. 1 opens the breech. A sponge is dipped in water and the rear of the bore, to include the forcing cone, is swabbed. (3) To inspect bore. Before fire is opened, and after swabbing between rounds, No. 7 inspects the bore for injuries to the gun, or for burning fragments of powder bags or other objects in the bore. Burning fragments and other objects in the bore must be removed before reloading. Any injury to the gun will be reported to the chief of section. 67. M1918 Nos. 6 and 7. a. Enumeration of duties. (1) To bring up the projectile on the loading tray. (2) To insert the loading tray in the breech recess and to remove the tray. b. Detailed description of certain duties. (1) To bring up the projectile on the load- ing tray. Nos. 6 and 7 place a prepared projectile on the loading tray and grasp the handles of the tray and raise it with the front slightly above the rear. Care must be taken to get the proper grip on the handles, as a projectile may be dropped easily if the tray is not carried in the proper position. Nos. 6 and 7 carry the projectile to the rear of the recoil pit After the gun has returned into battery. If a long fuze is to be used, Nos. 6 and 7 support the projectile on the tray while No. 8 screws in the fuze and re- moves the lead-foil hood and tarred tape and while the chief of section inspects the fuze (par. 53 b. (14)). If any type of fuze other than the long (Mk. III) fuze is used, the projectile is fuzed by No. 8 before being placed on the loading tray. (2) To insert the loading tray in the breech recess and to remove the tray. Nos. 6 and 7 insert the lip on the bottom of the loading tray in the recess at the bottom of the breech recess and lower the rear of the loading tray so as to bind the tray in place. Nos. 6 and 7 support the rear of the tray while the projectile is being rammed. After the projectile has been rammed, No. 6 removes the loading tray. 68. M1 No. 8. a. Enumeration of duties. (1) To ram projectiles. (2) To clean the face of the breechlock. b. Detailed description of certain duties. (1) To ram projectiles. No. 8 assists No. 7 to ram projectiles as described in paragraph 66b (1). - (2) To clean face of breechblock. After each round, and as soon as the breech has been opened, No. 8 procures a handful of waste, dips it in water, and uses it to remove the residue from the face of the breechlock. 69. M1918 No. 8. a. Enumeration of duties. (1) To fuze shell. (2) To remove fuzes from shell. (3) To set the fuze setter. (4) To set fuzes. b. Detailed description of certain duties. (1) To fuze shell. No. 8 unscrews the adapter plug from the fuze socket. He then inserts the designated fuze, being careful to note that it is fitted with its felt or rubber washer, and screws it home by hand. The fuze is given its final seating by the use of the fuze wrench. No great force should be used. If there is any difficulty in screwing the fuze home, the fuze should be re- moved and another inserted. If the same trouble is encountered with the second fuze, the shell should be rejected. The long fuze must be handled with the greatest care. It will never be screwed into a shell if the tarred tape and the lead-foil hood are not in their proper place. A long fuze must not be screwed into a projectile until the projectile is on the loading tray and about to be loaded (AR 750-10, TR 1370-A, and TR 1355-155B). (2) To remove fuzes from shell. If for any reason a projectile which has been fuzed is not to be fired, the fuze will be removed. The operation of inserting a fuze is reversed. If the adapter starts to unscrew with the fuze, the unscrewing must be stopped at once and the shell disposed of as directed by the executive. SERVICE OF THE PIECE 731 (3) To set the fuze setter. The series of fire commands for initially opening fire with time-fuzed projectiles will contain the data to be set on the fuze setter. These commands are, for example, Corrector 50 time 18. For subsequent rounds the corrector setting is increased (decreased) at the command Up (down) (so much). The time may be changed by announcing a new time, for example, Time 20. No. 8 is first taught to read data set on the fuze setter and then to set data announced. To set data on the fuze setter, No. 8 turns the corrector-worm knob until the graduated line on the corrector scale, corresponding to the corrector announced, is in coincidence with the index engraved on the rim of the case. He then turns the knob on the time-scale worm until the time graduation, corresponding to the time announced, is in coincidence with the index on the index bar. To insure accuracy in setting the scales of the fuze setter, it is necessary that No. 8 look squarely at the scales and their indexes. To take up lost motion, the final movement of the scales always should be in a counterclockwise direction. (4) To set fuzes. The fuze data having been set on the fuze setter as indicated above, to set the fuze, No. 8 removes the waterproof cap, withdraws the safety wire, and places the fuze setter over the fuze. The fuze setter then is turned in the direction indicated by the arrow on the fuze-setter case, until the slot in the time-ring carrier engages the pin on the graduated time train on the fuze. The guide plate and the range- ring carrier then will bear firmly on the fuze. No. 8 continues to turn the fuze setter in the direction indicated until the stop pin attached to the corrector-scale support en- gages with the fixed stop pin on the fuze and prevents further motion. When the fuze has been properly set, the pointer which is attached to the top of the corrector scale will register with the graduated line on the closing cap of the fuze. The fuze setter is then removed. The time of burning may be read from the graduated ring of the fuze. When directed by the chief of section, No. 8 will read and announce the time of burning after setting the fuze. A time fuze which has been set for any desired time of burning can be reset to S (Safe) by setting the fuze-setter time ring to S, the corrector to normal (60), and resetting the fuze. The fuze should be inspected to see that the S on the graduated time ring of the fuze is in line with the marks on the upper time-train ring and on the body of the fuze. The safety wire is replaced. Fuzes set but not fired will be reset to S (Safe) by No. 8. 70. M1, M1918 Nos. 9 and 10. a. Enumeration of duties. To prepare powder charges. b. Detailed description. The propelling charge for the 155-mm gun is of the type known as the base and increment type, consisting of a base section and one increment section, permitting two zones of fire. The base section contains an igniter pad holding 8 ounces of black igniting powder. This igniter pad is usually dyed red and forms the rear end of the base section. Four tying straps are sewed to the front end of the base section, by means of which the increment section is attached to the base section, thus forming a unit of the full propelling charge. Both the base section and the increment section are wrapped spirally with strips of cartridge bag cloth to make the bags firm and compact for handling. In order to protect the igniting charge of black powder in the rear end of the base section, a primer protector cap is slipped over the rear end of the base section. The standard type consists of a cup-shaped, felt-based cloth cover fastened to the charge by means of a drawstring. Primer protector caps must be removed before the charge is loaded into the gun. Charges are packed in airtight containers, one com- plete charge in each container. Containers should not be opened until just before the charges are to be used. When the complete charge is to be used, that fact will be indi- cated by the command Supercharge. When the base section only is to be used, that fact is indicated by the command Normal charge. Nos. 9 and 10 open powder containers, remove charges from the containers, remove the primer protector caps, and when Normal charge is indicated untie the tying straps, remove the increment section, and loosely and uniformly retie the straps. Unused increments are disposed of as directed by the executive. 71. M1 No. 11. a. Enumeration of duties. (1) To fuze projectiles. (2) To set the fuze setter. (3) To set fuzes. 732 SERVICE OF THE PIECE (4) To remove fuzes from projectiles. b. Detailed description of certain duties. (1) To fuze projectiles. No. 11 unscrews the lifting plug from the fuze socket, removes the booster cotter pin from the designated fuze, and screws the fuze home by hand. The fuze is given its final seating by the use of the fuze wrench. No great force should be used. If there is any difficulty in screw- ing the fuze home, the fuze socket should be inspected for rust or dirt in the threads, and cleaned if necessary. If the fuze still fails to seat, another fuze should be tried. If this also fails to seat, the projectile should be rejected. º To set fuze setter. (Omitted, as there is no standard fuze setter for this ma- tériel. (3) To set fuzes. (a) Combination superquick and delay fuzes. When Fuze quick is designated in the firing orders, No. 11 will verify the superquick setting. If Fuze delay is designated, he will turn the setting sleeve to that setting. (b) Time fuzes. When time fuzes are used, No. 11 will use the hand fuze setter to make the designated setting, assisted by No. 12. (4) To remove fuzes from projectiles. If for any reason a projectile which has been fuzed is not to be fired, the fuze will be removed. The operation of inserting a fuze is reversed. The booster cotter pin of the fuze is replaced. Combination superquick and delay fuzes are reset to superquick. Time fuzes are reset to S (safe) with the hand fuze setter. The lifting plugs are replaced in the fuze socket of the projectiles. 72. M1918 Nos. 11 and 12. a. Enumeration of duties. To inspect and clean projectiles. b. Detailed description. Nos. 11 and 12 verify the type, weight, and lot number (when appropriate) of each projectile and examine it carefully for defects. The rotating band will be inspected with special care, and if any burs are found they will be re- moved with a file. The projectile is then stood upright on its base and the entire sur- face cleaned with a piece of waste or, if necessary, with a sponge and water. Should any material length of time intervene between the cleaning of the projectile and its insertion into the piece, the projectile must be reinspected before loading to see that it is free from sand or dirt. Any sand or dirt on the projectile might cause a premature detonation when the piece is fired (TR 1305-155C and 1355-155B). When time-fuzed projectiles are being used, No. 11 or No. 12 holds the projectile while No. 8 sets the fuze. 73. M1 No. 12. a. Enumeration of duties. To prepare projectiles. b. Description of duties. No. 12 verifies the type weight, and lot number (when appropriate) of each projectile and examines it carefully for defects. The rotating band will be inspected with special care, and if any burs are found they will be re- moved with a file. The projectile is then stood upright on its base and the entire surface cleaned with an oily cloth. Should any material length of time intervene between the cleaning of the projectile and its insertion into the piece, the projectile must be reinspected before loading to see that it is free from sand or dirt. Any sand or dirt on the projectile might cause excessive erosion of the bore when the piece is fired. When time-fuzed projectiles are being used No. 12 holds the projectile while No. 11 sets the fuze. - 74. M1, M1918 Ammunition Corporal. a. Enumeration of duties. (1) To receive and account for ammunition for the section. (2) To enforce proper methods of handling ammunition. (3) To supervise the storage of ammunition. (4) To have ammunition properly prepared for firing. (5) To insure that the designated powder charge, projectile, and fuze are used. b. Detailed description of certain duties. (1) To receive and account for ammunition for section. Subject to the orders of the executive or the chief of section, the ammunition corporal will obtain such ammunition as may be required by the section from the battery ammunition dump, battery ammunition vehicles, or the battalion ammunition (combat M1918) train. He will check the amount received and receipt for it. He will maintain a record of all ammunition received and fired daily. He will keep the chief of section informed as to the status of the ammunition supply within the section. (2) To enforce proper methods of handling ammunition. The ammunition cor- SERVICE OF THE PIECE 733 poral will require the cannoneers to handle ammunition properly. He will prevent any of the following: (a) Smoking by anyone handling or in the near vicinity of ammunition. (b) Use of any lights, other than flashlights, in the vicinity of powder charges. (c) Dropping projectiles, powder containers and fuze and primer boxes from vehicles. (d) Allowing projectiles to strike together. (e) Allowing ammunition to become dirty, wet, or overheated. (3) To supervise storage of ammunition. t (4) To have ammunition properly prepared for firing. The ammunition corporal will supervise carefully the work of the cannoneers in preparing rounds for firing. He will see that the projectiles are cleaned thoroughly and that all burs on the rotating bands have been removed by filing. He will require that all powder charges be kept in their closed containers until just before loading, and that primers and fuzes be kept in their boxes until just before using. (5) To insure that designated powder charge, projectile, and fuze are used. The ammunition corporal will follow the fire commands and will indicate to the cannoneers concerned the projectiles, powder charges, and fuzes to be used. For any one firing mission, he will see that the projectiles are all of one weight and that the powder charges are all of one lot number. CHAPTER VIII ADDITIONAL INFORMATION ON THE SERVICE OF THE PIECE 75. M1, M1918 Accuracy in Laying. Sighting and laying instruments, fuze setters, and elevating and traversing mechanisms will be manipulated so as to minimize the effects of lost motion. This requires that the last motions in setting instruments and in laying be always in the directions prescribed. To insure accurate laying, the gunner and any other cannoneers who have duties in connection with laying the piece invariably will be required to verify the laying after the breech has been closed. 76. M1 Use of the Sight Extension Bar. The use of the sight extension bar is exceptional and must be avoided whenever possible as it frequently leads to inaccuracy. When its use is necessary, the gunner places it in the sight socket. As soon as the piece has been laid, he removes the sight extension bar, replaces the panoramic sight in the sight socket, and refers the piece. 77. M1, M1918 Aiming Posts (Stakes M1918). When a suitable natural aiming point is not visible, the piece, after it has been laid initially for direction, is referred to the aiming posts as described in paragraph 55 b. (7). Two aiming posts are used for each piece. Each post is equipped with a light for use in firing at night. One post is set up in a convenient location at least 100 yards from the piece. The other post is set up at the midpoint between the first post and the piece, and is lined in by the gunner so that the vertical hair of the telescope and the two aiming posts are all in the same vertical plane. Any lateral displacement of the piece during firing then can be detected easily and corrected for as indicated in paragraph 78. For night use, the lights should be ad- justed so that the far one will appear several feet higher than the near one. The two lights thus will clearly establish a vertical line on which the vertical hair of the telescope can be laid. 78. M1, M1918 Correction for Lateral Displacement. When the gunner notes that the piece is out of line with reference to the aiming posts, he reports that fact to the chief of section. The gunner continues to lay the piece, using the far post, until correction is authorized by the executive. The piece is then moved back into its original position or a correction made as follows: The gunner lays the piece by using the far post, then refers to the near post, and finally lays on the far post with the new reading. The posts are then realined by moving the near post. This correction is effective only when the posts have been equally spaced as indicated in paragraph 77. 734 SERVICE OF THE PIECE 79. M1 Preparation of Position. a. General. To insure stability of the carriage in firing, the piece should be emplaced on level ground, or the position prepared so that the surface on which the bottom carriage rests is in the same plane as the areas on which the ends of the trails are placed. The chief of section should inspect the position before the gun is emplaced, and cause the gun section to do such operations of clearing and leveling as are essential to accomplish the above. b. Trail logs. The use of trail logs with both the front and trail spades materially improves the stability of the carriage and limits rearward movement. In soft ground or where for any reason it is impracticable to prepare the position so that the trail spades engage properly, the use of sandbags, as shown in Plate 11, is desirable to insure stability of the carriage and limit rearward movement. Plate 11. M1, Use of Trail Logs and Sanābags. 80. M1918 Platforms. Platforms under the gun carriage facilitate the service of the piece and lessen the strain on the matériel. Their use is desirable but not absolutely esential unless the ground is very soft. Platforms frequently may be extemporized from materials available at or near the battery position. Whenever materials and transportation are available, it will be found desirable to construct platforms in advance, transport them to the battery position, and install them before the arrival of the pieces. A satisfactory platform requires the following timbers: 4 pieces, 4 by 6 inches by 5 feet 8 inches (sills); 17 pieces, 4 by 4 inches by 10 feet 6 inches (flooring); 8 pieces, 4 by 4 inches by 3 feet (stakes). º To install the platform, the sills are placed in shallow trenches, parallel to the line of fire, with the upper faces of the sills flush with the surface of the ground. The two outer sills are placed with centers 9 feet apart. The inner ones are placed with centers 20 inches inside from the centers of the outer ones (Plate 10). The floor timbers are placed across the sills and held in place by the stakes driven vertically into the ground, one stake at each end of a sill, bearing against the flooring. If no nails are used, the platform may be dismantled. 81. M1, M1918 Reporting Errors. Each member of the gun section should be constantly impressed with the importance of reporting promptly to the chief of section any errors made by members of the gun section. The chief of section will report errors immediately to the executive as prescribed in paragraph 53b (7). SERVICE OF THE PIECE 735 82. M1, M1918 Cease Firing. The command Cease firing normally is given to the gun section by the chief of section, but in emergencies anyone present may give the com- mand. At this command, regardless of its source, firing will cease immediately. If the pieces is loaded, the chief of section will report that fact to the executive. Firing is re- sumed at the announcement of the elevation (or range M1918). 83. M1, M1918 Suspend Firing. The command Suspend firing is given only when the battery is firing on a prearranged schedule and a temporary halt in the firing is de- sired. At this command, firing is stopped, but settings continue to be altered to con- form to the schedule. If the piece is loaded, the chief of section will report that fact to the executive. Firing will be resumed at the command Resume firing. 84. M1, M1918 Changes in Data During Firing. The announcement to the gun section of any new element of firing data serves as a signal to stop all fire previously ordered but not yet executed. If the piece is not loaded at the announcement of a new element of firing data, the new data will be set off and firing resumed at the an- nouncement of the range or elevation. If no change in fuze setting is required, or if the piece is loaded with shell, the new data are set off, and the firing is resumed. If the pieces are loaded with time fuzed shell, and the data require a change in fuze setting, that fact will be reported to the executive. 85. M1 To Unload Piece. The piece will be unloaded only upon the specific orders and under the direct supervision of an officer. When the command Unload is given by the executive, No. 1 removes the firing mechanism. No. 3 brings the gun to a hori- zontal position. No. 1 opens the breech. No. 5 removes the powder charge and returns it to Nos. 9 and 10. Nos. 4 and 6 place the loading tray in position in the breech recess. The chief of section inspects the unloading rammer head to see that it is thoroughly clean and of a type containing a suitable recess for inclosing the fuze. Nos. 2, 3, 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12 then take the rammer and staff, completely assembled, to the muzzle. Under the supervision of the chief of section, they insert the rammer head into the bore and push it carefully until it incloses the fuze and comes into contact with the ogive of the projectile. They then push the projectile back slowly onto the loading tray. It may be necessary to tap the end of the rammer staff with a wooden block in order to dislodge the projectile from its seat in the bore. No. 7 holds an extra rammer, if available, other- wise a pickax handle, firmly against the base of the projectile and steadies its backward movement until it comes to rest in the loading tray. Nos. 4 and 6 then dispose of the projectile as directed by the chief of section. 86. M1918 To Unload the Piece. The piece will be unloaded only upon the specific orders and under the direct supervision of an officer. When the command Unload is given by the executive, No. 2 removes the firing mechanism. The gunner brings the gun to a horizontal position. No. 1 opens the breech. No. 5 removes the powder charge and returns it to Nos. 9. and 10. Nos. 6 and 7 place the loading tray in position in the breech recess. The chief of section inspects the rammer head to see that it is thoroughly clean and of a type, containing a suitable recess for inclosing the fuze. Nos. 2, 3, 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12 then take the rammer and staff, completely assembled, to the muzzle. Under the supervision of the chief of section, they insert the rammer head into the bore and push it carefully until it incloses the fuze and comes into contact with the ogive of the projectile. They then push the projectile back slowly on to the loading tray. It may be necessary to tap the end of the rammer staff with a wooden block in order to dislodge the projectile from its seat in the bore. No. 6 holds an extra rammer, if available, otherwise a pickax handle, firmly against the base of the projectile and steadies its backward movement until it comes to rest in the loading tray. Nos. 6 and 7 then dispose of the projectile as directed by the chief of section. To unload a shell fitted with a long (Mk. III) fuze, the special rammer head for handling such fuzes must be used. The procedure prescribed in TR 1370-A will be followed. 87. M1, M1918 Misfires. . a. Primer. (1) Should the primer fail, no report will be heard. Failure may be due to a defective primer or to failure of the firing pin properly to strike the primer. In any case at least three attempts to fire the primer 736 - SERVICE OF THE PIECE will be made. If still unsuccessful, no attempt will be made to remove the primer until after 2 minutes have elapsed after the last attempt to fire the piece. The primer may then be removed only if a special device is used which permits removal of the primer by a person standing clear of the path of recoil. If such a device is not available, no attempt will be made to remove the primer until after 10 minutes have elasped as explained in b below. The fact that the primer has not fired will be verified after its removal and before the breechblock is opened. If after removal it is found that the primer actually failed to fire, no further delay is necessary before inserting a new primer or opening the breech. However, before inserting a new primer, the firing mechanism block will be examined for worn or broken parts. If, on the other hand, examination shows that the primer has fired, a new primer will not be inserted nor the breech opened, and no person will be permitted to remain near or pass in rear of the breech until at least 10 minutes have elapsed after firing the primer, when the procedure will be as prescribed in b below for a misfire of the charge. (2) Any primer removed after an attempt to fire should be handled with great care and disposed of without delay, because of the possibility of a primer hangfire (AR 750-10). b. Charge. If a special device is not available for removing the primer as described in a above, or if, after removal, the primer is found to have fired, at least 10 minutes must elapse after the firing of the primer before the old primer is removed or the breechblock opened. During this period, all persons will be kept clear of the breech, and the piece will be kept directed on the target or in a safe place in the field of fire. After the prescribed interval has elapsed, the primer may be removed and the breech opened (AR 750-10). The chief of section should note the position and condition of the charge in the chamber because, if the primer has fired, an abnormal condition of the propelling charge is indicated, such as missing igniter, igniter, end of charge against the projectile, wet igniter, or igniter charge folded over and not accessible to the flash of the primer. If the cause of the misfire is found, the fault will be corrected; otherwise the charge will be discarded. 88. M1, M1918 Care of Ammunition. To insure uniform results in firing, to prolong the life of the tube, and to avoid accident, great care must be exercised in the storage and handling of ammunition at the battery. Provisions of TM 9-1900 applicable to field service should be followed carefully. In actual service, the conditions inherent in each situation will largely determine the amount of time, labor, and materials that must be expended to provide the requisite facilities for the proper handling and storage of ammunition. If the position is to be occupied for a few hours only, a paulin spread on the ground may be sufficient, while in a zone defense elaborate magazines may be necessary. In the average situation, resourcefulness and ingenuity in the utiliza- tion of facilities and materials available at the position of the pieces will be necessary. The following procedure should be observed: a. Protect all ammunition components, such as projectiles, powder charges, fuzes, and primers, from moisture, direct rays of the sun, and sudden changes in temperature. Such protection necessitates keeping the ammunition off the ground, providing water- proof cover, and insuring ample circulation of air above, beneath, and on all sides of projectiles and containers. b. Store all components separately and in small amounts, so as to minimize danger from accidental burning of powder or detonations of projectiles, fuzes, and primers. c. Enforce rigid observance of all safety precautions in handling ammunition (AR 750-10, TM 9-1900, and paragraph 74 of this manual). 89. M1, M1918 Section Data Board. When positions are occupied for more than a few hours, data boards may be used by each section for recording such items as base deflections, calibration corrections when appropriate, minimum elevation, data for defensive barrages and counterpreparations, and other data the need for which may be urgent. 90. M1 To Put On and Remove Over-all Cover. a. General. (1) Nos. 9 to 12, under the supervision of the ammunition corporal, put on and remove the cover. SERVICE OF THE PIECE 737 (2) A number is stenciled on the canvas near each strap and its corresponding D-ring to aid in assembling each snap to its proper D-ring. (3) All straps are equipped with self-locking, quick release buckles. When placing the over-all cover on the gun, alſ the snaps should be attached to the D-rings before any of the straps are tightened. (4) When removing the over-all cover, each strap should be loosened before its snap is unfastened from the D-ring. b. To fold. (1) Spread out the cover with the inside down and note the position of the two pieces of reinforcing leather that rest on the tops of the equilibrators. A folded cover forms a bundle about 3 feet long by 4% feet wide with the two leather reinforcing patches for the equilibrators on the bottom and in about the center of the rectangle. (2) Fold the cover once from each side along the axis parallel to the tube toward the center so that the resultant rectangle is about 4% feet wide. (3) Next, fold the breech end twice toward the center and the muzzle end three times toward the center, so that the resultant length is about 3 feet and the arrow indicating the direction of the muzzle is on the top of the bundle. c. To put on. (1) No. 9 stands on the right trail in rear of the trail hinge pin and No. 11 on the bottom carriage in front of the right trail hinge pin. - (2) Nos. 10 and 12 pass the folded cover up to Nos. 9 and 11, then go to the left side and mount the trail and the bottom carriage, No. 10 to the rear and No. 12 to the front of the trail hinge pin; and working together all four cannoneers place the folded cover on top of the gun so that the two leather reinforcing patches are resting on the tops of the equilibrators. * (3) Nos. 11 and 12 unfold the cover toward the muzzle and Nos. 9 and 10 toward the breech. (4) Nos. 10 and 12 then unfold the left side and Nos. 9 and 11 unfold the right side, allowing the cover to fall loosely over the gun. (5) No. 9 passes the right rear side of the cover under the cradle and above the traveling lock cable to No. 10, who places the pocket formed for the purpose over the traversing handwheel. Then, assisted by No. 9, he fastenes the snap No. 21 that is hanging on the inside of the cover near the left rear of the cradle to its corresponding D-ring. ğ) No. 9 next attaches the snap No. 1 to the D-ring that is welded on the right trail and No. 10 attaches the snap No. 18 to the D-ring that is welded to the left trail. - (7) Thereafter, snaps are attached to their corresponding D-rings in the most convenient order, Nos. 9 and 11 working on the right side and Nos. 10 and 12 working on the left side. After all snaps are fastened, the straps are tightened. (8) Care should be taken that the webbing, extending between D-ring No. 8 and strap No. 15, is caught under the ledge on the front of the bottom carriage as the straps are tightened. d. To remove. Each cannoneer unsnaps the same snaps that he fastened when putting the cover on. Before each snap is unfastened the strap should be loosened by lifting up the lever of the buckle with the thumb and allowing the strap to slide through the buckle about 4 inches. . The cannoneers then fold the cover while it is resting on the tube of the gun in the same manner as described in b above for folding it on the ground. Then Nos. 10 and 12 move to the right side and receive the folded cover that is passed down to them by Nos. 9 and 11. FA1 (1) - t - i . . . . . . . . ) CHAPTER IX CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF MATÉRIEL, M1 ONLY 91. General. a. This section covers such operations in the care and maintenance of matériel as may be performed by a battery in the field. b. Complete instructions for battery maintenance, including disassemblies, are found in TM 9-350 and SNL D-24. Operations not covered therein are the function of th ordnance maintenance company. * c. In general, the battery is charged with routine cleaning lubricating and care. Parts which may be drawn by the battery for replacement are indicated in SNL D-24 by the symbol %. Unless specifically prohibited, such parts may be installed by a battery mechanic. For routine care and maintenance, specific duties are assigned to individuals, squads, or sections, and careful performance of such duties is necessary. d. The following disassemblies may be performed in the battery: (1) Breech and firing mechanism. (2) Bogie and limber wheels and hubs. (3) In general, such dismounting as is required for the assembly of the spare parts carried (listed in SNL D-24 by %). 92. Cleaning. a. Dirt and grit accumulated in traveling or from the blast of the piece in firing settle on the bearing surfaces, and in combination with the lubricant itself form a cutting compound. Powder fouling attracts moisture and hastens the formation of rust. Therefore, at lulls during firing and immediately after firing, the piece must be thoroughly cleaned. At other times it should be cleaned at intervals not exceeding 2 weeks, depending upon the use and condition. Dirt on nonbearing surfaces can usually be removed by water; lubricated or other greasy parts must be cleaned with dry-cleaning solvent applied with a rag. The procedure in cleaning the bore and breech mechanism is described in paragraph 96. The following cleaning materials are issued by the Ordnance Department for use in the field: (1) Soda ash (dehydrated sal soda). Used for cleaning the bore, breech mechanism, and firing mechanism after firing. (2) Dry-cleaning solvent. For removing grease. It is preferred to kerosene because it does not leave a corrosive film, and to gasoline because it is less inflammable. (3) Crocus cloth. This is the coarsest abrasive permitted for cleaning rust and stains from bearing surfaces. (4) Emery cloth. Used for cleaning unfinished or non-bearing steel surfaces only. Issued in five degrees of coarseness, of which 00 is the finest. (5) Burlap, jute. Issued for cleaning the bore. (6) Cotton waste, clean rags, and sponges. For general cleaning purposes. b. A division of duties for members of the gun section in routine cleaning and main- tenance is as follows: (1) Gunner; the sighting equipment, including the gunner's quadrant. (2) Nos. 1, 2, 9, and 10; the breechblock, the breech recess, and the powder chamber. (3) Nos. 4 and 5; the elevating and traversing mechanisms, the top and bottom carriages, the cradle slides, and the trunnions. (4) No. 8; the hand fuze setter. (5) Other cannoneers; the bore, and such other duties as the chief of section may direct. 93. Lubrication. a. Excessive wear can be prevented by keeping the matériel clean and well lubricated. The life of the gun and carriage depends on proper lubrication. Apply sufficient lubrication but avoid excessive and wasteful practices. Excessive lubri. cation will result in dust accumulations on some moving parts and cause wear and mal- functioning. Particular attention should be given to sliding and bearing surfaces, such as the plane surfaces on the gun, and cradle, and breech mechanism. All exposed parts should be kept cleaned and well lubricated. 738 SERVICE OF THE PIECE r 739 b. Lubricating oils and greases as shown in the lubrication charts (Plates 12 and 13) must be used as prescribed. c. Wheel hubs, gear cases, and other parts packed with grease should be cleaned and repacked every 6 months of continuous use. Other moving parts not specifically men- tioned should be oiled with light engine oil once a month. d. Lubricating fittings are painted red for ease in locating. Oil holes are encircled by a red ring. e. The oil gun should be worked slowly and the parts oiled should be maneuvered to insure proper distribution of the lubricant. f. Should an oiler valve stick and prevent the passage of the oil, it may be loosened with a piece of wire pushed through the hole. Care should be taken not to damage the valve. g. Care must be taken when cleaning oil and grease compartments to insure the com- plete removal of all residue or sediment. Dirt or other foreign matter should not be allowed to drop into any of the lubricating compartments. h. No lubricants will be used other than those prescribed. i. Operating personnel are cautioned when cleaning the gun to refrain from playing water from the high pressure hose directly against the trunnion bearing or trail pin housings, since this will result in water entering into the bearings and cause malfunction of the operating parts. 94. Protection Against Chemicals. Whenever chemical attacks are anticipated, all bright parts should be covered with oil. After a gas attack, the oil is wiped off and fresh oil applied. If mustard or other persistent gas is used, absorbent objects may be deeply contaminated, and even hard surfaces may be dangerous for 6 to 8 days if the chemical is not neutralized. Surfaces should be sprinkled with calcium hypochlorite or chloride of lime, or painted with a whitewash made from either. After 2 to 6 hours the lime is washed off and the matériel rinsed thoroughly with water. When large quantities of water are available, warm (but not boiling) water should be used instead of whitewash. In all cleaning operations the gas mask and special gasproof gloves must be worn. All cleaning rags, sticks, etc., should be burned. 95. Recoil Mechanism. . a. General. Under no conditions will any dismounting, assembling, or repair work of any description be allowed on any part of the recoil mechanism except by qualified ordnance personnel. The only operations permitted to battery personnel are those of draining and filling with oil, and such operations as are indicated in the trouble chart (c(4) below). b. Operations prior to firing. (1) Prior to firing, the positions of the replenisher piston and of the oil index are measured to verify that proper amounts of reserve oil are in the counterrecoil system and in the replenisher. The normal position of the oil index is 0.20 inch (5-mm) out from the rear face of the cradle. The normal position of the replenisher piston is 5% inches (146-mm), measured from the rear face of the re- plenisher cylinder. (2) The chief of section will inspect to see that there is no leakage of oil; that the gun slides are clean and well lubricated; and that the piston rod nuts are properly tightened. (3) Before firing, oil is drained or added as prescribed in f and g below to adjust the recoil and counterrecoil cylinders as required. c. Operations during firing. (1) The chief of section carefully observes the functioning of the recoil and counterrecoil systems and reports promptly to the executive any evidence of trouble. The movement of the gun in recoil should be smooth, with uniformly de- creasing velocity. The point of maximum recoil should be reached without shock. The counterrecoil system should then cause counterrecoil, so that the gun returns completely into battery without shock. If uneven, jerky movement or shock is observed during recoil or counterrecoil, the trouble chart ((4) below) should be consulted and prope: corrective measures taken. (2) After every tenth round, or oftener if it appears necessary, the chief of section measures the position of the replenisher piston and causes No. 2 to measure the posi- tion of the oil index. DIFFICULTIES WITH RECOIL Condition (a) Air in recoil cylin- der. (b) Oil index projects less than 5-mm (019 in.). (c) Oil index remains stationary when the re- Serve iS pumped in against evident pressure. (d) Oil drips , from counterrecoil rod; recoil rod, or control rod stuf- fing boxes in excess of 3 drops per minute. (e) Oil leaks from for- ward end of counterrecoil cylinder. (f) Excessive leaks from recuperator filling and drain Valve. (g) Gun will not re- turn to battery. (h) Gun returns to battery with too great a Shock. (i) Gun slow to return to battery (when Oil in- dication is normal). º (j) Uneven and jerky counterrecoil. (k) Gun in counterre- coil does not cause a hissing sound like air escaping. (1) Gun recoils In Ore than the maximum dis- tance allowed. (m) Gun does not re- coil full distance. CauSe (a) 1. Rep 1 e n is he r empty. 2. Imperfect replenisher connections. (b) 1. Loss of reserve oil. 2. Loss of gas pressure either through the re- cuperator cylinder front head or past the floating piston. (c) The packing is too tight, or the index is broken or locked by Some foreign substance. (d) 1. Broken Springs. 2. More compression re- quired on Springs. 3. Damaged packing. (e) Black oil appearing in front of the counter- recoil piston is a normal condition due to lubrica- tion. Clear oil is an indi- cation of a leak due to broken packing Springs or lack of compression. On the Springs. (f) Sticking of valve or defective packing. ) 1. Too much oil in the replenisher. 2. Insufficient oil in the counterrecoil system. 3. Insufficient gas pres- Slire. (h) 1. Insufficient oil in the replenisher. 2. Excess oil in counter- recoil System. 3. Change of viscosity of oil (due to rapid firing). 4. Friction of various packings too low. (i) Insufficient gas pres- Sure. (j) Lack of lubrication or scoring of sliding heavy surfaces. (k) Air vent is stopped llp. (1) 1. Insufficient oil in the replenisher. 2. Insufficient gas pres- sure in recuperator. 3. Insufficient friction. 4. Malfunction of vari- able recoil mechanism. (m) 1. Low viscosity of oil due to low tempera- ture. 2. Scoring of bearing surfaces. various Correction (a) 1. Remove the filling and drain plug and fill the replenisher with the prescribed amount of oil. Let set for 10 minutes and replace filling and drain plug. 2. Replenisher connections should be checked and kept tight and free and clear Of dust or dirt. (b) 1. Drain the remainder of the re- Serve and refill. 2. Gas escaping by the floating piston is indicated by an emulsified condition of reserve Oil drained off. If, when proceed- ing to fill the counterrecoil system in the Ordinary manner, the OId index does not move out and the pump works easily, the gas pressure has probably been lost. Sub- Stantiate this by an attempt to drain the counterrecoil system; oil will not spurt from a mechanism without at least some preSSure. (c) Drain off all reserve oil and refill. While injecting the oil, tap the oil index gently with each stroke of the pump. If the oil index fails to move after 30 strokes Of the pump, refer the matter to ordnance maintenance company. (d) 1. Report to ordnance maintenance COmpany. 2. Report to Ordnance maintenance com- 8, Ily. 3. Report to Ordnance maintenance com- parly. (e) Report a leak of clear oil to the Ordnance maintenance company. (f) Remove the filling and drain plug and insert a piece of $4-inch drill rod into the hole against the end of the valve stem and tap it lightly with a hammer. If this does not stop the leakage, report it to the Ordnance maintenance company. (g) 1. Drain the replenisher until the end of the piston projects approximately 5% inches (146-mm) beyond the face of replenisher. 2. Drain off the reserve oil and refill to In Ormal. 3. Report to Ordnance maintenance com- pany for investigation. (h) 1. Fill replenisher until the piston projects 5% inches (146-mm) beyond the face of the replenisher. 2. Drain off the reserve oil and refill to In Ormal. 3. Allow mechanism to cool. 4. Report to Ordnance maintenance com- pany. (i) Report to ordnance maintenance Company. (j) Report to ordnance company. maintenance (k) Clean the vent in the replenisher guide by disassembling the valve and wash in dry-cleaning Solvent. If air is not es- caping from the counterrecoil cylinder head, notify the Ordnance maintenance company. (1) 1. Fill replenisher until the piston projects 534 inches (146-mm) beyond the face of the replenisher. 2. Report to Ordnance maintenance com- pany. 3. Report to Ordnance maintenance com- pany. 4. Report to ordnance maintenance com- parly. (m) 1. After firing two or more rounds the recoil will become normal. 2. Report to the Ordnance maintenance COmpany. SERVICE OF THE PIECE 741 (3) The chief of section should measure the recoil for the first round, and fre- quently thereafter, as prescribed in d below. * (4) Abnormal conditions and their corrections are given on opposite page. d. To measure length of recoil. The chief of section coats the recoil scale with hard grease. After the gun has fired and returned to battery, the length of recoil is read from the recoil scale. º e. Length of recoil. The maximum recoil at zero elevation is 65 inches; at maximum elevation is about 38 inches. The following chart gives length of recoil at various elevations: LENGTH OF RECOIL Supercharge Normal charge (M. V. = 2800 f/s) (M. V. = 2100 f/s) Elevation (in mils) Minimum Maximum Minimum | Maximum recoil recoil recoil recoil (inches) (inches) (inches) (inches) 0 to 445 (constant) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53. 5 65 39 50. 5 446 to 710 (variable) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53. 5 to 30 65 to 38 39 to 29 50. 5 to 34 711 up (constant) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * 30 38 29 34 NoTE. Between elevations of 445 and 710 mils the length of recoil decreases directly in proportion to the increase in elevation. f. Recoil mechanism. To establish oil reserve, remove the filling and drain plug from the recuperator cylinder rear head and insert in its place the oil release. Draw off the oil. Remove the oil release and assemble adapter in its place. Attach the oil pump to the adapter and replace the oil (after “purging”) until the oil index starts moving, after which force in 1 quart of recoil oil. This constitutes a full reserve. Remove the adapter and replace the filling and drain plug. Note. “Purging” means removing all air from the line when forcing in the oil. This is accom- plished by having one connection in the line slightly loose and allowing the air to escape, after which the connection is tightened. g. Filling the replenisher. (1) The position of the replenisher piston governs the filling of the recoil cylinder. The normal position of the replenisher piston is 5% inches (146-mm) measured from the rear face of the replenisher cylinder. This position indi- cates a full cylinder and sufficient reserve in the replenisher. The position of the re- plenisher piston should be checked and when the replenisher piston is at a point 4 inches (102-mm) or less from the rear face of the replenisher, oil should be removed from the recoil cylinder before firing is continued. This is accomplished by means of the filling and drain valve release (oil extractor). When the replenisher piston has moved in to a point 7% inches (200-mm) or more from the rear face of the replenisher, oil should be added. * (2) Before filling the replenisher with oil test the operation of the replenisher piston by inserting a scale through the opening of the replenisher piston guide and against the replenisher piston, then releasing oil from the recoil cylinder by means of the filling and drain valve release (oil extractor) screwed into the recoil cylinder drain hole. If movement of the replenisher piston takes place proceed with the filling of the recoil cylinder as follows: Unscrew the filling and drain valve release from the recoil cylinder filling hole and screw the union of the pump coil into the filling hole loosely and pump a little oil through until all air is excluded. The union should be set up without the use of a wrench, except for the final tightening, and should be just tight enough to pre- vent oil from escaping. Extreme care must be taken to prevent any injury to the threads of the filling hole, as any damage may put the entire cradle out of commission. Work the pump until the rear end of the replenisher piston is 5% inches (146-mm) from the rear face of the replenisher. Remove the filling pipe union and replace the filling and drain plugs. NoTE. If no movement of the replenisher piston takes place, the piston may be stuck. Insert a block of hard wood in the rear of the replenisher against the piston end and tap with a hammer. 742 SERVICE OF THE PIECE h. Filling counterrecoil cylinder. The following instructions as to the number of strokes apply only to the M2A1 oil pump. If another oil pump is used, the number of strokes will be such as to pump 1 quart of oil. (1) The position of the oil index which is to the right of the filling and drain plug should not be used as an absolute guide for determining whether or not the recoil system contains the proper amount of oil. See paragraph 95b(1). (2) When the counterrecoil of a gun or the position of the oil index indicates that there is too small a quantity of oil in the recuperator, it will be necessary to drain off the reserve oil before refilling. This is accomplished by removing the plug from the filling hole located on the right of the rear face of the cradle. Screw in the filling and drain release (oil extractor) and allow oil to drain until the flow ceases. Remove the filling and drain release (oil extractor). It will be noted that the oil index has moved to the bottom of the recess before all of the reserve oil has been released. If the oil index has not moved tap it gently with a small piece of wood as it may be stuck. (3) Purge the pump, clean the union, and screw the union into the filling hole loosely. Work the pump a few strokes until oil is forced out through the connection to clear the pipe and connection of air, and screw the union firmly against the gasket in the filling hole. While pumping is continued, feel the oil index and after it starts to move, give the pump exactly 100 strokes (one stroke to consist of one complete cycle of the pump handle). Detach the pump and replace the plug in the filling hole. 96. Barrel Assembly, Breech Mechanism, and Firing Mechanism. a. (1) It is important that the cannoneer examine the bore before each loading to ascertain whether or not fragments of outer bags or unburned powder remain in the bore. The presence of such particles may cause damage to the piece. The sponge should be used between rounds. (2) Should enemy shell burst near the weapon, be sure before firing that the weapon has not been damaged to a dangerous degree. Damage of a serious nature should be reported to the ordnance officer. (3) In cleaning after firing, wash the bore with a solution of 4 pound of soda ash or 1 pound of sal soda in 1 gallon of water. Use the sponge for swabbing. Wipe dry with sponge covered with burlap. Oil the bore with light lubricating oil. (4) The leveling plates should be protected. Tools or other articles will not be placed upon them. In case of injury repair must be made by ordnance personnel. (5) Lubricating instructions are given in paragraph 93. (6) When the matériel is not in use covers must be used. * (7) When the weapon is to be unused for a considerable time the bore, breech mechanism, and bright and unpainted surfaces should be cleaned with dry-cleaning solvent and the surfaces coated with medium rust-preventive compound. (8) The various screws in the weapon should be examined frequently and kept tight. g (9) Extreme care must be taken to prevent injury to the gas check seat. Bruises on the gas check seat affect the seating of the split rings and are likely to cause leakage of gas and burning of the pad. If such leakage occurs, serious erosion may result. Due to the pads being susceptible to moisture, rusting of the gas check seat is likely to occur. The seat and rings, therefore, should be well protected at all times with rust-preventive compound when the weapon is not in use, and the entire surface of the pad in contact with the seat, split rings, obturator spindle, and filling-in disk should be kept coated with graphite lubricant. b. Breech mechanism. (1) The breech mechanism should be kept clean and the parts well lubricated. When not in use disassemble periodically especially for detection of rust. When in use disassemble frequently, clean, and oil. It should be so cared for immediately after firing. This is especially important as no provision is made for oiling by means of oilers or oil channels. (2) In removing rust-preventive compound the greater part should be scraped off. . That remaining should be removed with dry-cleaning solvent used on a rag or waste. (3) A steel hammer must not be used directly on any part of the mechanism. A buffer such as a hardwood block should be interposed or a copper hammer used. SERVICE OF THE PIECE 743 (4) Vigilance must be exercised to detect any cutting or abrasions on the pressure side of the threads of breechblock and breech recess. If the breechblock does not rotate smoothly, or if it requires a greater effort than usual to operate, it should be disassembled and examined. Scoring or bruises on the threads of the breechblock or breech recess should be reported to ordnance personnel. c. Firing mechanism. (1) The parts require the same attention as the breech mech- anism. Therefore, frequent disassembly for the purpose of cleaning and oiling is re- uired. Q (2) Fouling of the firing pin or the use of a thicker oil than authorized will cause absorption of the energy of the hammer spring and firing hammer and may result in misfire. This is especially true in cold weather. (3) The primer seat and the vent in the obturator spindle should be kept clean by frequent use of the vent cleaning tool. The slightest accumulation of fouling in the primer seat will cause the primer to enter with difficulty and trouble in extraction. d. Malfunction of gun. Malfunction CauSe COrrection (1) Fails to fire after (1) (a) Firing mechan- (1) (a) Screw the firing mechanism in sºveral percussions On ism not screwed home. as far as it will go. primer. (b) Fouled firing pin. (b) Remove the firing mechanism and disassemble. Wash all parts with dry- cleaning solvent free of dirt or gummed oil. Dry thoroughly and lubricate with light lubricating oil. (c) Deformed point on (c) Remove firing mechanism, disas- (2) Fails to fire when proper percussion OIl primer is obtained. (3) Fails to fire after the primer has dis- charged. (4) Mechanism d O es not Operate freely. (5) Percussion hammer not working freely. firing pin. (d) Weak pull on the lanyard. (2) Defective primer. (3) (a) Damp or fouled vent hole through ob- turator. (b) Damp charge. (4) Lack of lubrication and the formation of SCOres in the threads of the breechblock carrier or in the breech recess. (5) Lack of lubrication and roughness on percus- Sion hammer pin. Semble, and replace firing pin. (d) Pull lanyard with considerable force. (2) After three percussions wait at least 2 minutes before replacing primer. See paragraph 87. (3) (a) Walt at least 10 minutes and remove primer and clean vent hole with vent cleaning bit. See paragraph 87. (b) Wait at least 10 minutes before opening the breech to remove the charge. See paragraph 87. (4) Disassemble the breechblock and clean thoroughly. If the threads are Scored, repair must be made by the per- SOnnel Of an Ordnance maintenance Com- pany. (5) Disassemble, roughness. Clean, and remove 97. Carriage. loose or broken parts. is covered in Plate 12. a. General. Attention should be given to cleaning, lubrication, and Lubrication, with the method and frequency of application, & Parts. Bearing surfaces, revolving parts, springs, gear teeth, breech mechanisms, screw threads, and exterior parts must be clean and free from dirt. Special attention should be given to exposed gear teeth and bearing surfaces. In disassembling and assembling operations, precautions must be taken to prevent the entrance of foreign In atter. c. Inspection. The carriage should be given a general inspection periodically. d. Cleaning and preserving materials. The care and maintenance of the carriage re- quire the use of the cleaning and preserving materials issued by the Ordnance Depart- ment. e. Storage. When the carriage is stored, or is to remain unused for a considerable length of time, all bright and unpainted surfaces, should be protected with a coat of light rust-preventive compound. Before applying the compound the surfaces should be cleaned with dry-cleaning solvent. f. Wheels. The pneumatic tires should be kept at 75 pounds’ pressure at all times. The grease in the wheel hubs should be removed at least every 6 months or more often after frequent immersion in water and replaced with new grease. g. Power brake mechanism. The power brake mechanism should be inspected period- ically for air leaks. When replacing any part of the air line be sure that all burs 744 SERVICE OF THE PIECE are removed from ends of grease and oil fittings and that all dirt and foreign matter are removed. h. Relay emergency valve. (1) To test the application release portion of this valve for leakage without removing the complete valve, charge the carriage air reservoir and If air leaks with the brakes in released position apply soapsuds to the exhaust port. *89$ I ºorſo« »&mo I - N (q ssNIH @ to S30Y&hns ONIHYGG - HSINYHOGA NOISSnowºa (?) D. Samo z - S3đInÐ HOLVHÆTTIntº (?) 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D GO NId ºtrºſul - ſmrla t ſ' E [ ] {|0 1 || 1 s W O @ SONIWYGĘ JAYHS kºłow. ksIMYÈ， ONYS， Awu O (2) ĐNIHYGG TIYa Roy Joe Laes gw3.0 &nās © @ Đnnºg ºrtwg đOL JAYHS wygo unas D (3) Hvað umas º xovų ONISŁAWAL � @ SHYGÐ Tzaha wºłoſa w wºor. - oma I <-» Q @ TIOOGH STRVIHwa - ONLųIA I Juu ， @ („ºu oſou aos) sºuos RSINYHOER ONI Lºri 2100e < w ） @ SAGHOS RSIN（H3SH ONIJAIT 3 IOOG-SONILII） z �'） ） @) (Rauºs ºut auſt Jo:onnoq.)NIď 3. Doºhs-sor:IIII.a z «CA O GÐ („q„ »sou ees)sonmraeg taeſſasſory Hołłº w ułotyuls. L (DLIMBER WHEEL BEARINGS LOCK AND PARTIALLY FILL CHAMBER *sº Sºº-º-º-ºr’ Plate 13. M1, Lubrication Chart for Limber. (d) Exercise particular care to keep optical parts free from oil and grease. Do not wipe the lenses or windows with the fingers. To remove oil or grease from optical surfaces, apply ethyl alcohol with a clean camel's-hair brush and rub gently with clean lens paper. If alcohol is not available, breathe heavily on the glass and wipe off with clean lens paper; repeat this operation several times until clean. (e) Moisture due to condensation may collect on the optical parts of the instru- ment when the temperature of the parts is lower than that of the surrounding air. This moisture, if not excessive, can be removed by placing the instrument in a warm place. Heat from strongly concentrated sources should not be applied directly, as it may cause unequal expansion of parts, thereby resulting in breakage of optical parts or inaccuracies in observation. (3) Lubricants. (a) Where lubrication with oil is indicated, use aircraft instrument and machine gun lubricating oil. (b) Where lubrication with grease is indicated, use Royco 6A. b. Telescope mount M18 and panoramic telescope M542. (1) Description. (a) The telescope mount M18 equipped with the panoramic telescope M5A2 is the sighting element for laying the gun in azimuth. No provision is made in this mount for setting off quadrant elevation or range, as this is accomplished by means of a gunner's 748 SERVICE OF THE PIECE quadrant placed on the quadrant mount M1 which is mounted on the right side of the gun carriage. (b) The telescope mount is of the azimuth compensating type which auto- matically applies azimuth correction when the gun is elevated with the trunnions out of level. It is mounted on the left side of the gun carriage. Provision is made for cross leveling and longitudinal leveling, a level vial and knob being provided for each motion. The panoramic telescope fits into the sight socket, as shown, and is secured by means of the wing knob. (c) The panoramic telescope has cylindrical locating surfaces at the top and bottom for centering the telescope in its socket. The line of sight is elevated or depressed by means of the knob at the top, and coarse and fine index graduations are provided for the normal (zero elevation) position. The head is moved in azimuth by means of the azimuth worm knob which has a throw-out lever to permit dis- engagement for rapid motion when required. The azimuth scale is graduated in 100-mil intervals, numbered progressively from 0 to 32 in two consecutive semicircles. Indications of the azimuth micrometer index on the deflection knob, which is grad- uated in 1-mil intervals, supplement those on the azimuth scale. The deflection knob is assembled to a detent which causes a click at each 1-mil interval as the knob is rotated. Rotation of the deflection knob does not change a deflection previously set, but changes the indicated value thereof. (d) For future use the telescope mount M18A1 and panoramic telescope M12 will very shortly replace the telescope mount M18 and panoramic telescope M5A2. The main difference in these combinations is that the socket of the mount and rotating head of the telescope are offset 45°, and a new type of micrometer device is used. (2) Operation. (a) Direct fire. Set the deflection on the panoramic telescope and traverse the gun until the vertical hair falls on the target, keeping the bubble of the cross level centered by means of the cross level knob. An elevation corresponding to the range to the target, plus its angle of site, is applied to the piece by means of the gunner's quadrant on the right; or, in an emergency, the elevation is estimated. (b) Indirect fire. 1. Set off the azimuth of the target, with respect to the aiming point, on the azimuth scale and micrometer of the panoramic telescope. Traverse the gun carriage until the vertical line in the telescope falls on the aiming point, keeping the cross level and longitudinal level bubbles centered at all times by means of their respective knobs. º 2. It may be necessary to rotate the elevating knob on the panoramic telescope in order to bring the aiming point within the vertical field of view. This procedure is permissible in indirect fire only as, due to the fact that the telescope axis is kept vertical, the azimuth correction is not affected. (c) Cross leveling. It is essential that the telescope mount be kept cross leveled at all times during the operation of both direct and indirect fire, otherwise the telescope reticle lines will erroneously move off the target as the gun is elevated, and an incorrect azimuth setting will be applied to the gun. (3) Tests and adjustments. Only the adjustments specifically authorized may be performed by the using arm. (a) Preliminary settings. Level the gun and carriage transversely (axis of cradle trunnions) and longitudinally (axis of bore); the trunnions may be leveled after the gun is emplaced or while the gun is in the firing position and the carriage still is on the limber and bogie. Place the testing target in position with the bore and sight markers at the same height as the bore and sight, alining it with the bore by means of the bore sights. Centralize the bubbles in the cross and longitudinal levels. Set the scales and micrometers of the panoramic telescope to their zero positions. These settings will then apply for all subsequent operations. (b) Verification of cross level and longitudinal level. Remove the panoramic tele- scope from the telescope mount. Use the gunner's quadrant as a test level, placing it on a steel plate or equivalent on the top surface of the telescope socket parallel to the respective level axes of the telescope mount. The gunner's quadrant should show the SERVICE OF THE PIECE - 749 surface to be level along both axes. An error not in excess of one division on the tele- scope mount level vial is acceptable. If the error along either axis is beyond this limit, it will be necessary to adjust the corresponding level vial. The adjustment is to be per- formed only by authorized ordnance personnel. (c) Verification and adjustment of panoramic telescope. Replace the panoramic telescope in the telescope mount and observe the position of the reticle lines with respect to the marker on the testing target. If the reticle lines do not coincide it will be neces- sary to adjust in the following manner: 1. Turn the elevating knob on the telescope until the horizontal reticle line coincides with the horizontal line of the target. Loosen the screws in the end of the knob and, holding the knob, slip the elevation micrometer until the zero graduation lines up with its index; then tighten the screws, being careful not to disturb the setting. 2. Turn the azimuth worm knob on the telescope until the vertical reticle line coincides with the vertical line on the target. Loosen the locking screw in the center of the micrometer index, and slip the index until the arrow is in line with the zero of the deflection knob, then tighten the locking screw. Only a small adjustment can be made in this manner, since a large adjustment will prevent simultaneous zero reading of the azimuth scale and micrometer index, with consequent possibility of error in read- ing. Further adjustment, to be performed only by ordnance personnel, is by means of adjusting screws in the telescope socket. (4) Adjustment by distant aiming point. In the field or when the testing target is not available, the adjustment in (3) (c) above may be made by using some distant aim- ing point (2000- or 3000-yard range). Proceed as above to adjust the telescope so that the line of sight and the axis of the bore intersect at the aiming point. (5) Care and preservation. (a) See a above for general instructions pertaining to the care and preservation of instruments. (b) Stops are provided to limit the longitudinal and cross leveling motions and no attempts should be made to force the mechanisms beyond these limits. Avoid rough handling which might disturb the adjustment of the telescope and mount. (c) Fittings are provided for lubrication of the principal bearings, and oil only is to be applied. Wipe off all lubricant that seeps from the moving parts to prevent accumulation of dust and grit. c. Quadrant mount M1. (1) Adjustment of the quadrant mount by battery personnel is not authorized. (2) Keep the shoes lightly greased when the quadrant mount is not in use. Lubricate the worm gear teeth occasionally by applying a few drops of oil in the track. Wipe off excess lubricant to prevent accumulation of dust and grit. 100. To Adjust Equilibrators. Two equilibrators of the pneumatic type are provided to neutralize unbalanced weight and reduce the manual effort required to elevate the gun through the lower elevations. Temperature adjustment scales are provided to adjust the tension of the equilibrators for various temperatures. These scales are a guide only; therefore, a setting which permits satisfactory operation of the elevating handwheel must be determined by trial. The piece should be at 0° elevation when the adjustment is made. The settings on the two scales should be the same. If satisfactory operation can- not be obtained when the two settings are the same, the ordnance maintenance company should be notified. CHAPTER X CARE AND MAINTENANCE OF MATÉRIEL, M1918 ONLY 101. General. a. This section covers such operations in the care and maintenance of the matériel as may be performed by a battery in the field. b. Complete instructions for battery maintenance, including disassemblies, are found in the Technical Regulations and Standard Nomenclature Lists especially TR 1305-155C and SNL D-11. Operations not covered therein are the function of the ordnance main- tenance company. c. In general, the battery is charged with routine cleaning, lubricating, and care. Parts which may be drawn by the battery for replacement are indicated in SNL D-11 by the symbol %. Unless specifically prohibited, such parts may be installed by a battery mechanic. For routine care and maintenance, specific duties are assigned to individuals, squads, or sections, and a careful performance of such duties is necessary. d. The following disassemblies may be performed in the battery: (1) Breech and firing mechanism. (2) Carriage wheels. (3) Elevating oblique spindle and traversing oblique spindle. (4) Elevating and traversing handwheels. (5) Elastic suspension housing. (6) In general, such dismounting as is required for assembly of the spare parts carried (designated in SNL D-11 by %). 102. Cleaning. See paragraph 92. The procedure in cleaning the bore and breech mechanism is described in paragraph. - 103. Lubrication. a. General. (1) The life of the matériel depends to a great extent on proper lubrication. Particular attention should be given to the lubrication of the sliding surfaces of the breech mechanism and cradle gun slides, the elevating and tra- versing worms, and wheel bearings. (2) The oil holes of the carriage, recoil mechanism, and limber are generally pro- vided with a special self-closing and telescoping oil cup having a plunger head which is lifted to expose the opening for the lubricant. These oil cups and other locations on the matériel where lubrication is required are painted red. (3) Grit must be kept out of lubricating openings and from the lubricant. In clean- ing oil cups and open oil holes, the necessary wiping should be done with a piece of firm cloth, and no lint should be allowed to remain in any orifice. Open oil holes which have become clogged with congealed oil should be cleaned with a piece of wire. (4) Oil should be applied while the parts are being maneuvered, to insure distribu- tion of lubricant to all moving parts. (5) The various lubricants and cleaning and preserving materials issued by the Ordnance Department are described and their use prescribed in TR 1395-A. b. Barrel assembly. (1) The gun mechanisms are not provided with oil holes, and many of the bearing surfaces may be oiled only after disassembly. The following places are to be cleaned and lubricated immediately after each firing period: (a) Bore and powder chamber. (b) Obturator spindle head, split rings, and gas check pad seat. (c) Gas check pad. Cover entire canvas surface with lubricating graphite grease. (d) Firing mechanism parts. Wash with gasoline and wipe dry before lubricating. (2) The bearings, such as the operating lever latch, percussion hammer operating shaft, percussion hammer lock bolt, breechblock carrier hinge pin, hinge pin driving washer, counterbalance bracket and tension rod, rack lock and firing mechanism block latch, are to be lubricated with class A oil as often as required to forestall the slightest tendency to rust. # º c. Carriage and limber. In heavy mobile artillery it is hardly practical to fix lubrication periods by regulations because the conditions change with the nature of the service. If the matériel occupies a more or less fixed position, the bearings which move in traveling will need lubrication for the purpose of preventing rust only; if the organization is on 750 SERVICE OF THE PIECE 751 the march, the breech, firing, elevating, and traversing mechanisms will require but very little lubrication. It is unquestionably better to overlubricate rather than under- lubricate, but this does not justify needless waste of lubricants. (1) The following points requiring lubrication are more or less obscure and apt to be overlooked in oiling the matériel. (Numbers in parentheses refer to corresponding numbers in Fig. 9.) (a) Oil cups in the left end of the traversing bevel pinion housing (16). Oil introduced here lubricates the bevel pinion teeth and works through a channel in the center of the traversing worm pinion to the bearings on either side of the traversing worm. It cannot be seen except when in firing position and when the top carriage is traversed to the left. (b) The open oil holes in tops of the traversing spindle pinion arbor (15), and the elevating spindle bevel pinion (14), which serve the supporting bearings of those parts, are exposed when the piece is fully elevated and the oblique spindles are removed. (c) The oil cup near the front end of the elevating worm shaft in the elevating bevel pinion housing cover may be reached with the cradle fully elevated. This oil cup serves the bearings of the elevating worm shaft bevel pinion (11) only. The main bear- ings of the elevating worm shaft are served by the oil cup in the rear stop through an oil passage in the center of the worm shaft. (d) Two oil cups in the floor of the top carriage, one on either side and outside of the elevating worm compartment, lead oil to the surface between the top carriage and bottom carriage. They are accessible when the cradle is elevated. (e) The great weight carried by the gun axle spring bushings forces out the lubricant, and therefore the spring eye pins should be frequently withdrawn, rubbed with lubricating graphite grease, then lightly oiled and reinserted. Oil the spring plungers in the forward end of the spring eye pins and shackle adjusting bolt pins, at the same time working the plungers in and out to be sure of proper action. Take this opportunity to work a little oil into the upper bearings of the lower spring shackle. The limber spring eye pins, especially the rear pins, should also be frequently lubricated. (f) The front and rear surfaces of the axle in the axle chamber of the bottom carriage, as well as the guides for the limber drawbar, should be well coated with lubri- cating graphite grease frequently while on the march. (g) The trail locking bolts should be given a few drops of oil at the top of each bearing in the bottom carriage before the trails are spread and each bolt raised and lowered in the bearings several times to distribute the oil thoroughly. Use lubricating graphite grease and oil on the threads and in the openings in the trail ends. Oil the trail locking bolt nut handle where it slides through the nut. The spade clamping bolt and trail clamping bolt of the limber should receive the same lubrication as the trail locking bolts. * (h) The trail hinge pins should receive sufficient lubrication. Oil should be placed around the head and both upper and lower bearing surfaces between the trail ends and the bottom carriage and the trail swung in and out, or the pin turned by means of a wrench on the trail pin nut to work the oil downward into the bearings. Trail pins of late design have an oil hole closed by a flathead screw marked “oil” in the center of the head. Report a seized trail hinge pin to the ordnance maintenance company. (i) The axle pivot pin should be cleaned and lubricated each time it is inserted or withdrawn from the bottom carriage. (2) To clean and lubricate the traversing sector. (a) The top carriage should be traversed to the left until the worm leaves the traversing sector (17). It may be necessary to withdraw the axle pivot pin and jack up the carriage to obtain clearance between the cradle and wheel. Wipe the traversing sector clean and coat with lubricating graphite grease. (b) While the gun is at extreme traverse, clean and wipe the top carriage retaining lug and wipe clean the clip on the bottom carriage beneath which the lug moves. (c) Bring the traversing worm back into mesh very carefully to prevent injury to the teeth of the worm or sector. r r 752 OF THE PIECE SERVICE OILING AND GREASING CHART º: O. (Plate I’art, Method and remarks Kind 14) 1 || Breech threads and breech recess. Spread oil on threads . . . . . . . . . . . Oil, lub., cl. A. 2 || Firing mechanism threads and . . . . . . do . . . . . . . e e º º a C C & © e º e º 'º e º 'º - DO. firing pin. 3 || Breechblock rack and rack lock . . At contact surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DO. 4 || Breechblock carrier pintle ...... . . . . . . . do . . . . . . . . . . © tº e º 'º º e º e º 'º e tº ſº e DO. ſº lever handle ........ Firing mechanism block ....... Firing mechanism block latch . ; ºhanism Safety plunger 118e pin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 || - #iss on hammer operating | }. At contact surfaces as required Oil, lub., cl. A. Shaft. to prevent rust. Percussion hammer lock bolt .. Counterbalance tension rod . . . Counterbalance cylinder head U (pivoted). gº Spindle Spring ....... ring pin Spring . . . . . . . . . . . * * * * * : X \ºl Ulººk Il Cºl Bººl. Li J.I. Jºlº e s e e s e e º e º e Tea,S raph., Counterbalance firing • * * * * * * * * * * Slush in assembling º mºt: Flring mechanism Safety plunger. Counterbalance regulating screw . . On threads and at ends of bear- || Oil, lub., cl. A. * ings. Quadrant sight (not shown in At , bearing surfaces. Smear the Oil, neutral. figure). Oil Weil OVer the Segment. 8 || Cradle clips ........... tº tº e º 'º e ... . . . Four special oil cups on each side. Oil, lub., cl. A. - Before firing, retracting, or re- - turning gun from traveling po- Sition. 9 | Trunnion bearing caps .......... One oil cup on each Side . . . . . . . DO. 19 |Oil cups (in floor of top carriage). | . . . . . do . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DO. 11 | Elevating level pinion housing | Oil cup . . . . . . . . . . . . * > 3 > 3 tº e º º e g is e e DO. COWer. 12 Rear stop e e e <> * > * > * g e º e g º e e s s e e e s • * * * * * º dO • e e s e s e e e e s e e s tº e e e e e o e º e e DO. 13 Elevating worm and elevating At contact surfaces ............ • | Grease, graph., Sector. lub., medium. 14 | Elevating spindle bevel pinion ... Oil, hole in top. Remove elevating Oil, lub., cl. A. §ue Spindle to uncover oil Ole. 15 | Traversing spindle pinion arbor . . . . . . . . do . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DO. 16 Traversing bevel pinion housing... Oil cup ...... * * * * * * ~ e º 'º e º e s e e e e s e DO. 17 | Traversing worm and traversing | Spread ..... • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Grease, graph., Sector. lub., medium. 18 || Sighting gear casing bearing .... Tººn cups in upper rear quad- Oil, lub., cl. A. 19 | . . . . . . do . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... | Two remaining oil cups ...... © º e DO. 20 | Handwheel handles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . At contact surfaces at both en DO. Of each handle. p 21 | Connecting rod pins ............. At contact surfaces ............. DO. 22 || Replenishing cylinder ............ Qil cup in front end of replenisher Oil, lub., cl. A. 23 Wheels (of Carriage and limber) e At hub Cap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e s tº º Grease, graph., lub., medium. 25 | Gun axle ...................... . . . . At guide surfaces in chassis at DO. front and rear of axle. 26 || Spring eye pin and shackle ..... At contact surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . Oil, lub., cl. A. 27 | Limber steering knuckle spindle. Qil cups (2) ............... e e º e º e DO. 28 || Steering tie rod Universal joints. Oil cups (6) ........ * * * > * > & e º e tº ſº º DO. 29 Pintle bolt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... I Oil Cup (1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e º e e º e DO. 30 | Drawbar pin ..................... At contact surfaces ............. DO. 31 || Limber spring eye pin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . do . . . . . . . . . . . . * * * * is e e º ºs e > g. e. DO. 32 | Drawbar guides ... .......... s e e s e s * * * * * * do . . . . . . . . . . . • & © e º e º e e ..... Grease, graph., lub., medium 35 | Trail clamping bolts ........... . . . On threads. Work the nuts over DO. the grease. Spade clamping bolts ........... At Sliding handles ........ . . . . . . Oil, lub., cl. A. 36 | Trail locking bolts ......... ... . . . . At top of each bearing. Before DO. Spreading trails. 37 | Trail hinge pins ...... ... . . . . . . . . . At oil hole in top around the DO. head, and at top of lower bear- ing. Recoil rod and counterrecoil rod . Ends exposed in traveling posi- || Grease 1 u b. , tion. When # is placed in traveling position, and whenever necessary to prevent rust. cup, No. 5, or c o m p ou n d, rust - preven- tive, grade B. (3) The elevating sector should be wiped clean and slushed with lubricating graphite grease and the cradle depressed and elevated through the whole range of elevation. Make sure the elevating worm is covered with a film of grease. (4) Cradle. (a) Clean and oil all accessible parts of the the gun from battery to traveling position or vice versa. gun slides while moving SERVICE OF THE PIECE 753 (b) Clean and grease the ends of the recoil and counterrecoil piston rods and piston rod nuts with the gun in traveling position. (c) Clean and oil the valve-turning rod and connecting rod of the recoil mechanism while elevating and depressing the cradle. Put a few drops of oil in the oil cup at the front end of the replenisher. gº (5) Top carriage. (a) In the sighting gear casing cover, 4 oil cups are provided, 2 serving the handwheel shafts and 2 the elevating and traversing gear spindles which drive the oblique spindles. About 1 teaspoonful of oil should be placed in each of the oil cups of the cover at each oiling. (b) The handwheel handles should be given an occasional drop of oil at each end while the handles are turning on their spindles. Plate 14. M1918, Lubrication Chart. (6) Wheels. Wheel bearings should be cleaned and each bearing be repacked with % pound of wheel bearing grease every 6 months of continuous use of the matériel, or at each general overhaul of the matériel. - (7) The ratchet wrenches and the traveling lock pinions should be oiled each time before using. (8) Lubricating chart. The above charts give the location, lubricant, amount, frequency, and method of application for the various lubricating points of the 155-mm gun, carriage, and limber when in active service. 104. Protection Against Chemicals. Whenever chemical attacks are anticipated, all bright parts should be covered with oil. After a gas attack, the oil is wiped off and fresh oil applied. If mustard or other persistent gas is used, absorbent objects may be deeply contaminated, and even hard surfaces may be dangerous for 6 to 8 days if the chemical is not neutralized. Surfaces should be sprinkled with calcium hypochlorite or chloride of lime, or painted with a whitewash made from either. After 2 to 6 hours the lime is washed off and the matériels rinsed thoroughly with water. When large quantities of water are available, warm (but not boiling) water should be used instead of white, wash. In all cleaning operations the gas, mask, and special gasproof gloves must be worn. All cleaning rags, sticks, etc., are disposed by burying. They must not be burned as the heat will disseminate dangerous vapor. - 754 SERVICE OF THE PIECE 105. Recoil Mechanism. a. General. Under no conditions will any dismounting or assembling, or repair work of any description, be allowed on any part of the recoil mechanism except by specially designated ordnance mechanics. The only operations permitted in the field are those of draining and filling with oil, and such operations as are indicated in the trouble charts (c(4) below). b. Operations prior to firing. Prior to firing, No. 4, using the 25-cm rule and super- vised by the chief of section, will measure the position of the replenisher piston and of the oil index to verify that a proper amount of reserve oil is in the counterrecoil system and in the replenisher. The normal position of the oil index is 5-mm out from the rear face of the cradle. The normal position of the replenisher piston is 150-mm measured from the rear face of the replenisher cylinder (f below). In addition, the chief of section will inspect to see that there is no leakage of oil, that the gun slides are well lubricated, and that the piston-rod nuts are properly tightened. Before firing, oil is drained or added as prescribed in g below to adjust the recoil and counterrecoil cylinders as required. c. Operations during firing. (1) The chief of section carefully observes the functioning of the recoil and counterrecoil systems, and reports promptly to the executive any evidence of trouble. The movement of the gun in recoil should be smooth, with uniformly decreasing velocity. The point of maximum recoil should be reached without shock. The counterrecoil system should then cause counterrecoil, so that the gun returns completely into battery without shock. If uneven, jerky movement or shock is observed during recoil or counterrecoil, the trouble chart ((4) below) should be consulted and proper corrective measures taken. - (2) After every tenth round, or oftener if it appears necessary, the chief of section causes No. 4 to measure the position of the replenisher piston and of the oil index. - (3) The chief of section should measure the recoil for the first round, and frequently thereafter, as prescribed in d below. (4) Malfunctions of the recoil and counterrecoil systems and the appropriate corrective measures are listed below: DIFFICULTIEs witH RECOIL AND COUNTERRECOIL º Malfunction CauSe Correction Gun fails to return Com- pletely into battery. As long as the gun returns to Within 4 inches of its normal pOSl- (a) Too much oil in the recoil cylinder. . (a) Drain oil from the recoil, cyl- inder until the replenisher piston is 150-mm from the rear face of the replenisher (f (2) below). tion in battery, the firing (b) Insufficient oil in the (b) Drain the oil from the coun- need not be stopped. How- || counterrecoil cylinder. terrecoil cylinder and refill with the ever, corrective In ea.SUlreS proper amount (g (4) below). should be taken at first (c) Insufficient gas ... pres- | (c) Report to ordnance mainte- available opportunity. Gun returns into battery with too great a shock. sure in counterrecoil cylinder. (a) Insufficient oil coil cylinder. (b) Excess oil in counter- recoil cylinder. in re- nance Company for investigation. (a) Refill recoil cylinder mal (g (3) below). to nor- (b) Drain and refill counterrecoil cylinder with exact amount of oil Specified (f (4) below). (c) Change in viscosity of (c) Allow mechanism to cool. oil due to rapid firing. (d) Friction of various (d) Report to Ordnance mainte- packings too low. nance Company. Gun recoils more than the (a) Insufficient oil in re- (a) Refill recoil cylinder to nor- maximum distance indicated | coil .cylinder. mal (g (3) below). in e below. (b) Insufficient gas pres- (b) Report to Ordnance mainte- sure in counterrecoil cylinder. nance company. * * (c) Friction of various (c) Report to ordnance mainte- packings too low. nance company. (d) Malfunctions of con- (d) Report to Ordnance mainte- trol rod. nance company. Gun fails to recoil the (a) Low viscosity of oil due (a) Condition will be corrected minimum distance indicated to low temperature. by continued firing. in e below. A slight short- (b) Scoring of various (b) Report to Ordnance mainte- ness in recoil (1.2 to 1 inch) bearing surfaces. Inance COImpany. for One or two rounds may (c) Excessive friction of (c) Report to Ordnance mainte- be disregarded. various packings. nance COmpa Iny. (d) Report to Ordnance mainte- (d) Malfunction of control rod. nance Company. ** **, *- DIFFICULTIES WITH RECOIL AND COUNTERRECOIL–Continued Malfunction Gun returns into battery too slowly (when replenisher piston and counterrecoil cyl- inder oil index indicate cor- rect amount of oil.) Gun returns into battery with jerky, uneven motion. Gun returns into battery without causing a hissing Sound like air escaping. CauSe (a) Insufficient gas pressure in counterrecoil cylinder. (b) Excessive friction various packings. of (a) Too close fit of certain bearing Surfaces. (b) Scoring bearing Surfaces. (c) Foreign substances the Oil. Air vents stopped up . . . . . Of various in Correction. (a) Report to nance COmpany. (b) Report to Inance COmpany. Ordnance mainte- Ordnance mainte- (a) Report to ordnance mainte- nance COmpany. (b) Report to nance COmpany. (c) Report to nance COmpany. Ordnance mainte- Ordnance mainte- Clean vents in replenisher-piston guide. If air does not escape from Iront head of Counterrecoil cylin- der, notify Ordnance maintenance COmpany. Replenisher piston does not change position during firing. Replenisher piston Stuck . Oil index of counterrecoil cylinder remains stationary when counterrecoil cylinder is being drained or refilled. Oil leaks from rear Of re- plenisher. A leak of 3 drops per minute or less is , disre- garded. Replenisher of a gun not used for SOme time may leak excessively when gun is elevated. Packing too tight, or the index is broken or locked by some foreign substance. Oil drips from the stuffing boxes Of the recoil piston rod or the counterrecoil piston rod in excess of 3 drops per minute. Replenisher piston not functioning properly. (a) Broken Springs in stuffing box. (b) More compression re- quired on Springs. (c) Damaged packing. Oil leaks from forward end Of COunterrecoil cylinder. Black oil appearing in front of the counterrecoil piston is a normal condition due to lubrication. Clear oil is an indication of unusual leak. Excessive leaking of oil from recoil and counterrecoil filling and drain holes. Broken packing Springs or lack of compression on the Springs. Sticking of valve or defec- tive packing. Gun will not elevate to full 622 mils (35°), the carriage being on level ground. (a) Valve-turning mechan- ism jammed. (b) Foreign matter inter- fering with functioning of the elevating mechanism. Insert a block of hardwood in the rear of the replenisher against the piston end and tap with a ham- mer. Replenishers of guns not in frequent use should be exercised at least once a month as prescribed in R.T 1305–155.C. * Drain off all reserve oil. While refilling, tap the oil index gently with each stroke of the pump. If index fails to move after 30 strokes of the pump or 1% charges of the oil screw filler, report to Ordnance maintenance Company. No Corrective measures are neces- sary except to pump in more oil from time to time to keep replen- isher piston between Specified lim- its (f (2) below). If the amount of refilling required becomes exces- sive, report to ordnance mainte- nance company. Report to ordnance maintenance COmpany. Report a leak of clear Oil to the ordnance maintenance company. Remove the plug and insert a piece of 14-inch drill rod into the hole against the end of the valve stem and tap lightly with a ham- mer. If this does not Stop leak, re- port to ordnance maintenance Com- , pally. Report to Ordnance maintenance COmpany. d. To measure the length of recoil. The chief of section coats the edge of the cradle with hard grease and adjusts the recoil pointer until the point just touches the greased surface of the cradle. After the gun has fired and returned to battery, the chief of section measures the distance between the recoil pointer and the far end of its trace on the greased surface. e. Length of recoil. Under normal conditions the length of recoil in inches should be as follows: Charge Quadrant elevation in mils 100 200 300 400 500 600 Super tº e º e º 'º e º e & e = e º e s = e º a s e e s s a 66+ 2 66+2 58+ 2 45 + 1 45+ 1 45+ 1 Normal tº tº § 58+ 2 58+ 2 52 + 2 43 + 1 43 + 1 43+ 1 756 SERVICE OF THE PIECE If the measured length of recoil does not fall within the tolerances given in the table above, the trouble chart (c (4)) above should be consulted and proper corrective meas- ures taken. f. Regulating the oil pressure in the recoil and counterrecoil systems. (1) Recoil system. When the recoil cylinder is full of oil at the correct pressure and a sufficient reserve is in the replenisher, the replenisher piston is 150-mm (5.9 inches) in from the rear face of the replenisher; this is its normal position. This position will vary according to the temperature of the oil; for a cold gun on a cold day the normal position will approach 200-mm (7.87 inches) from the rear face of the replenisher, while for a gun heated by firing the normal position may approach 100-mm (3.93 inches). The position of the replenisher piston governs the filling of the recoil cylinder. When it is known that rapid fire is to take place, the replenisher should be drained until the reading of the replenisher piston is 200-mm (7.87 inches), measured from the rear face of the replenisher cylinder. When the replenisher piston is at a point 100-mm (3.93 inches) from the rear face of the replenisher, oil should be removed from the recoil cylinder before firing is continued. In an emergency, when it is necessary to continue without an interruption, firing is permitted with reading down to 50-mm. (2) Counterrecoil system. When the counterrecoil cylinder contains the proper amount of oil at the correct pressure, the oil index on the rear end of the counter- recoil cylinder should project from 5-mm (346 inch) to 6-mm (446 inch) beyond the rear face of the closing plate. This index does not recede until the entire amount of reserve oil has been lost and the gun is unsafe to fire, consequently the index serves merely to indicate whether or not the counterrecoil cylinder contains any portion of the normal reserve. The gun must never be fired without any reserve oil in the counterrecoil cylinder. The necessity for changing the amount of the reserve oil is determined by observing the recoil and counterrecoil of the gun. g. To drain off oil and to pump oil into the recoil and counterrecoil systems. (1) General. (a) Although the battery gun mechanic frequently will be available to attend to all operations pertaining to the draining off and the pumping of oil into the recoil and counterrecoil systems, the members of the gun section should be trained in these duties, as guns frequently may be widely separated and a battery mechanic may not be readily available. The gun section should be able to keep its piece in action under all conditions of service. (b) The utmost care must be taken at all times to prevent the introduction of air, moisture, or any foreign matter into the recoil and counterrecoil cylinders. It is strictly forbidden to introduce into the recoil and counterrecoil cylinders any oil other than heavy recoil oil, prepared and issued by the Ordnance Department for this specific purpose. The provisions of TR 1395-A pertaining to the storage, care, and use of recoil oil will be strictly followed. (2) To drain oil from the recoil cylinder. When it is necessary to remove oil from the recoil cylinder, No. 5 removes the plug from the recoil-cylinder drain hole with a screw driver. He then screws in the filling-and-drain-valve release until oil flows freely therefrom. No. 4, holding the 25-cm rule against the replenisher piston, calls off each 5-mm change as the piston moves forward. When the replenisher piston approaches a position 150-mm from the rear face of the replenisher, No. 4 signals to No. 5, who promptly unscrews the filling-and-drain-valve release, thus shutting off the flow of oil. No. 5 then replaces the drain-hole plug, being careful to see that the gasket beneath the plug is clean and in good condition. (3) To pump oil into the recoil cylinder. Before inserting oil in the recoil cylinder, the operation of the replenisher piston should be tested by draining off a quantity of oil as indicated in b above, and noting if the replenisher piston moves. If no movement takes place, proceed as indicated in the trouble charts. If movement takes place, proceed with the filling of the recoil cylinder as follows: No. 5 unscrews the filling-and-drain- valve release sufficiently to stop the flow of oil, if same has not already been done, and removes the plug from the recoil-cylinder filling hole. Meanwhile No. 4, assisted by No. 6, places the oil pump in position on the left trail and fills the pump reservoir with filtered oil as prescribed in TR 1395-A. No. 5 screws the union of the pump tubing SERVICE OF THE PIECE - 757 loosely into the filling hole. No. 4 then operates the pump until oil is forced out through the connection and all air excluded. The union should be set up without the use of a wrench, except for the final tightening. Extreme care must be taken to prevent any injury to the threads of the filling hole, as any damage may put the entire cradle of the gun out of commission. When the connection has been purged thoroughly, No. 5 tightens the union just sufficiently to prevent further escape of oil. No. 5 then screws in the filling-and-drain-valve release, while No. 4 operates the pump until the oil flowing from the filling-and-drain-valve release is free from air bubbles. No. 5 then removes the filling-and-drain-valve release and replaces the drain-hole plug. No. 4 continues to operate the pump until the replenisher piston is 150-mm from the rear face of the re- plenisher. No. 5 then disconnects the tubing from the filling hole and replaces the filling-hole plug. Nos. 4 and 6 return unused oil to the proper container and remove the pump. The oil screw filler may be used in place of the oil pump in filling the recoil cylinder. However, its use is not recommended since there is great danger of causing damage to the recoil mechanism. It will be used only by the battery mechanic and then only when a pump is not available. (4) To drain oil from the counterrecoil cylinder. When the counterrecoil of the gun or the position of the oil index indicates that the oil reserve in the counterrecoil cylinder is not correct, the reserve oil is drained off as follows: No. 5 removes the plug from the counterrecoil-cylinder drain hole, located on the rear cylinder head just above the oil index, and screws in the filling-and-drain-valve release. The reserve oil will spurt out in a stream which suddenly will drop at a right angle to its previous line of flow. At this moment the flow of oil should be shut off by unscrewing the filling-and-drain-valve release. The amount of oil which should escape is approximately 1 quart. The oil index should recede to the bottom of its cavity. If the index has not moved, tap it lightly with a piece of wood, as it may be held by the friction of its packing. (5) To pump oil into the counterrecoil cylinder. The counterrecoil cylinder is filled as follows: No. 4, assisted by No. 6, places the oil pump in position on the right trail and fills the pump reservoir with filtered oil as prescribed in TR 1395-A. No. 5 removes the plug from the counterrecoil-cylinder filling hole located on the right side of the cradle near the rear end. No. 5 screws the union of the pump tubing loosely into the filling hole. No. 4 then operates the pump until oil is forced out through the connection and all air excluded. The union should be set up without the use of a wrench, except for the final tightening. Extreme care must be taken to prevent any injury to the threads of the filling hole, as any damage may put the entire cradle of the gun out of commis- sion. When the connection has been purged thoroughly, No. 5 tightens the union just sufficiently to prevent further escape of oil. No. 5 then screws in the filling-and-drain- valve release in the drain hole, while No. 4 operates the pump for a few strokes. As soon as the escaping oil is free from air bubbles, No. 5 removes the filling-and-drain- valve release and replaces the plug in the drain hole. No. 4 then operates the pump for exactly 100 full strokes. After 30 full strokes the oil index should move out to its maxi- mum projection of 5-mm beyond the face of the cylinder head. However, 70 additional strokes are needed to introduce the necessary amount of reserve oil. No. 5 then detaches the filling tube and replaces the filling-hole plug. Nos. 4 and 6 return unused oil to the proper container and remove the pump. The oil screw filler may be used in place of the oil pump in filling the counterrecoil cylinder. However, its use is not recommended since there is great danger of causing damage to the counterrecoil system. It will be used only by the battery mechanic and then only when a pump is not available. 106. Barrel Assembly, Breech Mechanism, and Firing Mechanism. a. Operations during firing. (1) Whenever the rate of fire permits, the bore should be swabbed with clean water and a sponge. (2) The breech mechanism should be kept clean and lubricated. (3) The firing mechanism parts require careful attention and should be disassembled frequently for the purpose of oiling and cleaning. The parts should be washed with dry-cleaning solvent or gasoline to remove any gummy oil, after which they should be wiped dry and lubricated with class A oil. (4) Fouling of the firing pin or the use of a heavier oil than light class A lubri- 758 SERVICE OF THE PIECE cating oil may result in misfire. This is especially true in cold weather as the oil may congeal and become gummy. (5) The primer, seat and the vent hole in the obturator spindle should be kept clean by frequent use of the vent-cleaning tool. The slightest accumulation of fouling in the primer seat will cause the primer to enter with difficulty and cause trouble in extraction. MALFUNCTIONING OF BREECH AND FIRING MECHANISM Malfunction CauSe COrrection. Gurn fails to fire, and no discharge Of primer is heard. (a) F i r in g mechanism not SCrewed home (b) Fouled firing pin. (c) Deformed polnt on firing pin. (d) Weak pull on the lanyard. (e) Defective primer. (a) Screw the firing mechanism home as far as it will go. (b) Disassemble firing mechanism and clean thoroughly. (c) Replace firing pin. (d) Pull lanyard with more Snap. (e) Replace primer after proper interval of time has elapsed. Gun fails to fire, and d is ch a r ge of primer is heard. (a) Damp or fouled vent in obtu- rator Spindle. (b) Damp or defective charge. *. -, *. - (c) Charge not in proper position in powder chamber. (a) Remove primer after proper interval of time has elapsed and clean vent. (b) Remove charge after proper interval of time and replace with a new dry charge. (c) Open breech after proper in- terval of time has elapsed and place charge in correct position. Difficulty in opening the breech. Difficulty in closing (a) Expansion or deformation Of gas check pad due to heat of firing. (b) Lack of lubrication between rack and breechblock carrier. (c) Lack of lubrication; dirt, powder residue, scoring, or burs in the threads of the breechblock or breech receSS. *— (a), (b), and (c) Same as (a), (a) Open breech by placing piece of wood or a copper drift against end of rack and striking with a hammer, at the same time operat- ing the lever. Remove filling-in disk from Obturator. Grea.Se Sur- face of gas check pad. (b) Remove rack, clean, and lu- bricate thoroughly. (c) Open breechblock as in (a) above. Disassemble breechblock and clean thoroughly. If Scoring is found, notify the Ordnance main- tenance Company. (a), (b), and (c) Same as (a), (b), the breech. (b), and (c) for “difficulty in open- and (c) for “Difficulty in opening ing the breech.” the breech.” (d) Premature rotation of breech- (d) Replace the rack lock spring block caused by weak or broken with a new one. rack lock Spring. (e) Projectile not properly seated, (e) Seat projectile properly by resulting in insufficient space for ramming, if possible, otherwise re- powder charge, thus preventing move projectile and replace by closing of breech. another. Percussion hammer Lack of lubrication or roughness Disassemble, clean, remove rough- not operating freely. On Shaft and shaft bearings. ness, and lubricate. b. Operations after firing. (1) As soon as possible after firing, the breechblock and firing mechanism should be disassembled and all parts cleaned and lightly oiled. (2) The bore, breech mechanism, and firing mechanism are washed with a solu- tion of 4 pound of soda ash or 1 pound of sal soda in 1 gallon of water. Cleaning the bore is accomplished by means of a swab of burlap stitched around the end of the ram- mer staff. No attempt should be made to remove copper fouling. When all powder fouling has been removed, the bore should be swabbed with clear water and then wiped dry. Finally, it should be lightly coated with lubricating oil, either light or heavy de- pending on the weather. The process may have to be repeated on successive days if there is evidence of sweating. If the piece is not to be kept in constant service, the bore should be slushed with rust-preventive compound instead of oil. 107. Miscellaneous Parts of Carriages. a. General. (1) Maintenance of the carriage and limber in service requires proper cleaning, careful observance of the lubrication pro- gram, and proper attention to the adjustments of the traveling lock, axle pivot pin, can- was covers, trail clamping bolts when traveling, as well as correction of loose or broken parts. (2) All bearing surfaces, screw threads, and exterior parts must be clean and as free from dirt as possible. Special attention should be given to exposed bearing surfaces. SERVICE OF THE PIECE 759 When disassembly and assembly operations are being carried on, extra precautions will be taken to prevent the entrance of foreign matter into the working parts. b. Care of wheels. (1) Remove any small stones or other foreign substance which may have become lodged in the rubber of the tires. (2) If a strip of rubber is cut or torn on the edges of the tires cut off the loose por- tion to prevent the strip from tearing further. (3) Caterpillar band segments should be kept clean, and the segment pins well lubricated. Examine the fastening pins frequently and renew those showing evidence of wear or breakage before the segment pin is bent by coming partially out of its seat. •c. Maintenance of the trail and spades. (1) Clean the notches for the locking bolts in the upper and lower trail ends. (2) Clean the teeth and upper portion of the translating racks. (3) Clean and oil the threads and points of the traveling bar clip screws. (4) Clean that portion of the spade clamping transoms that the spade bolt lock nuts bear upon. (5) Clean the spades, especially those surfaces which come in contact with the trails; oil the spade clamp bolt threads and the spade clamp bolt lock nuts. (6) Before fastening the trail to the limber, clean the top and the rear spring hangers of the limber, as well as the limber stops of the trails. d. Drain holes. (1) The top carriage should be provided with a drain hole in each pocket. See that these holes are not closed with dirt. (2) Keep the drain hole in the bottom carriage which leads into the axle housing clean of all obstructions. 108. Sighting Equipment. a. Battery mechanics are forbidden to disassemble any parts of the quadrant or panoramic sights, and will make only such adjustments as are hereinafter prescribed. Adjustments are only to be made with tools provided by the Ordnance Department for the purpose and in the presence of a commissioned officer. Any difficulties which cannot be corrected by the methods herein prescribed should be reported to the ordnance maintenance company. b. When out of adjustment the sights will cause inaccurate firing and should, there- fore, be frequently verified, and adjusted when necessary. A testing target is provided for verifying the sights. Verification of the sights is of such importance that battery commanders may find it advantageous to make permanent arrangements for such verification when occupying a position for an extended period. c. The procedure under the foregoing conditions is as follows: Place the carriage on a level foundation and with the aid of the gunner's quadrant see that the center line of the trunnions lies in a horizontal plane. Level the sight transversely, set the angle of site pointer at 300 mils, and the elevating scale at 0° elevation, and elevate or depress the gun until the center line of the bore is horizontal as determined by the gunner's quadrant. The bubble in the elevation level should be centered between the reference marks on the level vial. If the bubble is not centered, operate the angle of site worm until the vial is level. Loosen the setscrew which holds the rear micro- meter clamp in place and unscrew the clamp. Turn the rear micrometer drum without turning the worm until the index on the angle of site housing points to zero. Tighten the rear micrometer clamp and setscrew. d. Suspend the testing target in a plane perpendicular to the bore of the gun and at a distance of about 50 yards. Place the front and rear bore sights in the gun and move the testing target until the center line of the bore, as determined by the bore sights, pierces the target at the center of the lower circle of the target. The verticality of the target should be verified by a plumb line. With the panoramic sight mounted in the shank of the quadrant sight set the azimuth scale and elevation micrometer of the panoramic sight at zero. With the sights thus arranged, the line of sight should pass through the upper circle on the target. e. If the line of sight pierces the target above or below the upper circle, it indicates that the elevation knob of the panoramic sight is out of adjustment. Operate the elevation knob until the line of sight pierces the target on the horizontal center line. Loosen the elevating knob locking screw and turn the elevating knob without turning 760 SERVICE OF THE PIECE the elevating worm until the index on the rotating head points to zero. Tighten the locking screw. f. If the line of sight pierces the target to either right or left of the upper circle, it indicates that either the cross level of the quadrant or the azimuth micrometer index of the panoramic sight, or both, are out of adjustment. Traverse the panoramic sight until the line of sight pierces the target at the proper point and elevate the gun to maximum elevation, at the same time elevating the quadrant sight. If the point where the line of sight pierces the target appears to move either to the right or left, it indicates that the cross level of the quadrant sight is out of adjustment. Cross level the quadrant sight by turning the leveling worm handwheel until the gun can be elevated or depressed to the full extent of its travel without moving the point where the line of sight pierces the target to either the right or left. With the wrench provided for the purpose, loosen the cross level holder setscrew and carefully move the cross level holder until the bubble in the level vial is centered between the reference marks, and tighten the setscrew. & g. If the azimuth micrometer index does not read zero with the gun returned to zero elevation, it indicates that the azimuth micrometer index is also out of adjustment. Loosen the micrometer locking screw and with the teat wrench provided for the pur- pose turn the index until the arrow points to zero on the azimuth micrometer scale, at the same time holding the latter to prevent it from turning. Tighten the locking SCICW. h. After the sights are adjusted they should be submitted to the following test to assure their accuracy at extreme elevation and azimuth. * (1) With carriage level and the gun and sights at zero elevation and deflection, see that the lines of sight and axis of the bore prolonged strike the target at the proper points. (2) Elevate the gun to its maximum elevation without altering the elevation of the sight. As the elevation of the gun is altered, the line of sight should follow the vertical line through the upper circle on the target. (3) With conditions as in (1) above, traverse the gun to its extreme position in azimuth; as the deflection is altered the line of sight should follow the horizontal line through the upper circle. (4) By construction and assembly, the sights if properly adjusted should fill the above conditions with substantial accuracy. If in error a report of the facts of the case with cause, if known, should be made to the ordnance officer charged with the repair of the matériel, for his information and action. - i. Verification and adjustment of the sights in the field. In the field, or when a suit- able foundation for the carriage is not available, the sights may be verified and adjusted in the following manner, neglecting the angle of parallax: Jack up one wheel of the car- riage until the center line of the trunnions is horizontal, as determined with the aid of the gunner's quadrant. Elevate or depress the gun until the center line of the bore is horizontal, as determined with the aid of the gunner's quadrant, and set the elevation scale of the quadrant sight at zero. Cross level the quadrant sight, verify and adjust the elevation level, as directed above. With the aid of the bore sights train the gun on some distant aiming point (2000 or 3000 yard range). Proceed as above to adjust the panoramic and quadrant sights so that the line of sight and the center line of the bore will intersect at the aiming point. ANTITANK WEAPONS SECTION 1 THE CALIBER .50 MACHINE GUN CONTENTS Paragraphs Chapter I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2 Chapter II. Disassembling and Assembling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-11 Chapter III. Care and Cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-17 Chapter IV. Functioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-32 Chapter V. Immediate Action and Stoppages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-36 Chapter VI. Accessories and Spare Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-42 Chapter VII. Training for Placing the Gun in Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43-72 Chapter VIII. Marksmanship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73-84 Chapter IX. Technique of Fire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85-97 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1. History and General Data. a. General data. The caliber .50 machine gun was developed by the Ordnance Department of the Army for use as an antitank weapon. It is a larger, more powerful model of the Browning machine gun. This gun is sup- plied to the service in several types, which differ only in their cooling systems, in their trigger and buffer mechanisms, and in the weights of their barrels. The type furnished to the infantry is known as the Browning machine gun, caliber 50, M2, heavy barrel (flexible). b. General data. Weight: Gun (flex.) without barrel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pounds. , 54.38 Barrel (36-inch) approximately . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . do. . . . 25.25 Barrel (45-inch) approximately . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . do. . . 29.50 Tripod mount, M3, without elevating gear and pintle . . . . . . do. . . . 40.50 Receiver with elevating gear and pintle (as normally carried) do . 58.38 Ammunition chest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . do. . . . 4.73 Belt of ammunition, 100-rounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . do. . . . 30.80 Chest with 100-rounds ammunition (as normally carried) . . do. . . 35.53 Spare parts chest with 40 rounds ammunition . . . . . . . . . . . . do. . . 32.00 Telescopic sight with case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . do. . . . 3.00 Gun load in pack (including pack saddle) approximately do. . . . 272.00 Ammunition load in pack, 400 rounds (including pack saddle) approximately . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * - * * * * * - - - - e º 'º - - do. . . . 250.00 Rate of fire (cyclic) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . rounds per minute 400-500 Muzzle velocity: - Early manufacture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . feet per second 2400 Current manufacture . . . . . . . . do. . . . 2660 2. Description. a. Principle of operation. The caliber .50 machine gun, like the caliber 30 water-cooled machine gun, is recoil operated and belt fed. In recoil operation, the rearward force of the expanding powder gas (kick) furnishes the operating energy. The moving parts, while locked together at the moment of ignition of the powder charge, are free within the receiver and are driven to the rear by the force of recoil. This energy is controlled by the mechanism of the gun and utilized to perform mechanically the opera- tions of unlocking the breech, extracting and ejecting the empty case, and feeding and 761 \！\，， \，|1\d）\/> "№vº º TCN vſ-， ©aelaev O “TERAR VE Jl. TIO， 3 TCNVH №lèdè wº Tºlèdłºwº "EA-. №ſt „NO?， ¿a! 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The retracting slide handle, which corresponds to the bolt handle of the caliber 30 gun, re- mains stationary while the gun is firing; consequently, there are no moving parts outside of the receiver. A bolt latch, located underneath the top plate and controlled by a latch release, enables the gun to be fired as a single shot weapon when desired. The feed mechanism is so constructed that by repositioning some of the parts, the gun can be fed either from the right or left side. A metallic disintegrating link belt is used. b. Cooling. Unlike the caliber 30 gun, the caliber 50 gun has no special cooling system. Cooling is provided by the heavy, quickly detachable barrel which is exposed to the air. Long continuous bursts of automatic fire will cause the barrel to overheat, and it must then be changed for a cool barrel. Normally, the gun is fired in short bursts, but it may be fired by rapid single shots; either type of fire may be continued for an appreciable length of time. With a cool gun, a single burst of 100 to 150 rounds can be fired. Firing in short bursts, at the rate of about 40 rounds a minute, will permit inter- mittent firing of approximately 500 rounds without overheating. Caliber .50 machine guns used by other branches, as the antiaircraft models, where weight is not a governing factor, are water cooled. c. Sights. (1) The gun includes a conventional front and rear sight and provides a mount for a telescopic sight. The telescopic sight gives much greater accuracy in firing and should be used whenever possible. (2) The leaf of the rear sight is graduated in both yards and mils. The yard gradua- tion on the face of the sight leaf corresponds to ammunition with a muzzle velocity of 2400 feet per second. The mil graduation may be used with ammunition of any muzzle velocity. The rear sight is moved in elevation by turning a screw, and windage of 6 mils either side of center is provided. (3) Two models of telescopic sight are in use. They are the telescopic sight T-3, and the telescopic sight M1. The T-3 sight has a magnification of 3.25 power and a deflection movement of 100 mils either side of center. Its range dial is graduated in yards from 100 to 3000 yards and in mils from 0 to 64. The yard graduations conform to a muzzle velocity of 2400 feet seconds and to the ballistic data published in FT 0.50- F-2. The mil graduations may be used with ammunition of any muzzle velocity and appropriate firing tables. (4) The M1 sight is an improved model of the sight T-3 with better optical qualities. Except for a slight difference in size it is similar to the T-3 sight with the exception of its range dial graduations. The yard graduations conform to a muzzle velocity of 2660 feet seconds and to the ballistic data published in FT 0.50-AA-E-4. Like the previously described sights the mil graduations may be used with ammunition of any muzzle velocity. (5) Calibration. Knowing the muzzle velocity of the ammunition, the relation between the yard graduations and mil graduations may be obtained readily from the firing tables. The mil graduations are especially important in calibration with any ammunition and a given barrel, as once the correct mil reading for a given range is known it can be converted readily to yards. d. Mount. The gun is mounted on the tripod mount, caliber .50, M3, which consists of three units: the tripod, the pintle, and the elevating assembly. This is a variable height, folding tripod, with telescoping legs. The height may be varied by positioning the front leg, in addition to adjusting the length of all three legs by the telescoping ex- tensions. Height of the mount, adjustments, and leveling of the tripod head can be approximated by varying the length of the legs. Normal mounting of the tripod is with the front leg set at an angle of 60° and all extensions closed. In this position on level ground, the center of the gun trunnion is at a height of 10 inches and the mount is stable. If this height is increased, the recoil of the gun reduces stability and makes manadatory the extension of the rear legs if stability is to be retained. Rigidity in firing position is obtained by fixed stops and the use of the traversing bar f ANTITANK WEAPONS 765 which converts the rear legs into an A-truss. The traversing bar also forms the rear gun support and serves as a base for manipulating the gun in elevation and traverse. Provision is made for semipermanent attachment to the gun of the elevating mechanism assembly and the pintle assembly. This is for convenience in pack transportation and permits quick mounting and dismounting of the gun and tripod. e. Barrel. The heavy barrel weighing 30 pounds used in this gun is necessary to over- come effects of excessive heat of prolonged firing, which produces expansion and distor- tion in a light barrel. The original model of this gun, some of which are still in service, has a barrel 36 inches long. The longer barrel gives less flash and better ballistic qualities. f. Right-and- left-hand feed. In order to provide for mounting in aircraft and in cer- tain combat vehicles where space or position determines direction of feed, the receiver is made interchangeable for right- and left-hand feeds. Ground guns normally use left- hand feed, and ordinarily there is no occasion for changing direction of feed. The im- portance of this for ground guns is in the possibility of making an error in assembly with certain parts reversed. Position of all parts of the feed mechanism must be checked after an assembly has been made. g. Oil buffer. This gun is equipped with an oil buffer, the function of which is to absorb part of the energy of recoil by forcing oil through small holes. It is filled with a special oil designated as “machine gun recoil oil.” There are two types of oil buffers in service, the adjustable type and the fixed type. These two types differ in their assemblies in that the adjustable type includes an oil buffer piston valve assembly (valve and key). Rotation of the oil buffer tube with respect to the piston varies the size of the openings through which the oil passes, and thereby provides a means of adjusting the rate of fire. The fixed type is not affected by rotation of the buffer tube. The adjustable type is used with water-cooled guns. The heavy barrel gun, with its much heavier barrel, requires the variable piston valve assembly. The oil buffers issued with these guns are stamped HB on the base, indicating that they are for use in the heavy barrel gun. However, since the time of original development of the gun, development of ammunition has continued, and the highest velocity ammunition, when it is issued to using arms, probably will require an adjustable type buffer to absorb increased energy of recoil. Questions . What type caliber 50 machine gun is furnished to the infantry? . How does this type differ from some of the other types of caliber 50 machine guns? . What special cooling system, if any, does this type of machine gun possess? . What type of sights are provided for this weapon? . What type of mount is provided for this weapon? : CHAPTER II DISASSEMBLING AND ASSEMBLING . 3. General. In this text, discussion of the disassembling and assembling of the caliber 50 machine gun will, be limited to the removal of groups from the gun to the extent required for ordinary care and cleaning and for minor repairs, and the dissassembling or assembling and replacement of those groups. These operations can be accomplished with the aid of a cartridge or the drift provided with the gun. The cover need not be removed in order to remove the other groups. 4. Removal of Groups from the Gun. a. Barrel. The barrel is removed simply by un- screwing it from the gun. b. Backplate. (1) Release the cover latch and open the cover. (2) Release the backplate latch lock and backplate latch and lift out the backplate. c. Bolt. . (1) Press the end of the driving spring rod forward and away from the side plate to release the spring and rod. Draw the bolt to the rear until the bolt stud is in 766 ANTITANK WEAPONS line with the hole in the center of the slot in the side plate. Remove the bolt stud from the bolt. º (2) Remove the bolt, complete, from the rear end of the gun casing. The assembled driving spring need not be removed from the bolt. d. Oil buffer and barrel extension. (1) Compress the oil buffer body spring lock, using the point of a cartridge. Remove the oil buffer and barrel extension to the rear. (2) Press forward on the accelerator and detach the oil buffer assembly from the barrel eXtens 10ſ). & l 3 4 5 § 7 § 9 73 11 1.2 t 3 * 1s e 17 1s 19 2O 21 22 23 4, 25 26 º 8 * 3O * 32 33 34 35 -ll º f g 4 (C, S) ; / al E- © i : I © ; * \ t , - - & \ =A | ^ O --~ ës as ºl. & º 2\ e \e 2 sºjo ^, - N 3. \ -l º | :== - º ---, …” FR-S-H-E-R-E NNN \ \ \ | | | |er IT III Nc/º | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | *…*.*.*.*.*.*.*.*.*.*, *. e 37 se 39 ad 4,42 as as as as 474s 49 so sº sº sa sa ss so sº se so so e. e. es ea es ee & sees 79 71 72 Plate 2. Mechanism in Forward Position. 1. Plate, back 26. Rivet, extractor cann 52. Rivet, breech lock depressor 2. Pin, retaining, driving 27. Cam, extractor 53. Accelerator Spring rod 28. Pin, ejector 54. Pin, accelerator 3. Screw, adjusting 29. Ejector 55. Depressor, breech lock 4. Head, driving spring rod 30. Block, trunnion 56. Cam, lock, breech, assembly 5. Plate, top 31. Pawl, holding belt 57. Screw, breech lock cam 6. Stop, trigger bar, rear 32. Stop, cartridge front 58. Lock, breech 7. Bar, trigger 33. Hole for cover pin 59. Pin, breech lock 8. Spring, driving 34. Spring, belt holding pawl 60. Shank, barrel extension 9. , Bracket, top plate pin 61. Bolt, alternate feed 10. Pin, trigger bar 35. Rivet, trunnion block, L. 62. Mounting holes for synchro- 11. Rivet, bolt latch bracket, 2.520 nizer trigger motor or side long 36. Buffer, lower plate trigger 12. Bracket, bolt latch 37. Pin, stop, oil buffer index 63. Slide, sear 13. Rod, driving spring finger 64. Extension, barrel 14. Rivet, bolt latch bracket, 38. Pin, oil buffer index finger 65. Pin, stop, driving spring rod Short 39. Key, oil buffer index collar 15. Lever, cocking 40. Finger, oil buffer index 66. Spring, locking barrel 16. Pin, cocking lever 41. Spring, back plate latch 67. Barrel 17. Plate, side, L. H. 42. Latch, back plate 68. Rivet, belt holding pawl 18. Stop bolt 43. Pin, back plate latch bracket, long 19. SWitch 44. Guide, oil buffer 69. Rivet, trunnion block, L 20. Spring, switch 45. Plate, bottom 0.605 21. Pin switch pivot dowel 46. Slot for bolt Stud 70. Bracket, belt holding pawl, 22. Pivot, switch 47. Body, oil buffer R. H. 23. Switch, bolt 48. Lock, spring oil buffer body 71. Lock, trunnion block 24. Extractor 49. Spring, oil buffer 72. Pin, belt holding pawl 25. Collar, driving spring rod 50 sear 73. Stud, top plate bracket 51. Spring, sear 5. Replacing Groups in the Gun. a. Oil buffer and barrel extension. (1) Hold the barrel extension in the left hand and the oil buffer assembly in the right hand. With the index finger holding the accelerator up under the barrel extension shank, start the breech lock depressors into the guideways in the barrel extension. Press forward, allowing the shank of the barrel extension to engage in the cross groove of the piston rod. Push forward as far as the oil buffer will go, having the accelerator back as far as pos- sible. This will lock these components together so that the barrel extension and the oil buffer assembly may be placed in the casing of the gun as a unit. (2) Push this unit forward in the casing until the oil buffer spring lock seats in the recess in the side plate. b. Bolt. (1) If the driving spring rod assembly has been removed, replace it in the bolt. (2) Press the cocking lever forward in the bolt and insert the bolt into the casing. Push the bolt forward until the hole for the bolt stud is in line with the enlarged opening in the center of the slot in the side plate. (3) Insert the bolt stud in the bolt, being sure that the collar on the bolt stud is inside the side plate. Push the bolt completely forward, guiding the extractor from the front with the fingers to prevent it from catching. ANTITANK WEAPONS 767 (4) Engage the driving spring rod retaining pin in its seat in the right side plate. c. Backplate. (1) Replace the backplate, being sure that the latch lock is in the un- locked position until the backplate is latched. (2) Close and latch the cover. d. Barrel. With the bolt fully forward and the driving spring rod in place, hold the barrel by the handle, using both hands, and insert it carefully into the front end of the barrel support. Push back carefully, guiding the rear end over the breech bearing, until it comes in contact with the threads of the barrel extension. Screw up until a definite resistance is felt, which is caused by the rear end of the barrel coming into contact with the face of the bolt. Back off two notches to make the head space adjust- Iment. Note. If the barrel is not carefully guided into position the breech bearing will be battered by the rear end of the barrel, causing high friction. Although the barrel requires about four and one-half turns to screw it in, emphasis should be placed upon actually engaging the face of the bolt, and not upon counting the number of turns. The barrel handle should be adjusted so that it comes on the under side of the barrel after the adjustment is made. This clears the line of sight, and also acts as a check upon any large error in head space. e. Head space adjustment. As indicated in d above, head space adjustment of the caliber .50 HB M2 gun, when used on ground mounts, is made in connection with the proper assembly of the barrel. - w (1) The head space of a military weapon with a cartridge fully seated in chamber is the distance between the base of the cartridge and face of the bolt. (2) In Browning machine guns, head space is adjusted by obtaining the proper distance between forward part of the bolt and rear end of barrel. Head space should be checked before firing. However, in the case of the caliber .50 HB M2 gun when used on ground mounts, this may not always be practicable. In hasty action, where the gun crew must obtain greatest possible speed in going into action, this check is elimi- nated. It is therefore essential that head space adjustment be taught in connection with the proper method of assembly of the barrel as indicated in d above. f. Effect of adjustment. Correct head space adjustment is essential to proper func- tioning and proper shot patterns. (1) Insufficient head space. When head space adjustment is too tight, poor func- tioning will result. If the gun operates at all, it will be sluggish because of the binding of moving parts. When operated by hand this friction can be detected. In extreme cases the barrel protrudes so far into the barrel extension that it blocks the forward movement of the bolt before the recess in the bottom of the bolt reaches the position of the breech lock, thus preventing the rise of the breech lock into its locking position. In such cases the recoiling parts cannot reach their forward position (action will not close), and the gun will not function at all. (2) Excessive head space. If the head space adjustment is too loose, a separation of the cartridge case may occur, and enlarged shot groups may result. This condition can be determined by functioning the action by hand. Put a slight pressure on the retracting slide. If the bolt moves under this pressure before the barrel extension be- gins to move, the head space is too loose. If the bolt does not move, increase the pressure. If the head space is not too loose, the bolt and barrel extension should start their rearward movement at the same time. (3) Adjustment after firing starts. It occasionally happens, especially with an air-cooled gun, that expansion of parts due to overheating will produce the same friction effect as tight head space. In such cases, the action of the gun may be im- proved by increasing the head space one additional notch. Under no circumstances should the head space be loosened beyond this point, which would result in separated cases or damage to the gun. In any case, before attempting to use more than the normal adjustment of two notches, an examination of the gun should be made for friction at other points. 6. Disassembling the Bolt. a. Remove the extractor by tipping it up and removing it to the left. b. Remove the bolt switch and stud. 768 ANTITANK WEAPONS c. Remove the cocking lever pin to left, the top of the cocking lever being to the rear. d. Lift out the cocking lever. e. Release the firing pin spring by pressing down on the top of the sear. With the thin end of the cocking lever, swing the sear stop out of its groove in the bolt into the center of the bolt; then turn the bolt over and push the sear stop pin out of engagement with the firing pin spring. Again turn the bolt and remove the sear stop from the slot Remove the sear slide, sear, and sear spring. . f. Elevate the front end of the bolt slightly and the firing pin and firing pin extension will drop out. Remove the firing pin from the firing pin extension. 7. Assembling the Bolt. a. Assemble the firing pin and firing pin extension. b. Place the firing pin assembly in the bolt, with the firing pin shoulder on the bottom side. c. Replace the sear spring, sear, and sear slide. d. Replace the sear stop, depressing the sear sufficiently to permit engaging the sear stop in its recess in the bolt. e. Replace the cocking lever, taking care that the rounded nose on the lower end is to the rear so that it will properly engage the rear of recess in the firing pin. f. Push the upper end of the cocking lever to the rear before inserting the pin, as the holes are thus placed in alignment. Insert the cocking lever pin from left side of the bolt. g. Cock by pressing forward on the cocking lever. Hold the cocking lever to the rear and press down on the sear to release the firing pin and test the correctness of the assembly. h. Replace the bolt switch and stud, noting that it is set for the proper direction of feed. i. With the extractor up, insert the pivot in its hole in the left side of the bolt. 8. Disassembling the Oil Buffer Body. a. Hold the oil buffer body with the bottom surface up and the depressors to the front. Rotate the accelerator to an approximately horizontal position. With the nose of the cartridge, press on the stud of the oil buffer tube lock spring until it clears its recess in the oil buffer body, and at the same time lift the accelerator to an approximately vertical position. This forces the oil buffer tube lock spring to the rear, until it disengages the spring from the oil buffer body. b. Pry the oil buffer body spring lock to the rear, separating it from its recess in the oil buffer body. c. Push out the accelerator pin and remove the accelerator. 9. Assembling the Oil Buffer Body. a. Holding the oil buffer body bottom upward with the depressors to the front, place the oil buffer tube lock spring in position with the retaining lugs just above the recess in the oil buffer body. Push the spring down and forward with the thumbs, at the same time lifting the rear end of the spring to ease the stud of the spring into position. b. Place the oil buffer body spring lock in its recess in the oil buffer body. c. Replace the accelerator with the rounded surface to the front and insert the accelerator pin. 10. Disassembling the Barrel Extension. a. Pry, the barrel locking spring out to the front. b. Push out the breech lock pin and remove the breech lock. 11. Assembling the Barrel Extension. a. Insert the barrel locking spring in its seating in the side of the barrel extension, hook inward, and force it to the rear as far as it will go. b. Place the breech lock in its slot, taking care that the double beveled surface is up and to the front, and insert the breech lock pin. Questions 1. How is the barrel removed from the gun? 2. How is the backplate removed? 3. How is the bolt removed? 4. What other groups may be removed from the gun? 5. In placing the breech lock in its slot what care must be taken with reference to the double beveled surface? CHAPTER III CARE AND CLEANING 12. General. It is essential that the gun be maintained in the best mechanical condition at all times. It must always be kept clean and covered with a light coat of oil. Care and cleaning will not be confined to the gun alone but will include the mount, spare parts, and all accessories. Belts and ammunition must be kept clean and dry. Guns mounted in vehicles are normally locked in the traveling position unless their early use is anticipated. Muzzle covers are provided to prevent dirt from entering the gun through the bore. 13. Special Precautions. a. During the assembly of the gun the bolt must be fully forward before the barrel is screwed into the barrel extension. Headspace adjustment should be made immediately after the barrel has been screwed into the extension. b. The cover should not be closed unless the bolt is fully forward. c. A live cartridge should not be permitted to remain in the chamber of a hot barrel. Either the bolt is retracted or the live cartridge is removed from the T-cut in the face of the bolt, if a cessation of fire occurs, after the gun is hot. d. See that the oil buffer tube is filled with oil before the gun is fired. e. In case ammunition of greater energy, such as high velocity, is used, the oil buffer njust include the piston valve assembly. 14. Care and Cleaning of the Gun, Mount, and Spare Parts. a. The bore. When firing is completed the bore should be cleaned without delay. (1) Disassemble the gun. (2) Place the barrel muzzle down, in a vessel containing hot water and issue soap, a sal soda solution, or, lacking these, hot water alone. º (3) Use the cleaning rod with a flannel patch to pump water back and forth through the bore for about one minute. (A soft wire brush may be used to remove particles which are stuck to the bore.) & (4) Thoroughly dry and clean the bore and then apply a light coat of lubricating oil. (5) Inspect daily and repeat the above treatment until the bore shows no signs of COTIOSIOIl. b. The moving parts. The moving parts should be kept clean and lubricated before, during, and after firing. In lubricating the parts during firing, care should be exercised to apply oil frequently but sparingly to those parts where actual friction exists. These in- clude the cam groove and the cocking lever. Excess oil generates smoke which interferes with observation. c. The oil buffer. Although the oil buffer valve assembly is not used in the heavy barrel gun except when high velocity ammunition is used, the oil buffer tube must be kept filled with oil at all times. (1) To fill the oil buffer tube: (a) Remove the oil buffer tube filling screw(s). (Newer type buffers have two filling screws.) (b) Using the oil buffer filling oiler, filled with special light buffer oil, start the flow of oil by pressing on the base of the oiler. (c) While the oil continues to pour from the oiler, insert nozzle into filling hole and with a continued pressure on the base of the oiler allow oil to flow into the buffer tube. Do not release pressure on oiler until nozzle has been removed from filling hole, thus avoiding air bubbles in the buffer tube. (d) Repeat the operation until the buffer is overflowing. (e) Replace the filling screw. * d. The mount. The mount should be kept clean, properly adjusted, and lubricated. It is recommended that the tripod legs, the seat for the sliding sleeve, the traversing bar, the traversing slide, the pintle, the pintle bushing, and the leg extensions be cleaned and lubricated prior to mounting, to assure proper functioning of the tripod. Nuts and bolts should be tightened periodically. Normally, mounts are referred to the Ordnance Depart- ment for adjustment or repair. e. Spare parts. The spare parts chest is intended to provide the gun crew with im- FA1 (1) 769 770 ANTITANK WEAPONS mediate replacement of serviceable parts for those which become defective. It should therefore be kept complete at all times with its contents clean, serviceable, and lightly oiled. Replacement units, such as the spare bolt, should be ready for immediate use. Smaller parts should be kept in the fabric envelopes or containers to prevent loss. As a general rule only one barrel should be in active use in the gun as long as it remains serviceable, the spare barrels being treated with rust-preventive compound and kept as a reserve supply. 15. Care During a Gas Attack. a. Cover the ammunition if practicable. b. Oil the gun and mount to prevent corrosion (effective for about 12 hours). Cost moline resists gas corrosion more than lighter oil. c. Cover the gun with a water-proof cover if practicable. d. As soon as possible after a gas attack wash all of the parts of the gun in a neutralizing solution issued for the purpose, or in its absence in boiling water containing soda, dry them, and then cover them with a light coat of oil. e. Remove all traces of gas from the ammunition with the neutralizing solution issued for the purpose; then dry thoroughly. 16. Care During Cold Weather. Thin the lubricant on the working parts with gasoline or kerosene. Test the gun at intervals to see that it is functioning properly. 17. Points to be Observed Before, During, and After Firing. The following list of points to be observed before, during, and after firing will be found useful as a guide for the proper care of the gun. It will also serve as a guide for inspection. a. Points to be observed before firing. (1) See that the bore is clear and clean. (2) See that the working parts of the gun are clean, oiled, and function smoothly. (3) See that the oil buffer tube is filled with oil and, where applicable, properly adjusted. (4) See that the adjusting screw is tight against the buffer disks in the backplate. (5) See that the headspace adjustment is correct. (6) See that the sight is clamped securely in place and that the sights are clear and clean. (7) See that the gun mount is clean and properly adjusted. (8) Verify the presence and completeness of the spare parts kit. (9) See that the ammunition belts are in good condition and properly loaded. (10) Secure a sufficient supply of ammunition. (11) Load the gun partially or completely as directed. b. Points to be observed during firing. Observe the functioning of the gun to anticipate failures and lubricate the working parts when necessary. Excessive muzzle blast indicates overheating. Change the barrel as soon as possible. c. Points to be observed after firing. (1) Clear gun. If so directed, remove the belt. (2) Disassemble the gun, clean and oil the parts carefully to prevent rust, without dismounting it unless so directed. When practicable, inspect the bore each day, for several days, and clean until all signs of fouling have been eliminated. (3) On assembling, check the operation, insuring that functioning and adjustments are COII eCt. * (4) Release the firing pin spring by pressing the trigger. (5) Dismount the telescopic sight, clean thoroughly, and replace in case, if so directed. (6) At the first opportunity, dismount the gun, clean, oil, and inspect all parts. Make needed repairs and replacements. - (7) The cause of stoppages must be determined and corrected immediately. When major repairs are required or cause of stoppages cannot be determined, the gunner will report the performance of the gun to the armorer. - (8) Replenish ammunition and spare parts. Questions 1. When should headspace adjustment be made? 2. What is done about a live cartridge in a hot barrel, after cessation of fire? 3. How should the moving parts be lubricated during firing? 4. When the moving parts of the gun are sluggish during cold weather, what should be done about lubricants? 5. What points are to be observed before firing? CHAPTER IV FUNCTIONING 18. General. a. The soldier should have a practical working knowledge of the me- chanical operation of the gun so that he will be able to keep it in action during combat. b. Although many parts of the machine gun operate simultaneously, the subject of functioning is divided into phases to facilitate instruction. The explanation of mechanical functioning begins with the gun assumed to be loaded and ready to fire. c. To half load. Lock the bolt latch release down, push the double loop end of the belt into the feedway until the first round is held by the belt holding pawl, and pull the bolt completely to the rear and release it. d. To load. Load is executed the same as half load except that the bolt is pulled to the rear and released twice. - e. To unload. (1) Lift the cover, remove the belt, retract the bolt and look or feel in the feedway, T-slot, and chamber to make certain that the gun is unloaded. (2) Release the bolt and lower the cover. - (3) Press the trigger or sear mechanism to relieve the tension on the firing pin spring. f. To clear gun. (1) Execute that part of unload described in e (1) above. (2) Place a wooden clearing block between the face of the bolt and the rear end of the barrel and let the bolt go forward. (3) Report, CLEAR. g. To fire. (1) Semiautomatic action. Unlock the bolt latch; release and press the trigger and bolt latch release alternately. (2) Automatic action. Lock the bolt latch release down and press and hold the trigger down. (To fire single-shot, automatic action, strike the trigger short, quick blows with the thumb.) 19. Trigger Action on the First Shot. When the rear end of the trigger, which is pivoted in the center, is pressed down, its forward end pushes up the rear end of the trigger bar; the trigger bar, being pivoted in the center, acts as a lever and causes the front end to press down upon the top of the sear, forcing the sear down and releasing the sear notch from the shoulder of the firing pin. The firing pin spring forces the firing pin forward to fire the cartridge. 20. Backward Movement of Recoiling Parts. The explosion of the cartridge forces the recoiling parts (bolt, barrel extension, and barrel) backward, locked together about one and one-eighth inches. During this movement the breech lock pin strikes the cam surfaces of the breech lock depressors, forcing the breech lock down. This unlocks the bolt from the barrel extension and permits the bolt to continue to the rear. As the barrel extension moves to the rear it strikes the accelerator and turns it backward. 21. Backward Action of the Accelerator. As the accelerator turns backward it strikes the bottom projection on the bolt and accelerates it to the rear. The shoulders on the barrel extension shank engage behind the claws of the accelerator, locking the barrel extension and barrel in a rearmost position to the oil buffer body. 22. Backward Movement of the Bolt. As the bolt moves backward the driving spring is compressed. The bolt brings with it a cartridge from the belt gripped by the extractor and an empty case from the chamber gripped in the T-slot. The cam lug on the extractor rides along on top of the switch until near the end of the backward movement of the bolt. The cover extractor cam forces the extractor downward. When the cam lug clears the rear end of the switch, the switch springs upward so that the lug is below the switch. 23. Action of the Oil Buffer. a. As the barrel and barrel extension move backward together, and since the oil buffer piston rod is linked directly with the barrel extension by means of the hook on the shank projecting from the rear of the barrel extension and the hook on the forward end of the oil buffer piston rod, the oil buffer spring is compressed; the oil buffer piston rod head is driven rearward in the oil buffer tube, forcing the oil through the restricted opening in the piston rod head. This supplements the action of the oil buffer spring in bringing the heavy recoiling parts to rest without damaging shock or strain on the gun. 771 772 * ANTITANK WEAPONS b. On the counterrecoil or forward movement of the barrel and barrel extension, the oil in front of the piston rod head passes from the forward to the rear side of the piston rod head, permitting the return of the parts to the firing position. c. Note that this description applies to the adjustable type buffer. Functioning of the nonadjustable type (marked HB on the base) is the same except for action of the piston valve which is omitted from the assembly. The piston valve, due to its small holes, gives greater absorption of energy on the recoil stroke than does the piston rod head alone. It most probably will be required when high velocity ammunition is provided. 24. First Action of Feeding. As the bolt moves backward, the stud on the belt feed lever, riding in its cam groove in the top of the bolt, moves the belt feed pawl laterally into position behind the next cartridge. The ammunition belt is prevented from falling out of the gun by the belt holding pawl. 25. Cocking Action. As the bolt moves backward, the upper end of the cocking lever, in the cocking lever bracket, is forced forward. This forces the lower end to the rear. When the lower end of the cocking lever moves to the rear it brings with it the firing pin, withdrawing the firing pin from the face of the bolt and compressing the firing pin spring against the sear stop pin. The shoulder of the firing pin engages in the notch in the sear under pressure of the sear spring. 26. Action of the Driving Spring. When the rear end bf the bolt strikes the buffer plate, its remaining force is absorbed in the fiber buffer disks. The driving spring which has been compressed by the backward action of the bolt then forces the bolt forward. 27. Action of the Bolt Latch. If the bolt latch is released, as the bolt reaches its rear- ward position it is engaged by the bolt latch, which is pivoted from the top plate, and forced downward by the bolt latch spring. The bolt latch is operated by the bolt latch release which is mounted on the back plate. The bolt latch release may be locked in its forward position by the bolt latch release lock. This causes the bolt latch to be inoperative. 28. Forward Movement of the Bolt. When the bolt starts forward the cam lug on the extractor riding under the switch rotates the extractor downward. This causes the extractor to force the cartridge down the T-slot in line with the chamber. The ejector knocks the empty case from the T-slot if it has not already fallen out and holds the cartridge in line with the chamber. The upper end of the cocking lever is forced backward, and the lower end moves forward away from the rear of the firing pin. 29. Release of Recoiling Parts. The lug on the lower rear end of the bolt strikes the accelerator and rotates it forward. This unlocks the barrel extension from the oil buffer body. The barrel extension remains linked with the oil buffer piston rod. When the accelerator has been tripped the barrel extension and the barrel move forward, assisted by the oil buffer spring. Part of the force of the bolt acts through the accelerator to push the barrel extension forward. 30. Loading and Locking Action. The extractor rises as its cam lug moves along the extractor cam and the ejector is cammed outward, leaving the cartridge in the chamber engaged by the T-slot. The extractor grips the first round in the belt and is held down . firmly, ready to extract it, by the cover extractor spring. The breech lock is forced upward by the breech lock cam and locks the breech just before the recoiling parts reach the firing position. (The breech lock engages in a recess cut in the bottom of the bolt and thus locks it firmly to the barrel extension and against the rear end of the barrel.) 31. Second Action of Feeding. As the bolt goes forward, the stud on the end of the belt feed lever, riding it in its cam groove in the top of the bolt, moves the belt feed slide and belt feed pawl laterally. The belt feed pawl carries the first cartridge against the cartridge stops, ready to be gripped by the extractor. The next cartridge is carried over the belt holding pawl, which rises behind it and holds it in position to be engaged by the belt feed pawl on its return movement. - 32. Trigger Action in Automatic Fire. If the hand trigger is held down or the side plate trigger is held to the rear, the sear is disengaged iust before the bolt has reached its forward position, thereby releasing the firing pin. (The release of the firing pin actually takes place when the recoiling parts are still about one-eighth inch from the forward position but after the breech is locked.) The gun thus fires automatically, repeating the ANTITANK WEAPONS 773 operations of functioning already described. In order for the flexible gun to fire auto- matically, both the bolt release and the trigger must be held down. Questions 1. The explanation of mechanical functioning begins when the gun is assumed to be in what position? 2. How is Half Load executed? 3. How is Load executed? 4. How is Clear gun executed? 5. In order for the gun to fire automatically what two parts must be held down? CHAPTER V IMMEDIATE ACTION AND STOPPAGES 33. General. A stoppage is any unintentional cessation of fire. Immediate action is the procedure used for the prompt reduction of usual stoppages. Stoppages will be reduced to the minimum if the gunner has a practical working knowl- edge of his weapon and applies the points which should be observed before firing. Pre- vention is the best remedy for all stoppages. 34. Causes of Stoppages. a. A stoppage will occur if the gun fails to feed, fails to load, or fails to fire. b. If the gun fails to feed, the cause for the stoppage will be found in the ammunition belt or in the feed mechanism. - - c. If the gun feeds but fails to load the cause will be found in the receiver. A broken part or an obstruction on the T-slot or in the chamber are the usual causes. d. If the gun feeds and loads but fails to fire, the cause will be found in the firing mechanism unless the cartridge is defective. 35. Immediate Action. a. The procedure prescribed in immediate action for the reduc- tion of stoppages is based on the frequency with which the various types of stoppages occur. Execution of this procedure by the gunner will enable him to remedy the majority of stoppages immediately without attempting to analyze the cause. b. Immediate action is performed by the gunner. All personnel required to fire the machine gun will be proficient in immediate action. • c. The procedure for immediate action is shown in the diagram below. Gun fails to fire See ºf cover is latched, straighten ammunition belt, place hand to feel rounds entering feed- way, and pull the bolt to the rear twice, releasing it each time. | If belt feeds If the belt does * feed | Attempt to fire Raise the cover, remove the first If gun still fails to fire round from the belt, and look or feel Change bolt * for a cartridge in the gun. If cartridge is | In º gun Is not in the gun Remove it Reload, relay, and | Reload, relay, and fire fire 774 ANTITANK WEAPONS d. To remove a cartridge from the T-slot hold back the bolt and raise the extractor. The cartridge will usually fall out unless it has a thick rim or the T-slot is defective. If the cartridge will not fall out when the extractor is raised, hold the bolt to the rear with the extractor raised, place a screwdriver or similar tool through the top of the receiver into the top of the cannelure of the cartridge, and drive the cartridge downward out of the T-slot by striking the upper end of the screwdriver with the palm of the hand. e. To remove a case stuck in the chamber, hold back the bolt and remove the next car- tridge from the T-slot. Insert the cleaning rod from the muzzle and knock the empty case from the chamber. If several cases stick in the chamber in close succession put some oil on the chamber cleaning brush, thoroughly scrub the chamber with the brush, then wipe out the chamber with a dry rag. f. To remove a ruptured case from the chamber use the ruptured cartridge extractor (if available). If the ruptured case cannot be removed change barrels. g. If the application of the above procedure does not remedy the stoppage, the gunner must examine the feed mechanism and other parts of the gun to correct the malfunction. This requires a more detailed procedure than that contemplated by immediate action. 36. Precautions. a. Never attempt to force the bolt forward to remedy a stoppage. b. In case of a misfire wait ten seconds before opening the breech (applicable in peace time only). c. After any stoppage which appears to be caused by insufficient recoil, make sure that the bore is clear before continuing firing. It is possible that such a stoppage, as, for instance, one caused by incomplete ignition of the powder charge, may result in the bullet lodging in the bore; in case this happens and another round is fired before the bore is cleared the gun will certainly be seriously damaged. * Questions 1. What is a stoppage? 2. What is immediate action? 3. What are the causes of stoppages? 4. Demonstrate immediate action. 5. When a misfire occurs (in time of peace), how many seconds must elapse before the breech is opened? CHAPTER VI ACCESSORIES AND SPARE PARTS 37. Accessories and Spare Parts. Accessories include tools for assembling, disassembling, making adjustments, and cleaning the gun, as well as chests and auxiliary equipment. There are a number of accessories provided with the gun, the name or characteristics of which indicate their use and application; therefore, no detailed description or method of use is outlined herein. A complete list of accessories and spare parts will be found in Supplement No. 3, SNL A-1 and SNL A-39. Special accessories include the following: 38. Combination Wrench M2. This is a special tool used for disassembling, assembling, and making adjustments of the guns. Each opening and projection is marked to show its purpose. 39. Link Loading Machine. The link loading machine is used for rapid loading of ammunition into metallic links. It may be screwed to a bench, ammunition box, or other suitable base when in use, screw holes being provided for this purpose. Links, properly assembled, are placed on the loading bed adjacent to the U-shaped stops, and cartridges are placed in grooves provided. Loading is performed by the operation of the loading handle which when pushed forward to the stop will load the ammunition to the correct depth in the links. Care should be taken to handle properly the portion of the loaded belt that is adjacent to the new section being loaded. 40. Brush, Cleaning, Cal. .50, M4. The brush consists of the core, bristles, and tip. The brass wire core is twisted in a spiral and holds the bronze bristles in place. The ANTITANK WEAPONS 775 end of the core is secured in the brass tip which is threaded for attaching the brush to the cleaning rod. 41. Case, Cleaning Rod, M1. The case is a fabric container with five pockets, four of which hold the sections of the jointed cleaning rod, M1, while the fifth holds the cleaning brush, cal. .50, M4. The contents are secured in their pockets by a web billet and chape with buckle. 42. Rod, Cleaning. There are two types of cleaning rod in use. The M1 rod is a steel cleaning rod of five sections, the first two of which are permanently fastened together with a swivel joint. The rear section is provided with a tubular steel handle which swivels on the rod. The first section has a slot formed for holding a cleaning patch and a threaded hole for attaching a cleaning brush. The cleaning rod, M2, which is a later model, consists of two sections permanently fastened with a swivel joint. The rear section is provided with a tubular steel handle which swivels on the rod; the front section has a threaded hole for attaching the cleaning brush and a slot for holding a cleaning patch. Questions 1. What are the accessories for the caliber .50 machine gun used for? 2. What is the purpose of the combination wrench, M2? 3. What is the purpose of the link loading machine? CHAPTER VII TRAINING FOR PLACING THE GUN IN ACTION 43. General. a. This training is called gun drill. The object of gun drill is to give the squad complete confidence in its ability as a team to put its machine gun into action with precision and speed. b. Teamwork is assured by rotation in duties during drill so that each member by practice becomes acquainted expertly with the duties of every other member, particularly with the more detailed actions of Nos. 1, 2, and 3 who constitute the gun crew. c. Precision is attained by strict adherence to prescribed procedure. Exactness is the first objective. When it has been developed speed is emphasized. d. No. 1 repeats all commands of the corporal and No. 2 transmits all signals to No. 1. e. At the completion of any ordered movements, the member of the team responsible for its correct execution calls “Up,” and No. 2 signals Ready. f. Unless otherwise stated, individuals move from one position to another at a run. g. In the field the drill procedure of movements such as Action and Out of action is followed as closely as the situation permits. 44. To Secure Equipment To Put Gun Into Action. In the drill, the command is: SECURE EQUIPMENT FOR GUN DRILL. In the field, the command is: OFF CARTS (TRUCKS, PACKS) or ACTION. At the appropriate command, the men fall out and secure equipment as follows: Personnel Field Drill No. 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tripod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tripod. Telescopic sight in case . . . . . . . Telescopic sight in case. No. 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Receiver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Receiver. No. 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Barrel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Barrel. I chest of ammunition . . . . . . . ] I chest of ammunition. No. 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I chest of spare parts and ac- | These numbers are released for cessories. other training until called for. I chest of ammunition . . . . . . . All higher numbers . . . . . . . . . Each, 2 chests of ammunition. NoTE.-In pack transport units No. 3 secures the spare parts and accessories chest which contains , 40 rounds of ammunition loaded into metallic link belt, instead of the ammunition chest. When these units are in the field, No. 4 usually remains with the led horses; when present he carries 2 chests of ammunition. 776 ANTITANK WEAPONS 45. To Form Crew (Squad) With Equipment. a. For drill the crew forms in column at five paces distance with No. 1 five paces in front of and facing the corporal, and takes the prone position. Each man grounds his load as follows: (1) No. 1, with tripod on his left, trails to the rear. (2) No. 2, with receiver to his front, back plate to the right. (3) No. 3, with barrel to his left, muzzle to the rear, and chest to his front, latch to the right. • - (4) Other numbers, if present, with chests in front one foot apart, latches to the right. - b. In the field the squad after securing its equipment reforms as directed. Loads are grounded as explained above, and taken at the preparatory command for a movement. 46. To Change Numbers and Duties During Drill. a. The command is: FALL OUT ONE. At the command: (1) No. 2 moves to the position of No. 1, and calls, “One.” (2) No. 3 moves to the position of No. 2, and calls, “Two.” (3) No. 1 moves to the position of No. 3, and calls, “Three.” b. As soon as each member has become thoroughly familiar with the duties involved, the command is given during the progress of a movement to cause each man to cease execution of his duty and to take up the duty of his new number. c. The command may be given to the squad while in any formation, and is executed in a manner similar to that prescribed for the crew. 47. To Examine Gun Equipment. a. The equipment being grounded, the corporal commands: EXAMINE EQUIPMENT BEFORE FIRING. At this command, each man, keeping well down, examines the equipment constituting his load as indicated below, and reports to the corporal, naming the deficiencies, if any, which he cannot cor- rect. The same procedure is followed in both drill and in the field, except that in drill dummy ammunition is used. (1) No. 1 examines tripod and telescopic sight and sees that— (a) Trail and front leg extensions, extension latches, and extension clamps function properly and are in the closed position. (b) Front leg and trail are closely folded and the front leg clamp is loose. (c) Traversing bar latch and the pintle latch function properly and the pintle latch is open. (d) Pintle socket is free from dirt. (e) Telescopic sight is set at 700 yards elevation and zero deflection. (2) No. 2 examines receiver and rear sight and sees that— (a) Barrel front support bushing is free from dirt. (b) Feed mechanism and bolt switch are set to feed from the left and belt feed pawl arm is assembled properly. (c) Striker projects through strikerhole in face of bolt. (d) Bolt is closed. , (e) Cover is closed and latched. (f) Rear sight is set at 700 yards and windage at zero. (g) Elevating screws are equally exposed about 1 inch and elevating mechanism is securely attached. (h) Back plate is latched and locked in place. (i) Bolt release is fully latched down. (j) Trigger is pressed. { (3) No. 3 (and each ammunition carrier) examines barrel and ammunition chest and sees that— (a) Bore is clear. (b) Barrel carrier handle is securely attached to barrel. (c) Breech and muzzle covers are on. (d) Front and rear bearing are free from dirt. (e) Cartridges in chest are placed and alined correctly. (f) Metallic links are clean, ANTITANK WEAPONS 777 (g) Belt is packed correctly in its chest. (h) Chest is latched. º In pack transport units No. 3 examines spare parts and accessories chest and SeeS that— (a) Contents are as prescribed and properly packed. (b) Cover of chest is latched. b. Upon completing this examination of equipment, Nos. 1, 2, and 3 take post. No. 3 reports, “Barrel and ammunition correct” (or reports deficiencies). No. 2 reports “Gun and ammunition correct” (or reports deficiencies). No. 1 reports, “All correct” (or reports deficiencies). A thorough examination of the gun equipment is made at the beginning and at the end of each drill period. The initial inspection must assure that the ammunition belts are free of live rounds. Upon a change of numbers, such examination of the equipment without report is made as will determine that it is in proper condition for execution of the drill. c. The practice includes training in examination of equipment required by the com- mands Examine equipment during (after) firing. 48. To Put Gun Into Action. a. The corporal indicates the point where the gun will be mounted and the general direction of fire and commands or signals: ACTION. b. At the command Nos. 1, 2, and 3 proceed as follows: No. 3, barrel and ammunition 1, tripod and telescopic chest sight No. No. 2, receiver In prone position.—Removes breech and muzzle covers from barrel. In prone position.—Grasps left trail leg near center with his left hand. Springs to his feet.—Grasps tripod head with his right hand. Lifts tripod across front of his body with front leg up. Carries tripod at a run to place designated. — Swings trails downward and to the right, separating them by a sharp movement with his left hand, latching trails in their proper open position. Rests trail spades on the ground, trails vertical, front leg to the front. Steadying tripod with his left hand, loosens front leg clamp (if clamped) with his right hand, raises front leg with his left hand, and tightens front leg clamp with his right hand. Allows tripod to drop to the ground, front leg to the front. Takes prone position between trails, close to traversing bar. —Removes telescopic sight from its case. (As soon as gun pintle is seated in its housing.) Places elevating gear on traversing bar with his left hand and clamps it with the thumb. Puts on telescopic sight with the right hand and tightens telescopic sight clamp with (As soon as tripod is nearly mounted.) In prone position. —Seizes right grip of re- ceiver with his right hand. Passes his left hand under bar- rel support. Springs to his feet.—Raises gun across the front of his body, barrel support to the left. Runs to a position on left of and facing tripod. Stamps front leg spade into the ground with his left foot.— Places receiver in position with gun pintle in its hous- ing with his left hand, ro- tates pintle latch until stud is down, as soon as the pintle is fully seated. A : (As soon as No. 2 reaches posi- tion of tripod.) In prone position.—Grasps barrel car- rier handle with his left hand, thumb toward breech. Grasps ammunition (spare parts and accessories) chest with his right hand. Springs to his feet.—Raises barrel and ammunition chest. š. $ºyee : * . . 778 ANTITANK WEAPONS No. 1, tripod and telescopic sight & his left hand. (If drill is be- ing conducted with metallic sights instead of telescopic sights, raises rear sight leaf at this time). Pulls bolt retracting slide handle to its rearmost position and releases it. (This half loads the gun. It may be fully loaded by pulling retracting slide handle to rear a second time.) Assumes gunner's position.— Lies with both elbows on the ground. Places right hand on right grip, the thumb resting lightly on trigger. Grasps elevating hand wheel with his left hand, the ball of the hand resting against traversing bar. Holds head erect, observing target through sight. No. 2, receiver Stamps left trail spade into the ground with his right foot. Lies down on left of and facing gun, with his feet to left, and his head in rear of feedway.—Opens ammunition (spare parts and accessories) chest placed for him by No. 3. Grasps the third cartridge in metallic link belt at the double loop end with both hands and pushes the first cartridge into feedway until it is engaged by belt hold- ing pawl. (Is responsible that belt is straight and will feed properly, and that cover of gun is latched.) No. 3, barrel and ammunition chest Runs past left side of tripod- Places ammunition (spare parts and accessories) chest to the left of feedway with latch to rear. Turns to right about facing re- ceiver from the front. Strad- dles barrel with both hands on barrel carrier handle and, with the knees steadying the forearms, carefully inserts barrel into receiver. Screws in barrel until he feels it stopped by coming up against face of bolt. Adjusts head space by unscrewing barrel the proper number of clicks. (If proper number of clicks is not known, unscrews bar- rel two clicks.) Adjusts bar- rel carrier handle by pulling forward its lock and turning handle downward until lock engages notch nearest verti- cal under barrel. Moves to right rear of gun.— Stamps right trail spade into the ground with his right foot. Returns to his original position. 49. To Load and Half Load Gun. a. To load, the command is: LOAD. At this command No. 2 inserts the double loop end of the metallic link belt into the feedway until the first round is held by the belt holding pawl. No. 1 pulls the bolt to the rear twice, releasing it each time. b. To half load, the command is: HALF LOAD. At this command No. 1 pulls the bolt to the rear only once and releases it. 50. To Unload Gun. The command is: UNLOAD. At this command No. 1 unlocks the bolt latch release. No. 2 opens the cover and lifts out the belt. No. 1 draws bolt to the rear, leaving it latched in the rear position. No. 2 pushes the round down- ward from the T-slot to remove it, and examines the chamber to see that it is clear and that there is no cartridge in the barrel. In darkness or in poor light, No. 2 should actually feel the chamber to assure that it is clear. He then signals, “Ready.” No. 1 releases the bolt, No. 2 lowers and latches the cover, and No. 1 presses the trigger. 51. To Clear Gun. If the gun has been put into action with ball ammunition present, the gun must be cleared before anyone moves in front of the muzzle. No. 1 unlocks bolt latch release. No. 2 opens the cover and lifts out the belt. No. 1 draws the bolt to the rear, leaving it latched in its rear position. No. 2 pushes the round downward from the T-slot to remove it, and examines the chamber to see that it is clear. In darkness or in poor light, No. 2 should habitually feeſ the chamber to assure that it is clear. The bolt is left open. 52. To Take Gun Out of Action. a. The gun being in action, to take it out of action the corporal commands or signals: OUT OF ACTION. b. At the command, Nos. 1, 2, and 3 proceed as follows: ANTITANK WEAPONS 779 No. 1, tripod and telescopic —u— No. 2, receiver No. 3, barrel and ammunition chest sight In gunner's position.—Loosens traversing clamp. Unlocks bolt latch release. (As soon as cover is raised by No. 2.) Pulls retracting slide handle to rearmost position. Re- moves telescopic sight and replaces it in its case. (If telescopic sight is not used, lowers metallic sight.) (As soon as No. 2 announces CLEAR.) Presses bolt latch release with his right thumb. Lowers cover and latches it. Presses trigger with his right hand; presses traversing bar clamp. Springs to his feet. (As soon as No. 2 has removed receiver.) Lifts front of tripod to ver- tical position by grasping tripod head with his right hand. Grasps front leg with his left hand. Loosens front leg clamp with his right hand. Folds front leg down with his left hand. (If front leg is to be clamped in closed position.) Steadying tripod with his left hand, tightens front leg clamp with his right hand. With right hand grasping tripod head, tilts tripod to right and closes trails with his left hand. With his left hand under trails and his right hand grasping tripod head, lifts tripod to a position across front of his body. Turning to left-about runs to his original position.—Places tripod on the ground. As- sumes prone position. Lying on left of and facing gun.-Opens cover and, lifts out belt. (As soon as the bolt is latched to the rear- most position.) Examines chamber to see that it is clear. Removes cartridge from T-slot. Announces: CLEAR. Packs belt in am- munition chest and latches chest. Places chest about 3 feet to left of tripod, latch to rear. Springs to his feet.—Pulls out pintle latch, rotating it so that it remains open. Lifts receiver from tripod. Turns to left-about and runs to his original position. Places re c e i v er on the ground. Returns completely to prone position. Springs to his feet and runs past right of tripod, straddles barrel facing to rear. Unscrews barrel from receiver. Passes to left of tripod carry- ing barrel with his left hand. Picks up chest with his right hand. Returns to his orig- inal position. Places barrel and chest on the ground. Returns to prone position. 53. To Put Gun in Action in High Position. a. Frequently high vegetation requires that the gun be raised above its normal position. Before leaving the last available cover, the corporal cautions No. 1, “Prepare for high position.” At this warning, No. 1 loosens the lég clamps on all three legs; pressing the latch lever, he extends each leg fully. He releases the latch lever and sees that it is properly engaged and tightens the clamp. * b. The gun is mounted in the high position in a manner similar to that described in paragraph 48. 54. To Put Gun in Action on Slope. Where the position designated for the gun is on a slope, the tripod is leveled by— a. Extending one or two of the legs. b. Cutting the ground away from under the high leg or legs. 55. To Carry Gun Equipment by Hand. The command is: MARCH ORDER. At this command the squad, being posted at the mounted gun, executes dismount gun. No. 1 carries the tripod over either shoulder, trails to the rear. In emergency he may carry an ammunition box also. No. 2 carries the receiver on either shoulder, grips to the front. No. 3 carries the spare parts chest in his right hand, latch outward, and the barrel 780 ANTITANK WEAPONS in his left hand, muzzle to the rear, or on his left-shoulder, muzzle to the front. The command March order immediately following the commands for dismounted action or out of action indicates that the gun is not to be packed but is to be carried by hand. 56. To Move Mounted Gun. a. Being in action, the gun may be moved for short distances by dragging, either as a two-man load or as a three-man load. Before move- ment is started, the corporal commands Unload. The gun is unloaded in the prescribed manner. Should the corporal fail to issue the command, No. 1 unloads without com- mand upon order for movement. b. Dragging. The gun is dragged where considerations of cover require the personnel to move by crawling. The corporal commands: 1. Drag gun, 2. FOLLOW ME (2. TO THAT BUSH). At this command the gun is unloaded and the belt packed away. Nos. 1 and 2, assisted by No. 3 if necessary, drag the mounted gun. They follow the route chosen by the corporal, or move to the objective designated. c. Two-man load. The corporal commands: 1. Two-man load, 2. FOLLOW ME (TO SUCH POSITION). No. 1 on the right, No. 2 on the left, each grasp the front leg with his forward hand and the trail with his rear hand, just in front of the traversing bar. They should be careful not to touch the barrel after firing. No. 3 carries the spare parts chest and the ammunition. - d. Three-man load. (1) When barrel is hot. The corporal commands: 1. Three-man load. 2. FOLLOW ME (TO SUCH POSITION). No. 1 goes between the trails with a trail leg in each hand. No. 2 goes on the left and No. 3 on the right; each grasps the barrel carrier handle with the inside hand. 'No. 2 carries an ammunition box in his outside hand and No. 3 carries the spare parts chest in his outside hand. It should be noted that the head space must be adjusted after carrying in this manner. (2) When barrel is cool. The commands are the same as in (1) above. No. 3 in front holds the barrel near the muzzle with either hand and the spare parts chest in the other hand. No. 2 on the left side carries the trail in his right hand and a box of ammunition in his left hand. No. 1 on the right side carries the trail in his left hand and a box of ammunition in his right hand. 57. To Lay Gun. a. The gun being mounted in any position, loaded or loading being simulated, the commands are: 1. Range 800 (850), 2. TWO (THREE) RIGHT (LEFT), 3. TARGET THAT SQUARE (or such target as may be designated). b. At the first command, No. 1 sets the range dial (or rear sight leaf) at the given range. At the second command, No. 1 sets the deflection on the deflection dial (or windage scale). At the third command, No. 1 traverses the gun until correct direction is obtained, after which he elevates or depresses the muzzle until the aim is correct. 58. To Commence Firing. The gun being laid on designated target and loaded, or loading being simulated, the corporal commands: 1. (So many) rounds or (so many) rounds per minute; 2. COMMENCE FIRING. At the second command No. 2 taps No. 1 on the back and calls, “Fire.” No. 1 instantly presses the trigger. The number of rounds at the prescribed rate is fired or fire is simulated. No. 1 observes the effect of fire through the telescopic sight. 59. To Cease Firing. a. The command or signal “Cease firing” having been given, No. 2 taps No. 1 and calls “Cease firing.” No. 1 unlocks the bolt latch release, draws the bolt to the rear, and leaves it latched in the rear position. The gun remains ready to resume fire on order, but does not have a live round in the hot chamber. This com- mand may be followed by additional instructions. Lacking further orders, No. 1 . checks the laying on the target last fired upon, and remains in readiness to resume fire upon it on order. b. If firing is not to be resumed for some time the command to cease firing may be followed by such commands as: Clear gun, unload, rest. 60. To Resume Firing. If it is desired to resume fire on the target fired upon when the command Cease firing was given, the command or signal Commence firing is given. No. 1 unlocks the bolt latch release, presses it to let the bolt go forward, and executes Commence firing. If a new target is to be engaged, a fire order is given. ANTITANK WEAPONS 781 61. To Inspect Gun During Temporary Cessation of Fire. To form the habit of periodical oiling and examination of the gun during firing, the corporal occasionally, throughout gun drill, commands: INSPECT, GUN. At this command No. 1 clears, in- spects, and oils the gun, adjusts the tripod, tests the tightness of all clamps, verifies the settings of the sight, and checks the laying. After the gun has been cleared, No. 2 cleans the bore and inspects the belt. The corporal supervises the examination and makes sure that there is a sufficient supply of ammunition and oil at the gun. He directs making such repairs as may be necessary and verifies the sight setting. The gun is habitually inspected during temporary cessations of fire. 62. To Place Aiming Stakes. The corporal having ordered the gun to be laid on a target with a designated range and deflection, then commands: AIMING STAKE OUT. No. 3 runs or crawls to a point designated by No. 1, preferably 30 yards and not less than 10 yards, in front of the gun. In selecting a position for the aiming stake, No. 1 looks through the telescopic sight. Without disturbing the laying of the gun, he turns the sight deflection dial to the right or left, as indicated by the slope of the ground, to clear the line of fire about 15 mils. He directs No. 3 to drive in the stake to such depth that its top or some prominent cross mark will be in the field of view of the sight. Normally, a single aiming stake placed when the gun is laid ap- proximately in the center of its sector of fire or on its most important target is sufficient. Additional stakes for other important targets may be used if desired. 63. To Determine Sight Setting. The gun being laid on the target, the corporal commands: REFERENCE AIMING STAKE, READ SIGHT SETTING, TARGET NO. 1. The gunner without disturbing the laying of the gun turns the dials of the sight until it is laid on the top of the aiming stake or on some prominent mark on the aiming stake. He then calls the range and deflection readings which are recorded by the corporal. The corporal also records the range and deflection given for the initial direct laying on the target. In gun drill, it is assumed that these are correct; in combat, they are obtained by adjustment of fire on the target. This exercise should be repeated for several targets which do not require more traverse away from the aiming stake than can be measured by the deflection dial of the sight. 64. To Check Laying on Aiming Stake. The corporal orders the gun to be laid on various targets. He then orders it to be laid on the aiming stake with the recorded range and deflection determined for target No. 1. After the gun has been laid on the aiming stake without disturbing its laying he sets the range and deflection used for the initial direct laying on the target, and looks through the sight. The sight should be on the target. This is repeated for the other targets which have been referred to the aiming stake. 65. To Place Night Firing Device. A night firing device is not issued with the gun, but may be improvised by using a tin can and a flashlight. A cross is cut in the can, and the light shines only in the direction of the gunner. An empty am- munition container with the tin liner reversed makes an excellent device. It is placed in position in the same manner as described for the aiming stake in paragraph 62. 66. To Use Night Firing Device. The night firing device is used in the same manner as described for the aiming stake, the sight being laid on the cross through which the light shines. A small flashlight is also required at the gun for setting the sight scales and for illuminating the reticle of the telescopic sight. 67. To Determine Deflection and Elevation From Traversing Bar and Elevating Gear. a. The corporal orders the gun to be laid on a target by direct laying, and records the sight setting used. He then orders No. 1: READ DEFLECTION AND ELEVATION FROM ELEVATING GEAR. Without disturbing the laying of the gun, No. 1 reads the scale of the traversing bar at the left side of the traversing block and calls, “Traversing bar, right 153.” He reads the number above the elevating hand- wheel (in the keyway of the elevating screw) and calls this number and the number opposite the index of the elevating handwheel, as “Elevation plus 50, dial 35.” These are recorded by the corporal, and the exercise is repeated for several targets. b. In order to deflect the muzzle of the gun to the right, the traversing block must 782 ANTITANK WEAPONS slide to the left on the traversing bar. Therefore readings on the traversing bar to the left of center must be read as right deflection and vice versa. The bar is marked in 5-mil graduations up to 400 mils to right and left of center. Estimations to the nearest mil can be made. c. In reading elevations, note that the brass plate in the keyway of the elevating screw is graduated in 50-mil divisions corresponding to one complete turn of the elevating handwheel. The topmost line is marked plus 100, the second plus 50, the third zero, the fourth minus 50, etc. It is therefore necessary to note whether this elevation is plus or minus. The elevating handwheel is graduated in mil divisions to 50 mils. 68. To Lay Gun With Recorded Data From Traversing Bar and Elevating Gear. After the sight settings for several targets have been recorded, the corporal announces the data for one of these targets. No. 1 sets the traversing block to the announced deflection and the elevating handwheel to the announced elevation, and calls, “Up.” No. 2 signals “Ready.” The corporal then checks the settings, and also checks accuracy of the laying by setting the corresponding data for that target on the telescopic sight. He looks through the telescopic sight which should be on the target. An accuracy within 2 mils deflection and 1 mil elevation should be expected. Accuracy in elevation is improved if the final laying is always made in the same direction, turning the hand- wheel to raise the breech. This exercise is repeated for the other targets which have been recorded. 69. Use and Accuracy of Recorded Data. a. The use of recorded data as described in the preceding paragraphs is intended primarily for firing at night upon targets which have been registered during daylight. It may also be used for indirect laying with position defilade as discussed in Chapter IX. b. The two methods described in paragraphs 63 and 67 involve two types of data: (1) A recorded elevation and deflection to be applied to the telescopic sight. The gun is laid by pointing the sight at an aiming stake or aiming light. This is essentially the use of an auxiliary aiming point, and is very accurate. Loss of accuracy results from displacement of the tripod during firing. If the aiming stake (or light) is 30 yards from the gun, a displacement of 1 inch of the tripod causes an error of only 1 mil. The disadvantage of the method for night firing is that an aiming light must be provided for each target. The squad ordinarily does not have sufficient lights to put out more than one, and this should be for the most important target. The deflection dial of the sight is graduated to 100 mils each side of center, and accuracy can be expected upon all targets within this scope from a single aiming light. (2) The second type of data is the application of a recorded deflection to the traversing bar and an elevation to the elevating handwheel after having registered on a target. This is a form of indirect laying in which there is no check of the laying during the course of the firing, and which depends upon the stability, or lack of displacement, of the tripod for its accuracy. With a gun that has fired a hundred or more rounds on reasonably firm ground, and is well “shot in,” it can be expected to give an accuracy that is within 2 mils deflection and 2 mils elevation. It cannot be relied upon to maintain this accuracy for long periods, but can be checked by reference to an aiming stake, as indicated in paragraph 70. The advantage of this type of data is that it does not require the use of an aiming stake for each target. 70. To Check Displacement of Tripod. a. The corporal, after having secured recorded data on several targets, using both methods (telescopic sight and elevating gear), di- rects Nos. 1 and 2 to stamp on the trail spades and to disclose the front spade slightly. b. No. 1 lays on the aiming stake, using the recorded data for the first target. He then reads the traversing bar and the elevating handwheel. These latter readings are compared with their recorded data, and the difference represents the displacement of the tripod. c. No. 1 is directed to apply the recorded data to the traversing bar and elevating gear to lay on a second target. These data are modified by the error as found from com- parison with the aiming stake, such as “Right 3, up 2.” The corporal then applies the direct laying data for this target to the telescopic sight. If the telescopic sight is not now laid on the target, the amount of movement required to place it on the ANTITANK WEAPONS 783 target represents the error in the work, and indicates the accuracy which may be expected. The error should not be greater than 3 mils deflection and 2 mils elevation. 71. To Check Telescopic Sight. a. The telescopic sight is subject to errors from damage in handling or from derangement of its optical parts. Such errors are usually large and can be checked by approximate methods which can be taught as part of the gun drill. b. The simplest method is to check the telescopic sight against the metallic sight. Should the latter be out of adjustment, it is from a blow or some damage which will be apparent. Set the metallic sight at zero range and deflection and lay on a distant point at least 500 yards from the gun. Without changing the laying of the gun, lay the telescopic sight on the same point. If correct, it will also read zero range and deflection; if incorrect, the error is indicated by the variation from zero. c. Precision checking of the telescopic sight is best accomplished by firing at known distance targets. This takes into account the barrel error and the muzzle velocity of the ammunition being used. The approximate method given above will determine whether any change has taken place due to damage to the sight. 72. To Maintain Supply of Ammunition. No. 3 brings ammunition to the gun from a covered position in rear of the gun position. The additional numbers of the gun squad act as ammunition carriers, and bring ammunition from the combat train or ammunition distributing point to the position of No. 3. Empty ammunition boxes are carried to the rear on return trips. Questions 1. What equipment is carried at gun drill by the various members of the squadr 2. Describe the operations of “load” and “half load.” 3. Describe the operation of “unload.” 4. Describe the operation of clearing the gun. 5. Describe the actions of the members of the crew in laying the gun. CHAPTER VIII MARKSMANSHIP 73. General. Marksmanship instruction with the caliber 50 machine gun follows the same general sequence as with other automatic weapons. It is, however, designed primarily to develop accurate fire on moving targets. a. To become proficient in firing the caliber 50 machine gun, the soldier must be thoroughly trained in the following fundamentals: (1) Accurate delivery of initial fire on stationary targets. (2) Accurate delivery of fire on moving targets with the axis of the bore laid ahead of the target in order to compensate for speed of the target and time of flight of the bullet. º (3) Adjustment of fire from observation of strike, burst, or tracer. (4) Mechanical skill in manipulating the gun in order to lay axis of the bore correctly. (5) Maintenance of an adequate volume of fire in order to destroy the target in the shortest possible time. (6) Rapid shifting of fire to new targets. b. Throughout the period of marksmanship training the importance of fundamentals is emphasized. The machine gun reacts in direct proportion to the mechanical skill with which it is operated, and anyone who is physically and mentally fit to be a soldier can learn to fire the machine gun well if properly instructed. Before the men are permitted to fire they must be instructed and drilled thoroughly in the mechanism of correct firing. When they begin firing, they must be coached properly; otherwise they instinctively commit errors such as an incorrect hold or riding the gun, and thus begin the development of faulty habits. During preparatory marksmanship training the soldier is taught to aline his sights properly on an aiming point, to assume the proper position, 784 ANTITANK WEAPONS to manipulate the gun, to set the sights and aim, to lead and track a moving target, and to target the gun for firing. The purpose of these exercises is to develop in the soldier fixed and correct habits of marksmanship before he begins range practice. They consist of the following six distinct steps: (1) Sighting and aiming. (2) Position. (3) Manipulation. (4) Sight setting and laying. (5) Tracking and leading. (6) Examination of men before starting range practice. c. Every man who is to fire on the range, including those who have previously qualified, must receive instruction in the preparatory exercises from the beginning. The instructor causes each man to be tested thoroughly in the exercises shown on the progress chart before he is allowed to fire. Men whose rating is unsatisfactory are given addi- tional instruction until their rating is satisfactory. 74. Equipment Required. The following squad equipment is required for the preparatory exercises: a. At least one machine gun and tripod mount, complete; two machine guns and mounts, complete, if available. b. Two sighting bars, complete, per machine gun. c. One 3-inch sighting target per machine gun. d. One target frame 3 by 5 feet per machine gun, covered with blank paper and equipped with braces for mounting on the ground. The sighting bars and sighting target are the same as those used in rifle marksman- ship instruction. 75. Sighting and Aiming Exercises. a. The first sighting and aiming exercise is given with the sighting bar, exactly as given preliminary to rifle marksmanship. Its purpose is to teach correct alinement of the metallic sights, and students are already familiar with the procedure. ...!!!..., | Fig. 1. Reticle of Tele- Fig. 2. Telescopic Sight Scopic Sight. - Properly Alined on Target. Plate 3. Alinement of Telescopic Sight. b. The second sighting and aiming exercise is to apply the preceding instruction to actual alinement of machine gun sights on a target. It is similar to the second sighting and aiming exercise in rifle marksmanship. A caliber .50 machine gun is mounted in normal position and pointed at a blank target placed 100 yards from the gun. Metallic sights are used at first. The squad leader acting as squad instructor takes the normal position of the gunner, prone in rear of the gun, so that the eye is in correct position for aiming. A second man takes position where he can observe the squad in- structor (or coach). A third man is posted near the gun to transmit signals to the fourth member of the group who as marker is provided with a 3-inch sighting target and posted at the blank target. The squad instructor (or coach) by improvised signals transmitted through the signalman directs the marker to move the sighting target until it is in correct alinement with the sights, and then commands: HOLD. The marker holds the sighting target in place on the target. The soldier under instruction takes the gunner's position and looks through the sights at the proper alinement. The sight- ing target is then moved out of alinement and the gunner is required to direct its ANTITANK WEAPONS 785 movement into correct alinement with the sights. The squad instructor or coach checks the alinement made and points out any errors. When proficiency has been attained in this exercise using metallic sights, the tele- scopic sight is mounted on the gun and the exercise repeated. Proper sight alinement with the telescopic sight is as shown in Plate 3. c. The third sighting and aiming exercise is the familiar triangulation exercise. Groups of four men are equipped as for the preceding exercise. The gunner (pupil) directs movement of the sighting target into correct alinement and commands: HOLD. The squad instructor (or coach) looks through the sights to see if the alinement is correct or incorrect; thereafter, without saying anything to the gunner he commands: MARK. The marker without moving the sighting target makes a dot on the paper with a pencil inserted through the hole in the center of the sighting target. He numbers this mark 1. This procedure is repeated twice more and the three dots form a triangle. This triangle transferred to tracing paper is available to the squad instructor for discussion. The size and shape of the shot group (triangle) is discussed and errors pointed out. At 100 yards using the 3-inch sighting target a man should make a triangle that can be covered by a half dollar. When each man has made one or more satisfactory triangles using metallic sights, the telescopic sight is mounted on the gun and the applicatory portion of the exercise repeated. 76. Positions. a. Firing with the caliber 50 machine gun is done from either the prone position with the gun mounted on the tripod in low position, or from a sitting position with the gun mounted on the tripod in high position. The position assumed by the gunner is optional. However, the gunner should have thorough training in both positions. * b. In the prone position the gunner takes position between the trail legs with his body extended directly to the rear of the gun. The inside of the feet are flat on the ground, toes turned outward, and legs well separated. The left elbow rests on the ground, the left hand grasping the elevating handwheel. The left thumb rests against the traversing clamp in position to clamp the gun in traverse or to release the clamp. The right hand grasps the right spade grip lightly, the right thumb remaining free of the grip and in position to press the trigger. During actual firing, the right elbow of the average gunner does not rest on the ground. The position of the body must be varied according to conformation of the individual so that the eye is in proper position to permit aline- ment of the sights. c. In the sitting position, the gunner takes position between the trail legs directly in rear of the gun. He may sit with his legs partially extended under the tripod or with his legs crossed, depending upon the conformation and comfort of the individual. In either position maximum support is sought for the elbows by resting them on the gunner's legs, preferably inside the thighs. 77. Manipulation. This is the ability to shift the aim of the gun smoothly and ac- curately from one definite point to another. Accurate manipulation requires training and practice. Manipulation to cover a stationary target is done slowly at first to insure accuracy. The gunner manipulates the gun for changes of direction (i.e. traverses) by releasing the traversing clamp with the thumb of the left hand and moving the gun to the right or left by pressure of the left hand on the traversing block, assisted by the right hand on the grip. He manipulates in elevation (i.e. searches) by rotating the elevating hand wheel with the left hand. As the gunner gains facility in manipu- lation the speed is increased. When manipulating the gun to track a rapidly moving target the mount should be adjusted to permit free lateral movement of the gun. Vertical movement (i.e. changes in elevation) should be made with the elevation, hand wheel. 78. Sight Setting Exercise. The metallic battle sight (peep) is built to shoot “on the mark” at 750 yards. The rear sight movable slide (peep) is set at the desired range graduation on the sight leaf so that the gun will have the required elevation when 786 ANTITANK WEAPONS aimed. In setting the range, the rear sight slide is moved by means of a thumb- screw on top of the rear sight leaf. The index on the slide is the continuation of the horizontal line through the center of the peep. The rear sight leaf is graduated in hundred of yards to 2600 yards. The wind gage incorporated in the rear sight is graduated in mils, 5 mils each to right and left from zero. Moving the base of the sight to the right through one graduation on the windage scale and then relaying the gun moves the point of strike of the bullet to the right 1 mil, that is, 1 inch at 1000 inches or 1 yard at 1000 yards. The telescopic sight is set in elevation and deflection by movement of range and de- flection dials. The range dial is graduated to 3000 yards as follows: From 0 to 1000 yards, at 50-yard intervals. From 1000 to 2000 yards, at 20-yard intervals. From 2000 to 3000 yards, at 10-yard intervals. The range dial is secured at any range by means of a thumbscrew at the top of the sight. The deflection dial is graduated to 100 mils, right and left from zero. It is secured at any deflection which may be set by a click device incorporated in the dial. The exercise is conducted initially using the metallic sights. One man as gunner takes position at the gun and the other (as squad instructor or coach) takes position at the right of the gun. The instructor (or coach) announces the range and deflection, for example: Range 900, sight right 3. The gunner repeats the command, sets the rear sight at the announced range, and turns the windage knob until the index is at right 3. He then calls, “Up,” and resumes normal position. The instructor (or coach) checks settings of the slide and windage scale and points out any errors. The demonstration is now repeated, using the telescopic sight. Announced ranges and deflections should take advantage of the greater range and accuracy possible in setting the telescopic sight as, for example: Range 1240, sight left 14. 79. Sight Setting and Laying Exercise. This exercise conducted in the same manner as those previously outlined is carried out initially with the metallic sights and later repeated with the telescopic sight. The purpose of the exercise is to develop facility in setting the sights and then laying accurately and rapidly on the target. The coach gives a fire order including range, deflection, target, and command of execution. For example: Range 850, sight right 3, paster No. 2, commence firing. The gunner re- peats the command as it is given. At the command of execution, he sets the sights and aims on the prescribed target. Accuracy of sight setting and aiming is checked by the coach. As soon as accuracy is attained the time limit is reduced. The gunner should be able to set the sights and lay accurately on a given target within 10 seconds. 80. Leading and Tracking. Battlefield targets to be engaged by a caliber .50 ma- chine gunner may be either moving or stationary. Hence the gunner must be taught to engage both with equal speed and facility. Technique of engaging a moving target differs from that of engaging a stationary target in that the gun must be aimed ahead of the target a sufficient distance to cause bullet and target to arrive simultaneously at the same point. This distance is measured in target lengths, one target length as seen by the gunner being one lead. The lead necessary depends upon range, speed, and the direction of movement of the target. To hit the target, the gunner aims at a point ahead of the target equal to the estimated number of target lengths, maintains this lead by tracking the target (manipulating the gun at the same angular speed as that of the target), and then fires. Fire is adjusted by observation of strike or trace. Mathematical computation or the use of a voluminous lead table to obtain exact lead to be used on a moving target is impracticable in combat. The simple lead table shown below gives amount of lead necessary to hit a target moving at right angles, 90°, to direction of fire at speed and ranges indicated. Range of target Speed in miles per hour 300 500 900 7% . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 target length . . . . . . 1 target length . . . . . . 1 target length. 15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 target lengths . . . . . 2 target lengths . . . . . 2 target lengths. 30 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 target lengths . . . . . 4 target lengths . . . . . 4 target lengths. r—z ANTITANK WEAPONS 787 The angle at which the target is moving will alter amount of lead to be taken; that is, if the angle between line of fire and line of travel of the target is less than 45°, use one-half of the lead shown in the table. For a target moving directly toward the gun, the line of aim is placed on the center or the lower edge of the target depending on range and slope of the ground, the lower edge being used for longer ranges and for broken ground. For a target moving directly away from the gun, the line of aim is placed similarly on the center or upper edge of the target. Too much lead is better. than too little because the target runs into the fire and because observation of strike is easier. Intelligent use of the lead table includes immediate application of fire with estimated lead followed by necessary corrections based upon observation of strike or traCeſ. tº 4 ot—ºrs— on 9 —- ;º #złºc 81. Lead Exercises (1000-Inch Range). Training in taking leads, and also in tracking, can be given very effectively on the 1000-inch range with the antitank target (see Plate 4). On this target the black silhouettes represents a tank at the ranges of 300, 500 and 900 yards. The black square under each silhouette is the aiming point. The outlined figures are scoring spaces, and are invisible at a range of 1000 inches. The 788 ANTITANK weAPONs gunner is required to take a position at the gun, swing the gun through the announced target silhouette on the 1000-inch antitank target, and aim at a point ahead of the target equal to the lead prescribed by the instructor (one, two, three, etc., leads). An assistant at the target then moves the marking silhouette (see Plate 5) as directed by the gunner until the forward edge is at the point of aim. The assistant then places a pencil dot at this point. The exercise is repeated, making triangles by marking points at forward - edge of marking silhouette for each adjustment until the gunner can make at least two out of three triangles which can be enclosed in a circle 1 inch in diameter. & ſº M* !"x % VVM 13 M Zºhr mefo/Aointed A/ock : 334" | 4. |— 7% –- Plate 5. Marking Silhouette. The student will recognize the familiar triangulation exercise, which, in this type of instruction, is conducted with varying right and left leads, first with the metallic sights and then with the telescopic sight. The reticle of the telescopic sight showing a lead of one target length (one lead) is illustrated in Plate 6. 82. Tracking Exercise. Tracking consists of maintaining correct alinement of the sights (with or without a lead) on a moving target by moving the gun at the same angular speed as that of the target. The gunner is required to aim at a prescribed Plate 6. Sight Picture of Telescopic Sight, Using One Target-length Lead. ANTITANK WEAPONS 789 point (leading edge) on the silhouette target and to maintain that aim during uniform movement of the target. The target is moved at different speeds, corresponding to the speeds of combat vehicles at the various ranges. An indication of the speed ratio is obtained from the following table: TARGET SPEEDS, 1000-INCH MOVING TARGET Target Speeds in inches per Second corresponding to- Target Specds in m. p. h. *- 800 yd. | 500 yd. | 900 yd. 7% 12 7 4. 15 24 15 8 30 48 80 18 83. Combinind Leading and Tracking Exercises. After the gunner has gained facility in tracking the target, he is required to repeat the tracking exercises while using a designated lead and to simulate firing when his sights are properly alined. 84. Targeting Gun. Targeting (zeroing) is the process used to determine and apply corrections for mechanical errors in gun, barrel, or sights so that line of aim and trajectory intersect at point of aim (target). a. Method of targeting at 1000 inches. (1) Set sights at 400 yards and windage scale at zero (where applicable). (2) Aim at a spotter. - (3) Fire three rounds, single shot, using same sight alinement for each shot. (4) Locate by inspection center of impact of shots. (5) If center of impact is on the spotter, the gun is targeted. (6) If center of impact is not on the spotter, take same aim as before (on the spotter) and without moving the gun, move the sight (by use of sight adjustment device, or by moving sight leaf slide and windage screw) until line of aim is on center of impact. (7) Test adjustment by again aiming at the spotter and firing three rounds, single shot. (8) If center of impact is not on the spotter, repeat (6) and (7) above until center of impact coincides with point of aim (spotter). 4. b. Method of targeting at field ranges. (1) (a) Set estimated range and deflection on sight (where applicable). (b) Aim at target. (c) Proceed as in a above, locating center of impact by observation of strike or trace, or by examination of target. r (2) If observation is poor at the target, another point at the same range as the target and which affords better observation may be used for targeting. When so targeted, the gun is targeted for the original target or any other at the same range. Questions 1. What are the fundamentals of caliber 50 machine gun marksmanship? 2. What are the steps in preparatory marksmanship training? 3. What is meant by manipulation? - 4. Describe the graduations of the range dial of the telescopic sight. The deflection dial. 5. With a target moving at right angles to the direction of fire at a speed of 15 miles per hour, what are the proper leads for the following ranges: 300 yds. 500 yds. 900 yds. CHAPTER IX TECHNIQUE OF FIRE 85. General. As with the other crew served weapons which have been studied, the technique of fire of the caliber .50 machine gun embraces the operations involved in delivering effective fire on a target. These include: a. Characteristics and classes of fire. b. Range determination, windage, and target speeds. c. Target designation. d. Fire distribution. e. Fire control. f. Fire orders. In marksmanship the soldier is taught to serve and fire a single gun under formal rules and situations. Instruction in technique of fire gives him further practice in firing a single gun and, in addition, training in technique and teamwork employed by the squad, section, and platoon to engage combat targets at unknown ranges. 86. Characteristics of Caliber .50 Machine Gun Fire. The caliber .50 machine gun is characterized by an extremely flat trajectory, high velocity, great accuracy and rapidity of fire. These are the characteristics of fire which make the gun suitable for use against armor protected vehicles and armor protected antimechanized weapons. It is, of course, effective against exposed weapons and personnel. 90. Trajectory. The path followed by a bullet after it leaves the bore of a gun is called the “trajectory.” The trajectory of a bullet fired from the caliber 50 machine gun is said to be flat (to pass close to the ground above which it travels), but the path is actually a curve due to action of gravity and air resistance, the curve with respect to the ground increasing with length of flight. 88. Burst of Fire. A series of shots fired automatically with a single pressure of the trigger is called a “burst of fire.” The number of shots to be used in a burst is affected by such general factors as nature of target, steadiness of mount, opportunity to insert new belts, ammunition supply, and condition of gun. Large bursts are ineffective due to effects of vibration, flash, smoke, and dust. Use of rapidly aimed, successive single shot fire is suited especially to this weapon, and is the preferable type of fire in In OSt CaSeS. 89. Classes of Fire. a. Fixed fire. “Fixed,” “concentrated,” or “point fire” is that fire which is delivered with the intention of having all bullets strike the same point. Successive points are engaged by manipulating the gun to change its elevation and direction as required. b. Leading fire. Leading fire is fire directed at a moving object by use of target-length leads which bear definite relationship to range to target (time of flight of bullet), direc- tion of movement of target, and speed of target. 90. Ammunition. Ball ammunition is used as a substitute for armor-piercing am- munition for training purposes because of the cost. The average loading of tracer should be 20 to 25 percent, conforming to Tables of Basic Allowances. This loading may vary for different specific purposes in firing. 91. Rates of Single Shot Fire. The maximum usable rate of single shot fire is 75 rounds per minute for 300 rounds. Other rates are discretionary. 92. Firing Gun. The gunner sets the sights at estimated range and lays on the target. The gunner opens fire on the target, then by observation of strike or tracer, he places the strike on the target by manipulating the gun. Without disturbing the gun, he adjusts the sight so that the line of aim is on the adjusted strike (target). He then determines the range by noting and announcing the range set on the adjusted sight. This method is applicable to both the metallic sight and the telescopic sight. It must be realized that as the range becomes greater or less than 1000 yards, there is an increasing error due to the difference in trajectory of ball and tracer ammunition. 93. Deflection. Due to Wind. a. The following table indicates the windage changes necessary in mils to compensate for a 10-mile wind: 790 ANTITANK WEAPONS 791 Correction (mils) Range (Yards) 3–9 o'clock 2–4–8–10 ºv’clock 1–5–7–11 O'clock 500 1 I 0.5 1,000 2 1.5 L 1,500 3 2.5 1.5 2,000 4 3.5 2 b. For winds of greater or less velocity corrections are directly proportional; therefore, when wind velocity is double that shown in the table, correction to be applied is double that shown. 94. Estimation of Target Velocity. Personnel of caliber .50 machine gun units are trained in estimating velocity of moving vehicles. This training is accomplished by exercises which present vehicles at various known ranges moving at known speeds within range of probable combat vehicle speeds. Repetition at known distances and speeds gives a degree of ability to estimate unknown speeds at estimated ranges. 95. Engagement of Targets. a. Point target. To engage a point target, the gunner places the strike on the target and maintains it by bursts or successive single shots for the time necessary to neutralize or destroy the target. Two or more guns firing on a point target of uncertain range may employ different sight settings with the intention of having at least one of the guns on the target. b. Moving targets. Fire at moving targets on the ground involves use of tracking and leading. This complicates distribution of fire on the target. If a single gun is to engage a small group of scout cars, it should concentrate on the leading vehicle, particularly if confined to a road. If a platoon of guns is to engage a platoon of combat cars, all cars should be covered in the distribution. This may be standard technique or covered specifically in the fire order, depending on the stage of training of the unit. 96. Fire Control. Fire control implies the ability of the leader to open fire at the instant he desires, adjust the fire of his guns upon the target, shift from one target to another, regulate its rate, and cease firing at will. Lack of proper control results in loss of surprise, misapplication of fire on less important targets, loss of time, and wastage of ammunition. Fire control is founded primarily on thorough discipline and technical training. The organization commander usually gives his initial orders direct to platoon or section commanders, and subsequent orders by messenger. The platoon or section leader gives his fire orders to squad leaders, and they in turn to their gun crews. Due to such factors as noise, dust, smoke, blast, and fleeting opportunity, fire control must be based on simple methods to insure effective execution and engagement of new and unexpected targets which appear after the unit has become engaged. No. 2 watches the squad, section, or platoon leader for signals and transmits instructions received to the gunner. * 97. Adjustment of Fire. Adjustment of fire is contingent on observation. The gunner should be trained to observe his own fire through the telescopic sight and adjust it without command. The squad leader may be occupied with other duties such as locating new targets or better positions. The gun may be fired at night upon targets which have been registered on dur- ing daylight. The problem involved is to keep the tripod in the same position in which adjustment of fire was made and to be able to return the gun to a correct elevation and deflection. There are two methods of doing this, one with use of an aiming light and one without use of an aiming light. The aiming light is slightly more accurate and has the advantage that slight displacements of the tripod can be corrected. ANTITANK WEAPONS SECTION 2 THE 37-MM ANTITANK GUN CONTENTS Paragraphs Chapter I. Characteristics and Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-33 Chapter II. Training for Placing the Gun in Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-42 Chapter III. Marksmanship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43-45 Chapter IV. Technique of Fire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46-49 Chapter V. Firing at Field Targets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50-52 CHAPTER I CHARACTERISTICS AND DESCRIPTION 1. History. Small caliber cannon firing shell or solid shot of from one to two pounds in weight have been in use for a great many years. The “Pom-poms” used during the Boer War in South Africa were guns of this type which fired comparatively rapidly and were quite effective. During the World War, infantry cannon of 37-mm caliber were developed as antimachine gun weapons, a role for which their great accuracy and flat trajectory made them particularly suitable. Such a gun is the 37-mm, M1916, of the former howitzer company, with which most students are acquainted. These little guns are, and for some time will be, in extensive use as training weapons. The advent of the fast tank on the modern battlefield and the adoption of the 81-mm mortar has rendered this weapon obsolete. The new mortar, by reason of its accuracy, power, and long range, has usurped the role of machine gun destroyer, and the old 37-mm gun lacks the power, penetration, and rapidity of traverse necessary for effective fire against the modern tank. A new gun, designated the “37-mm antitank gun, M3” has been designed by the Ordnance Department. While similar in general construction and operation to the Model 1916 37-mm gun, the new weapon is larger, more powerful, and possesses all of the characteristics necessary for an eſſective antitank gun. Some units will not be provided with this new weapon for some time, but the contents of this section will assist students during their instruction in camp. 2. Characteristics. The 37-mm antitank gun, M3, is a high velocity, flat trajectory, light cannon of the field gun type. It is a single-shot weapon with a drop breechblock, differ- ing in this respect from the old 37-mm gun, which had a rotating breechblock. It fires armor-piercing and high-explosive projectiles which weigh nearly two pounds. The gun is mounted on a carriage of the split trail type, with pneumatic tires. The carriage is designed for one-man control of aiming, elevating, traversing, and firing. The prime mover for the 37-mm gun, M3, is a one-half ton 4 x 4 truck. The gun is towed behind its prime mover on roads and across country. * GENERAL DATA Weight of carriage with gun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 912 pounds Length of carriage from muzzle to lunette . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154% inches Width over hub caps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63% inches Traverse, maximum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 degrees Maximum elevation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 degrees Maximum depression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • - - - - - 10 degrees Length of barrel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 inches Įſt34SJºãūnţd Jºã3țIJI, “ºſ sºuſ I Jºurtuººſ ‘gº’ qsniq ºuļu gºſo Jo ºu ſuuuug? I'$!9Tpubų žđuĮSJeAbū I, ºzIQuod dns|9 ºu! 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ANTITANK WEAPONS * 795 Weight of barrel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 pounds Muzzle velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2600 feet per second Terminal velocity at 1000 yards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2088 feet per second Maximum ordinate at 1000 yards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5 feet Weight of one round, AP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.41 pounds Weight of projectile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.92 pounds Normal recoil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 inches 3. Description. a. Barrel assembly. The barrel assembly consists of the following prin- cipal parts: (1) Barrel. (a) The barrel is a one-piece forging with rifled bore threaded to screw into the breech ring. There are two bearings or yokes on the sleigh that support the barrel and align it in the sleigh. The front bearing has a flange at the rear and is threaded for a lock nut to secure the position. Keyways in the right and left rim of the flange engage keys in the sleigh to prevent rotation of the barrel. (b) The breech face of the barrel is recessed on each side of the bore to form extractor pockets. (2) Breech ring. (a) The breech ring is bored and threaded in front to receive the barrel. A locking key secures the breech ring to the barrel; lugs on the bottom of the breech ring provide a hole for attaching the breech ring to the recoil mechanism. The rear hole is for the operating shaft. (b) The operating handle latch catch is attached on the right side of the ring. (c) The rear half of the breech ring is slotted vertically to receive the breechblock. The rear of the breech ring is formed to a U shape to facilitate loading. The cylindrical studs inside the ring serve as extractor pivots. The hole through the lower left wall forms the trigger bearing, and a counterbore inside provides a pocket for the tripper. (3) Extractors. The extractors are positioned against the side walls of the breech recess. The lips of the longer upper arms lie in pockets and engage the cartridge. Camming lugs on the lower arms project inward to engage the cam surfaces of the breechblock. (4) The breechblock assembly. (a) The breechblock assembly consists of the breech- block, bushing, and firing spring retaining pin. The large center hole in the breech- block houses the firing pin guide. The breechblock bushing is screwed into the forward end of the hole. The firing spring retaining pin and the interrupted shoulder inside the hole form a joint to hold the firing spring retainer and prevent rotation. Grooves in the hole receive and guide the cocking and sear lugs. (b) The bottom of the block is cut from front to rear by a tee-slot in which the crank trunnions slide to raise and lower the block. The top of the block is U-shaped to guide the cartridge into the chamber. A hole with a slot for the sear arm is on the left side of the block; it houses and guides the sear and sear spring. The upper left side of the block is recessed to receive the cocking lever. A hole in the rear face of the recess houses the cocking lever plunger and spring. g (5) Crank. The crank with splined hub is mounted on the shaft of the operating handle, extending upward and rearward, terminating in a pair of trunnions projecting right and left. These trunnions engage and slide in the slot in the breechblock to raise and lower, the block as the operating handle is rotated. Stop surfaces are provided to limit the throw of the upward and downward movement of the crank. (6) Operating handle assembly. The operating handle assembly consists of the operating handle, latch, spring and pin. (7) Firing mechanism. (Plate 2). The firing mechanism consists of two groups of components which are assembled in the breechblock and the breech ring. (a) The firing pin and guide assembly, retainer, the firing spring, sear, sear spring and pin, and the cocking lever with plunger and spring are supported in the breechblock. 1. The firing pin and guide assembly consists of the firing pin, guide, stop, retracting spring, and guide pin. The guide is a cylindrical tube, with lugs on the bottom and left sides for engagement with the sear and cocking lever. The firing pin is 796 ANTITANK WEAPONS screwed into the guide. The top, which is in the form of a ring with two prongs on its front face, fits in the guide with the prongs protruding through holes in the closed end. The retracting spring is mounted on the body of the firing pin. 2. The retainer is a round plug which closes the rear of the firing pin guide assembly hole in the breechblock and retains the firing pin spring. |------J 1. Firing pin. 8. Breechblock bushing. 2. Guide. 9. Retainer. 3. Firing Spring. 10. Breech block. 4. Retracting spring. 11. Retainer pin. 5. Stop. 12. Cocking lever plunger. #. §: lug. w 13. Cocking lever plunger Spring. . Sealſ. Plate 2. Firing Mechanism. 3. The firing pin spring bears rearward on the retainer, and forward on the firing pin stop, inside the guide. - 4. The sear is notched for engagement of the sear lug of the firing pin guide. The sear passes through the breechblock, and the sear and spring are secured by a pin. 5. The cocking lever is pivoted on a hub in the upper left side of the breech- block. The upper arm projects upward and rearward from the block and terminates above the rear wall of the breech ring. The lower arm extends forward and down- ward, terminating in a lug which engages and forces the firing pin guide rearward to cock the mechanism. A plunger and spring return the lever to position as the upper end is released. e (b) The tripper, trigger, trigger plunger, and spring are supported in the breech ring. 1. The tripper is within the breech ring. The operating arm of the tripper carries a cam surface for actuating the sear. The lower arm of the tripper carries a safety button which, in the idle position of the trigger and tripper, extends inward below and forward of the breechblock guide shoulder. Lowering the block places this shoulder behind the button of the tripper and prevents actuation when the breech is open. 2. The trigger consists of a tapered arm with a hollow cylindrical hub; the hub enters a hole in the breech ring. The trigger plunger and spring which are seated in the cheek of the breech ring retain the trigger in position and return it to a forward position after firing. e b. Sleigh and recoil mechanism. (1) The recoil mechanism. (Plate 3). The recoil ANTITANK WEAPONS 797 cylinder houses the recoil mechanism and is assembled with the trunnions, which are mounted in the trunnion bearings of the top carriage. The recoil cylinder is provided with rails which guide (2) The recoil cylinder. the sleigh during the recoil movement of the gun. The gun and the piston rod of the recoil mechanism are connected by coupler. The shoulder guard is bolted to the recoil cylinder. 83 Tdſh00 ĶĪĢT ŅŇ Jáš ∞Y. Aſ Y ） <ĘŚ©È№ ”uusſuteq0ęIN Iļ003'ſ putº 19 JJ89|| "8 9??IGI ،$9'N 18 v39 • • • • • • • •-， e-s • • • • • - - -> • <-» - «-» - - - - - - ~ ** ** • - - - - • • • • • • • • •- - • • 3XOÅ}+913’TS XOOH XOO? SÐNI~13Aſv&-1ÑO)SNO!'NNįſł8.L.TAQ’nıoo38 •solvoiqNI . ß\|~1|O2)3 & Z ; （~, Lºſſºſ: *（38.8\fº �� QO&# NO 15 lºj “TAO ºn 1COO38 ^--------- ■■■ Ş ſºſ ZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZſzzzzzz，4€$�� ØYZZZZZZZOOOZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZ ŪĻŪĶ].ſŤſ]] [[]] ŠAzŽZZZZZŽZZŽŻŻ，Ż，ŻſtSNĘ |ºſſ||aſs|$ìÈNÈJN • • • •, ！§§ º ： （ ）- zzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzZ）ZZZZZZZZAW ZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZ ŹŹŽŻ：22， ，ȚTN „LTÈN &wºnºmo>3XOA 3 ATVA $1?! OeſSDN ſºle!.S GWEIH ©nºteſ Ntw&G § QL) \， � �� <; >~ -rº ~~ Q_) -：4 �� „S . -5 ~ $ | E. § § ' > ș ș. ğ º £ *U tº : C: Q • ！ :È š Ş № š ž � tā š ž $3 $， 8 ~ ºp „ în .5 8 ‘ē 9 798 ANTITANK WEAPONS the counterrecoil mechanism, which returns the gun into battery; and the buffer mechanism, which absorbs the last portion of the counterrecoil action to prevent damage to the weapon due to sudden stopping of the movement of the recoiling parts. c. Top carriage, pintle, pin, axle, wheels and segments, trails. (1) Top carriage. (a) The top carriage forms the connection between the axle and the sleigh of the recoil mechanism. The sleigh pivots on the trunnion bearings which form the fulcrum for the movement of the gun in elevation. The top carriage in turn rotates on the pintle pin which permits the movement of the gun in traverse. The pin is housed in the support which is assembled to the axle. (b) The traversing arc is secured to the support and meshes with the pinion of the traversing mechanism which is assembled to the top carriage. The support swivels on a pin with the range of equalizing movement provided for the axle. (2) The axle. (a) Each end of the axle is reinforced to mount the wheel spindles and wheel segments. The axle is assembled to the support by a pin seated in a bearing and is guided in movement by bearings. (b) The axle and support are provided with gib bearings which act as equalizers in keeping the gun level when mounted on uneven ground. They also serve to distribute the force of the recoil equally to the trails. (3) Wheel and wheel segment. The wheel assembly is a commercial disk wheel mounted on wheel spindles. The disk and rim are secured to the hub by studs. The wheels are interchangeable. The wheel segments are provided to raise the tires off the ground and thereby increase the stability of the carriage for firing. The segments swing on the axle and are locked in both travel and firing position by a plunger. The plunger is actuated by a handle. s (4) The trails and trail lock. (a) The trails are connected with the support by a pin mounted on needle bearings. © (b) Lugs welded to the axle are engaged by the trail and lock and axle to the trails when the latter are secured in travel position by means of the trail lock. With the trails spread, bumpers contact brackets on the support and the assembly is secured by pins. A section of the rammer is carried on each trail. The trail spades are at the rear end of each trail. (c) The trial lock secures the trails for travel. When locked the ball bracket on the left trail is secured in a cup bracket on the right trail and the assembly is secured by a toggle type clamp actuated by a lever. The lever is locked by a latch. The lunette is mounted on the right trail. - d. Elevating mechanism, traversing mechanism, and trigger actuator. (1) Elevating mechanism. Adjustment of the gun in elevation is transmitted from the knob to the barrel by a system of shafts and gears. The shafts are all mounted on antifriction bearings, and the gear case assembly is sealed by oil retainers. (2) Traversing mechanism. (a) Adjustment of the gun in traverse is transmitted from the handwheel and flexible joint shaft to the traversing arc mounted on the support. (b) For quick adjustment of the gun in traverse, the worm gear drive is equipped with a release mechanism which disengages the gear drive and permits free movement of the gun in traverse. This release mechanism is actuated by pulling the traversing release handle to the rear. On release of the handle, the action of a spring automatically re- engages the gears and locks the gun to the traversing mechanism. (3) Trigger actuator. The trigger actuator is assembled on a bracket and consists of a plunger, link, spring cable, trigger lever plunger, and trigger lever. A handle on the trigger lever is provided for hand operation of the trigger. * e. Shield, apron, and traveling lock: (1) Shield. The shield is made of one-quarter inch armor plate. It is fixed in position to the top carriage. The bottom of the shield is bolted to the traversing arc housing, and the top of the shield is attached to tubular braces. (2) Apron. The apron is made of one-quarter inch armor plate and is hinged to the axle. A latch to secure the apron in travel position is attached to the axle. (3) Traveling lock. The traveling lock is hinged to the support. In traveling posi- tion it is latched to the hook on the recoil cylinder. In firing position the lock rests on lugs. ANTITANK WEAPONS - 799 f. Sight mount and the sight. (Plate 4). (1) Sight mount. The sight mount is attached to the carriage by a bracket, so designed as to place the sight at a convenient height for operation. (2) Sight. (a) The sight, telescope M6, is a non-adjustable telescope of one power. It has a fixed reticle of the following pattern: Tºnº tube. - 7. Eccentric. 1. - 2. Locking nut. 8. Differential screw. 3. Locking nut. 9. Trunnion. 4. Clamping bolt. 10. Shaft. 5. Gun trunnion arm. 11. Clamping bolt. 6. Link tube arm. 12. Eccentric. Plate 4. Telescope, M6, and Telescope Mount, MI19. AXIS OF RETICLE _T (ZERO RANGE) 500 Yº RANGE Q--> O—O 20 MIL LEAD ~ 1200 YD RANGE 10 MIL- -EAD 1500 YD RANGE 5 MIL--EA- Plate 5. Reticle, Telescope, M6. 1. (Plate 5). A circle of 5 mils radius is provided with a dot in its center, 1epresenting the 600-yard range line. The 1200-yard range line coincides with the bottom of the circle. The 1500-yard line is marked by a dot, below the bottom of the circle, which is joined by a short line to the circle at the 1200-yard line. 2. The zero range line is marked by a dot just inside of the circle. 3. On each side of the dot representing 600 yards range, dots representing 10 and 20 mils lead are provided. The 10 and 20 mil dots are connected by lines. 800 ANTITANK WEAPONS (b) The sight is intended to remain parallel to the bore of the gun at all times, and the necessary means to make adjustments to insure this relation is provided through a linkage system. (c) Dry cell batteries and an electric cord are carried in the tool case to illuminate the sights. - g. Aiming device (device, aim checking, M1). The aiming device (device, aim checking, M1) is adapted to fit over the rear end of the telescope tube. It reflects images in the field of the telescope at an angle so that the correctness of the gunner's aim may be checked by a coach without interfering with the line of sight. h. Field glass, type EE. The field glass, type EE, is an observation instrument of 6-power with an 8° field of view. It contains a graduated mil scale for the measure- ment of small horizontal and vertical angles. In field glasses of older manufacture there is also provided an inverted sight leaf scale for the rapid computation of certain fire data. The field glass complete consists of the glass and its carrying case and neck strap. - i. Lensatic compass. This compass is an instrument of unusual flexibility and pre- cision when properly used. It has a pivoted dial needle inclosed in a nonmagnetic metal case with a hinged cover and eyepiece containing a small magnifying lens. The needle dial has inscribed on it two concentric azimuth circles. The outer circle is graduated in mils (6400) and the inner circle is graduated in degrees (360). The smallest graduation of the outer circle represents 20 mils and that of the inner circle 5°. Due to the sensitive character of the needle suspension, even this accuracy is difficult to obtain unless the compass rests on a solid support. One outside ring about the base of the compass is graduated into the cardinal points of the compass and an- other (graduated in degrees) as an azimuth circle. The former is useful for taking bearings and the latter is useful on a map as a protractor and in setting off azimuths by means of the index on a movable ring about the top. Directions are laid off by means of the index (pointer) on this movable ring. The index on the movable ring, the zero point on the azimuth circle on the dial, and the north point of the needle are marked with radiolite for visibility in the dark. The eyepiece consists of a metal standard supporting a small lens through which azimuth may be read directly from the outer dial circle. Vertically above the aperture of the standard is a narrow slit. Vertically across the glass face of the compass cover is an etched line in the line of collimation of the instrument. 4. Disassembling and Assembling. . a. The firing pin and guide assembly. (1) Dis- assembly. To remove the firing pin and guide assembly from the breechblock (assembled in gun), close the breech and pull the trigger. Press in on the retainer and rotate it one- quarter turn. Release the pressure. The retainer may now be removed from its seat. The firing spring and the firing pin and guide assembly may now be ejected by throwing the cocking lever forward. (2) Assembly. To replace the firing pin and guide assembly in the breechblock, insert the firing pin and guide assembly into the rear end of the firing pin guide hole in the breechblock firing pin, point first, the lugs on the guide assembly in alignment with the grooves in the firing pin guide hole of the breechblock. Pull and hold the trigger to the rear; push the firing pin and guide assembly forward until it contacts the bushing; then release the trigger. Place the firing spring into the firing pin guide. Place the cupped end of the retainer over the rear end of the spring and insert the retainer into the firing pin guide hole of the breechblock, with the groove horizontal. Press the retainer forward about one-eighth inch below the surface of the block and rotate it until the groove on the firing spring retainer is in a vertical position; then release the pressure. b. The breechblock and firing mechanism group. (1) Disassembly. (a) To remove the breechblock and firing mechanism group: 1. Remove the firing-pin guide assembly. - 2. Remove the operating shaft key by springing its knurled end out of its seat in the left outer side of the breech ring and rotating it in a clockwise direction until the knurled end passes off the surface of the lug. ANTITANK WEAPONS 801 3. Support the breechblock from below with the left hand and with the right hand remove the operating handle assembly by drawing it to the right. 4. Lower the block about one inch with the left hand. With the right hand reach under the breech ring and pull the crank hub out from between the breech ring lugs. Slide the crank trunnions out of the slots in the breechblock. Slide the block down and remove it. * (b) To remove the firing mechanism from the breechblock: g 1. The cocking lever. Grasp the cocking lever with the fingers of the right hand. Place the left hand over the recess of the cocking lever, catching the plunger and spring as they are forced out of the recess. 2. The sear and sear spring. Press the arm of the sear into its recess as far as it will go and expose the sear retaining pin. Remove the pin. Release the pressure and withdraw the sear and sear spring. (2) Assembly. (a) To assemble the firing mechanism into the breechblock: 1. The sear and sear sprung. Place the sear spring over the small end of the sear and insert the sear and spring in the hole in the brecchblock. Align the arm of the sear with the slot; press the sear until the pin hole in the sear is exposed. Insert the pin in the hole and release the pressure on the spring, allowing the pin to enter the counterbore in the block. 2. The cocking lever. Insert the spring into the hole in the top of the recess in the left side of the block. Press the cocking lever plunger into the hole, flat end against the spring, and insert the cocking lever into the recess, with the short arm downward and the apron in front of the plunger. (b) To assemble the breechblock to the gun. Press the cocking lever forward as far as it will go and insert the top of the breechblock into the bottom of the breech recess. Slide the block upward and hold it with the rear end of the tee-slot exposed below the ring. Slide the trunnions of the crank into the tee-slot from the rear, with the convex curve of the crank to the rear. Push the block to the closcq position with the left hand and swing the hub of the crank into position between the lugs on the bottom of the breech ring. Support the block and crank with the left hand. With the operating handle opposite its forward position insert it to the left. Engage the key on the shaft. c. The firing mechanism group of the breech ring. (1) Disassembly. (a) The tripper. Reach into the recess from below; grasp the tripper with the fingers and withdraw it from the trigger hub. (b) The trigger. Insert the tip of the right forefinger upward between the trigger and the trigger plunger and press the trigger plunger rearward to free the lug on the trigger. Holding the plunger depressed, remove the trigger to the left. The plunger spring will then force the plunger out of its recess. The plunger spring may be removed if necessary. (c) The extractors. Rotate the extractors to a vertical position and remove them from the pivots. -- (2) Assembly. (a) Extractors. Slide the extractors on their pivots, short arm down- ward and the camming lugs pointing toward the center. (b) The trigger. Replace the trigger spring and plunger into the hole with the right forefinger. Slide the trigger hub into the hole at the top of the notch until the shoulder of the lever contacts the cheek of the ring. Release the plunger. (c) The tripper. Insert the shaft of the tripper into the hub of the trigger with the short arm of the tripper vertical. Slide the tripper shaft through until the flattened end enters the slot in the trigger hub and the lever of the tripper enters its recess inside the breech ring. d. The barrel assembly and the recoil mechanism. (1) Disassembly. Remove the coupler bolt nut. Remove the coupler bolt, from the left. Slide the barrel assembly slowly to the rear, keeping the sleigh in perfect alignment with the rails, and rémove it from the recoil cylinder. During this operation the weight of the barrel assembly must be supported in the rear and also from the front. Every precaution must be taken to prevent burring or scarring the guides or the rails. FA1 (1) 802. ANTITANK WEAPONS (2) Assembly. Proceed in the reverse order of disassembling, exercising necessary care to prevent burring or scarring of the rails and guides. Note: The barrel assembly will not habitually be removed from the recoil mechanism as part of a drill. All members of the gun squad should be instructed in this operation because cleaning and lubricating the rails and guides necessitate the removal of the barrel assembly from the rails of the recoil cylinder. e. The trigger actuator. (1) Disassembly. Remove the cotter key and the retaining pin which connects the trigger link with the upper slotted cable head. Raise the link. Unscrew the slotted cable head. Loosen the cable tubing flange set screw. Remove the cable head from the tubing flange. (2) Assembly. Proceed in the reverse order of disassembling, exercising care not to twist the cable when replacing it on the cable head. Note: Normally, the trigger actuator assembly will be disassembled only to the extent required to attach the trigger cable of the subcaliber trigger mechanism. 5. Operation. a. To open the breech. From a kneeling or sitting position at the right side of the gun, move the operating handle latch sharply toward the rear and follow through to throw the operating handle rearward as far as it will go. b. To close the breech. Close the breech by rotating the operating handle forward into the latched position. t c. To load. Open the breech. Insert a round into the chamber by grasping it by the base, placing it in the breech opening and pushing it into the gun chamber with the fingers until the rim of the cartridge contacts the extractor lips. Close the breech. d. To unload. Open the breech smartly. The opening of the breech causes the extrac- tion and ejection of the cartridge case. e. To adjust the gun in traverse. Turn the traversing handwheel in the direction it is desired to move the barrel. (5) Muzzle bore sight (4) Triangles - (6) Handle (3) Large aiming hole (2) Peep hole (l) Steel Peep Plate 6. Bore Sights. f. To move the gun in elevation. To depress the barrel turn the elevating knob to the right. To elevate the barrel turn the elevating knob to the left. g. To fire the gun. Push downward on the trigger actuator plunger. Release the pressure on the plunger. Note: If the trigger actuator plunger is not released, the breech cannot be opened. h. To disengage the traversing mechanism. Pull and hold the traversing release handle to the rear with one hand while swinging the gun to the desired position with the other hand and body. i. To reengage the traversing mechanism. Release the traversing release handle. j. To adjust the telescopic sight. (1) As the sight is mounted in its bracket and not on the gun trunnion, it is necessary that it be made to follow the gun in elevation through a linkage system forming a parallelogram, which must be a true parallelogram if errors of considerable magnitude are to be kept out of the system. ANTITANK WEAPONS 803 (2) To insure the correct relation of the sight with the bore of the gun, three adjust- ments are provided, one for adjusting the parallelogram only and the other two for bore sight adjustment. (3) Parallelogram adjustment. (a) Purpose. This adjustment is for the purpose of establishing the parallelism of the parallelogram linkage. (b) Procedure. Place a clinometer (or similar leveling device) on the sight bracket and one on the barrel of the gun. Elevate or depress the gun and see that for any elevation the two angles measured by the clinometers are the same. If the angles are not the same, loosen the two lock nuts (1) and (2) and vary the length of the link by turning the adjusting screw. (3) until the angles measured are the same. This should be tested by elevating or depressing the gun and measuring the angles of the gun and the sight bracket to see that they have remained the same. (4) Bore sight adjustment. (a) Purpose. The purpose of this adjustment is to establish the zero range and the zero lead axis of the telescopic sight parallel to the bore of the gun. O-RANGE DOT TELESCOPE SIGHT ( M. 6) º $ |C - A BORE º Plate 7. Testing Target. (b) Procedure. 1. (Plate 7). Place the testing target in a vertical position about sixty feet from the gun. Insert the front bore sight about two inches in the bore at the muzzle with the bars of the sight in line with the horizontal marks on the muzzle end of the barrel. Insert the rear (peep) bore sight about two inches in the chamber of the gun. g 2. By use of the traversing handwheel and elévating knob, move the barrel so as to bring the horizontal line of the front bore sight coincident with the horizontal line formed by the bottom of the upper quadrant and the top of the bottom quadrant of the lower right target. g 3. Rotate the front bore sight to bring the bars in the sight in line with the vertical markings on the barrel at the muzzle. By use of the traversing handwheel bring the vertical line of the front sight in line with the vertical line of the target. 4. With the eye about 10 inches from the sight see that the horizontal line of 804 ANTITANK WEAPONs the upper left target is in line with the zero range marking on the reticle (the dot just inside of the circle). If it is not, loosen the bolt on the gun cradle arm and turn nut to the right or left until the horizontal lines and dots in the sight are aligned with the horizontal line on the target; then tighten bolt. 5. Now see that the vertical line of the sight is aligned with the vertical line on the target. If it is not, loosen locking nut and turn nut to the right or left until the vertical lines and dots in the sight are aligned with the vertical line on the target; then tighten nut. (5) With the above adjustments properly made, the vertical and horizontal axis of the telescopic sight will be parallel to the bore of the gun and will remain so through- out the range of operation. Two men are required to perform this operation, one man to do the sighting and one man to operate the mechanism to move the gun or the sight. In bore sighting the small peep in the center of the rear bore sight is used. 6. Care and Cleaning. Laxity in proper care and maintenance of the 37-mm antitank gun, M3 results in deterioration and reduction of accuracy and dependability of the gun. Detailed information pertaining to cleaning, preserving, and lubricating materials and their authorized use will be found in TM 9-850 (now published as TR 1395-A). The use of materials other than those authorized for the purposes mentioned is strictly forbidden. b. Operations not covered herein are the functions of the ordnance maintenance company. Certain classes of repairs, adjustments, and replacements of parts may be made under the direction of an officer or trained armorer. Parts which may be drawn for replacement purposes are indicated in SNL A-44 by the symbol %. Unless specifically prohibited, such parts may be installed under the direction of an officer or by a trained armorer. c. In general, the using unit is charged with preventive maintenance; that is, with routine cleaning, lubricating, and preserving. Specific duties are assigned to individuals and a strict accountability for the proper performance of such duties is enforced. Even under the most adverse conditions, the gun squad is required to keep the matériel clean and well lubricated. d. For ready check and as an aid to proper maintenance, mimeograph check sheets in the form of charts should be maintained for each gun. A chart similar to the one shown below may be used to cover daily and weekly lubrication. The daily chart lists those parts requiring daily care and the lubricant to be used. The weekly chart LUBRICATION CHART Gun number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . For week ending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gun commander . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Checked by . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (Section Leader) DAILY LUTERICATION Fart Lubricant Mon. Tues. Wod. Thurs. Fri. Sat. Trunnion CapS ----- Oil (SAE No. ( sº tº: 10–W) Trail latch ---------- l----- do l Traveling lock ----- -----do | Traversing mech- ||----- do anism. Firing mechanism ----- do (breechblock and ring). Trigger actuator ---|-----do r Bracket supporting do | control. Recoil rails and do sleigh guides (if required). Exposed friction do points and bear- ing surfaces. ANTITANK WEAPONS 805 WEEKLY LUBRICATION Part Lubricant Remarks Axle pivot Wheel bearing grease (short fiber). Pintle - - - - - do Trail connection --------------|----- do Elevating mechanism --------|----- do Traversing mechanism do Wheel segments --------------- Mineral grease (medium cup grease). pertains to those parts requiring lubrication once a week and the appropriate lubricant. A place for remarks has been included to permit an immediate notation of any defects noted, repairs needed, or other remarks pertinent to the condition of the matériel. Modifications in the application of this chart to meet varying conditions may be neces- sary. For example, daily care may be less complete and detailed when the guns are not being fired daily. 7. Cleaning. a. Dirt and grit accumulated in traveling or from the blast of the piece in firing settle on the bearing surfaces, and, in combination with the lubricant, form a cutting compound. Powder fouling attracts moisture and hastens the formation of rust. In lulls during firing and immediately after firing, the gun is thoroughly cleaned. Dirt on nonbearing surfaces usually can be removed by water; lubricated or other greasy parts are cleaned with dry-cleaning solvent applied with a rag. The procedure in cleaning the bore, chamber, and breech ring is covered in paragraph 9a. The follow- ing cleaning materials are issued by the Ordnance Department for use in the field (SNL K-1): (1) Soda ash (dehydrated sal soda). Used for cleaning bore, breech mechanism, and firing mechanism after firing. (2) Dry-cleaning solvent. For removing grease. It is preferred to kerosene be- cause it does not leave a corrosive film. The use of gasoline is prohibited. (3) Crocus cloth. This is the coarsest abrasive permitted for cleaning rust and stain from bearing surfaces. (4) Emery cloth. Used for cleaning unfinished or nonbearing surfaces only. Is- sued in five degrees of coarseness of which OO is the finest. (5) Burlap, jute. Issued for cleaning the bore. (6) Cotton waste, clean rags, and sponges. For general cleaning purposes. b. A suggested division of duties for members of the gun squad in routine cleaning and maintenance is as follows: " (1) Squad leader. Supervision and inspection. (2) No. 1. Sight mount and sight, elevating mechanism, traversing mechanism, trigger, actuator. (3) No. 2. Barrel assembly, spare parts, and accessories. (4) Nos. 3 and 4. Sleigh and recoil mechanism, top carriage, pintle, axle, wheels and segments, trails, shield, apron, and traveling lock. 8. Lubrication. a. Marking of fittings. To facilitate identification, all oil holes and grease fittings should be made conspicuous by circling with bright red enamel. b. Lubricants to be used. The following lubricants only are issued for use on the gun and carriage. They are listed in SNL K-1 and their use is prescribed in TM 9-850 (now published as TR 1395-A). (1) Oil, lubricating, Navy contract (equivalent to SAE No. 10-W). This oil is used in oil cups and for working surfaces in contact where it is not practicable to use grease. - (2) Grease, lubricating, mineral, medium grade (cup grease) is used in gear cases and all pressure lubricating fittings except those for antifriction bearings. (3) Grease, wheel bearing (short fiber grease), for use in lubricating all anti- friction bearings. - 806 ANTITANK WEAPONS c. Instructions. Gear cases and other assemblies packed with grease are cleaned and repacked every 6 months of use by ordnance maintenance personnel. Other moving parts not specifically mentioned in d below are oiled with the lubricating oil specified in b (1) above at least once a month or as required by service conditions. d. Table. The table given below for lubricating the gun and carriage is based on considerable use of the matériel and frequent firings. It should be used as a guide and modified to meet the conditions under which the matériel is being employed. Lubricant Lubrication Part facilities Amount and how Kind Often Axle pivot -------------- Lubrication fitting | Wheel bearing .# greaSe. Pintle -------------------- Lubrication fit- Wheel bearing tings (2). greaSé. Trunnion caps (each) --| Oil cup (1) ------- il ---------------- Wheel segment (each) --| Lubrication fitting| Mineral grease --- Lubrication fittings (1). Filled at leaSt Once Trail connection (each)- || Lubrication fitting|Wheel bearing every Week. (1). gTeaSè. Trail latch -------------- Oil Cup (1) ------ Oil ---------------- Traveling lock ---------- Oil Cup (1) ------ Oil ---------------- Elevating mechanism ---| Lubrication fit- Wheel bearing Oil cups - tings (2). greaSe Filled every day. Traversing mechanism - Lubrication fit- Wheel bearing tings (2). grea.Se Traversing mechanism - || Oil cup (1) ------- Oil ---------------- Firing mechanism ------- Oil Cup (1) ------- Oil ---------------- Control, firing ---------- Oil Cup (1) ------- Oil ---------------- Bracket, supporting con-| Oil cup (1) ------- Oil ---------------- ...) trol. Wheel bearings ---------- Hand packed ----- Wheel bearing Cleaned and repacked grea.Se. every 6 months. Gear cases of -Pintle, Hand packed ----- Wheel bearing Cleaned and packed traversing and elevat- greaSe. every 6 months by ing mechanism. O r d In a n c e mainte- nance personnel. Trigger actuator mechanism and similar moving parts in contact are lubricated with oil at least Once a day. They are thoroughly cleaned and oiled whenever road travel has been excessively dusty or muddy. Guides of "sleigh and rails of recoil cylinder are inspected after travel or firing and cleaned and oiled When necessary. When guns are not in use, parts are given weekly inspection and maintenance. Recoil cylinder is inspected and filled as required after firing. * Figures in parentheses indicate number of points to be serviced. 9. After Firing. As soon as practicable after firing, the bore, chamber, breech ring, breechblock, firing mechanism, and trigger actuator mechanism are cleaned and oiled. The recoil cylinder is filled and the guides of the sleigh and rails of the recoil cylinder cleaned and oiled if necessary. a. Bore, chamber, and breech ring. After removing the breechblock and firing mechanism in the breech ring, thoroughly sluice and sponge the bore and chamber with a solution of 4 pound of soda ash in 1 gallon of water, or hot water and issue soap, hot water alone, or in the absence of these, with cold water. Then swab the bore and chamber with dry waste or rags until they are perfectly dry. Inspect the bore and chamber for any remaining residue. If they are not clean, repeat the swabbing and drying. A small piece of burlap jute used as a patch over the end of the brush of the rammer is effective for cleaning the bore. When all powder fouling has been removed, dry the bore and chamber thoroughly and cover with a light coating of lubricating oil. Whenever the soda ash solution is used for cleaning, all of the parts cleaned are swabbed or rinsed with clear water and dried before oiling. It is of par- ticular importance when using a cleaning process as described above, that all parts and surfaces, recesses, etc., be thoroughly dried before they are oiled. The parts of the firing mechanism removed from the breech ring and the interior of the breech ring are cleaned with a dry rag and then wiped with an oily rag. b. Breechblock. Having removed the breechblock from the breech ring, disassemble it. With a dry rag, clean the dirt and oil from the block and all parts contained therein. ANTITANK WEAPONS - 807 Lubricate all recesses for moving parts with light oil. With an oily rag, wipe the breechblock and all other parts of the firing mechanism leaving a thin coating of oil. c. Trigger actuating mechanism. All exposed and accessible parts of the trigger actuator mechanism extending throughout the system from the trigger actuator to the lever which actuates the trigger arm are thoroughly cleaned and oiled. This mechanism is particularly vulnerable to mud and dust accumulated while traveling or during action. d. Outer surfaces of gun. Clean the outer surfaces, using damp rag or dry cleaning solvent when necessary, then dry and wipe all exposed metal parts with an oily rag. e. Axle, wheels, and trail. Wash with water, using sponge, to remove all dirt and other residue that has gathered. Oil lightly all hinges and pivots of the traveling lock, trail lock, and shield. Check tires and insure a 10-pound pressure. f. Other parts. For care of other parts, see paragraphs 6, 7, and 8. 10. Before Drill or Firing. The gun squad is trained to make a routine inspection of the matériel before its use. An adequate supply of oil in the recoil cylinder is verified. Before firing, particularly if the gun has been traveling for some distance over muddy or dusty roads, it is important that all mechanism, especially the trigger actuator, be manually tested to insure proper functioning. 11. During Firing. The gun crew takes advantage of lulls in firing to swab the bore and chamber, clean and oil the breech, firing and trigger-actuator mechanism, and all other exposed bearing surfaces. The cleaning brush is used to swab the bore and chamber; clean water should also be used if available and time permits. Functioning of the recoil mechanism should be observed and proper measures taken to correct mal- functioning. 12. In Garrison Use. During periods when no firing is done in garrison, post, and camp, care and cleaning of matériel should include routine maintenance as prescribed in paragraphs 6, 7, and 8. The provisions of these paragraphs should be modified to meet conditions under which equipment is being used. Care should insure proper preservation and appearance of the gun, carriage, and accessories at all times. The exterior parts are cleaned and protected with a film of oil after every drill. The gun is thoroughly cleaned and protected at least once a week and immediately following its use in inclement weather. For garrison cleaning, the procedure indicated for care and cleaning after firing in paragraph 9 should be followed except that the bore and chamber will not be swabbed with water or soda-ash solution but will be cleaned with a dry rag and then oiled. If, upon inspection, no corrosion is detected, a coating of rust-preventive compound (cosmic) may be placed in the bore and chamber instead of light oil. 13. For Storage. If the weapon is to be stored or if climatic conditions are conducive to the formation of rust, thoroughly clean all parts and inspect for corrosion. If no corrosion is present, cover all exposed metal surfaces thoroughly with a coating of rust-preventive compound. 14. Special Precautions During Unusual Conditions. a. Cold weather. In cold weather, the gun mechanism should be tested frequently by hand manipulation to in- sure that it is functioning properly. & - b. Protection against chemicals. (1) Whenever nonpersistent gas attacks are antici- pated, all unpainted surfaces of the gun and instruments should be covered with oil in order to protect them against the corrosive effects of chemicals of this type. After the gas attack, the oil is wiped off and fresh oil supplied. Ammunition should be covered or kept in boxes if practicable; after the attack, it is wiped with an oily rag and fired as soon as tactical conditions permit. (2) When persistent gas attacks are anticipated, the gun cover should be kept on the gun when it is not in use. After a persistent gas attack, the contaminated matériel is cleaned with gasoline or kerosene, if available, and then thoroughly swabbed with chloride of lime mixed with water. If practicable, this paste is allowed to remain on the weapon for about 2 hours. Since chloride of lime is very corrosive to metals, all weapons that have been treated with it are thoroughly cleaned with water and well oiled. If the special noncorrosive decontaminating agent is available, it is used instead 808 ANTITANK WEAPONS of chloride of lime. It is sprayed on all affected parts and allowed to remain for a few minutes, then the weapon is cleaned and oiled. In all cleaning operations, the gas mask and protective clothing are worn. All cleaning rags, sticks, etc., used in the operation are disposed of by burying. 15. Filling Recoil Cylinder. a. The recoil cylinder has a capacity of about 2% guarts of recoil oil. It must be kept filled in accordance with instructions or damage to the gun may result. The Ordnance Department furnishes the proper grade of oil for the recoil cylinder under Specification 2-96, “Oil, recoil, heavy, low-pour-point.” The sub- stitution of any filler other than that issued by the Ordnance Department is prohibited. b. The amount of oil in the recoil cylinder should be such that the movement of the gun in recoil is smooth and of uniformly decreasing velocity and the maximum point of recoil is reached without shock; the counterrecoil mechanism then returns the gun completely to battery without shock. Too rapid recoil and shock at the end of recoil are usually caused by too little oil in the recoil cylinder. Failure to return completely to battery is usually caused by too much oil in the recoil cylinder or may be due to lack of oil or the presence of foreign matter on the guides or rails. c. To fill the recoil cylinder, proceed as follows: (1) Depress the muzzle of the gun below its horizontal position. (2) Fill the oil gun with oil. When filling, have the nozzle well under the sur- face of oil supply to avoid drawing in air. After filling, point the nozzle upward and push the piston until oil starts to flow in order to force out any air present in the oil gun. (3) Remove the rear (filler) plug and screw the nozzle of the oil gun into position, keeping a slight pressure on the oil gun piston as the oil gun is being seated. (4) Remove the front plug in the front end cap of the recoil cylinder. (5) Fill the recoil cylinder by slowly pushing in the piston of the oil gun until oil flows out of the front hole. (6) Fully elevate the gun (15°) and continue to slowly force oil through the cylinder and out of the front hole until no more bubbles emerge with the oil. (7) Screw in the front plug tightly. (8) Fully depress the muzzle of the gun, unscrew the oil gun, and replace the rear plug. d. In filling the recoil mechanism, insure that all air has been “bled off” and that the mechanism is completely full. The nresence of air can be detected by air bubbles appearing in the oil. After completing the above filling process, it is sometimes found necessary to drain off a small amount of oil from the recoil cvlinder. This establishes a void which compensates for an expansion of the oil during firing. The requisite amount of oil to be removed may have to be established during firing. If draining is found necessary, elevate the muzzle slightlv and unscrew (crack) the rear filler plug sufficiently to permit about one tablespoonful of oil to flow out. The amount of oil in the mechanism should be such that the gun returns completely into battery and does not end the action of recoil with anv appreciable jar. e. Excess oil used during filling should be caught in a clean receptacle and must be strained through a clean cloth before being used again. 16. Opening the Breech; Extraction, Ejection, and Cocking. a. Opening the breech. The movement of the operating handle to the rear is transmitted through the operating shaft to the crank. The trunnions on the crank move to the rear in the tee-slot in the breechblock and slide the block downward in the breech recess. The motion is stopped by impact of the stop surface of the crank hub on the shoulders of the breech ring lugs. b. Extraction. As the breechblock nears its lowermost position, the cam surfaces on its forward shoulders contact the round cams on the lower ends of the two extractors. This imparts a sharp rearward throw to the extractor lips on the upper arms of the extractors. . Since the extractor lips are behind the cartridge rim. the case is extracted from the chamber and ejected clear of the breech end of the gun. The breech is then open and ready for loading. * t c. Cocking. As the cocking lever is carried down with the breechblock, the projecting upper arm of the cocking lever is cammed forward into the breech recess by the cam ANTITANK WEAPONS 809 surface inside the upper rear wall of the recess. The lower arm is thus rotated rearward to engage the cocking lug on the firing pin guide and moves the guide toward the rear. This movement of the firing pin guide compresses the firing spring, with sufficient over- travel to permit engagement of the sear, which is moved to the left by the sear spring to engage the sear lug on the firing pin guide and hold the guide and firing pin cocked. 17. Closing the Breech and Firing. a. Closing the breech. (1) Operation. A cartridge having been placed in the gun chamber, the breech is closed by rotating the operating handle forward into the latched position. The forward movement of the operating handle, through the action of the crank, raises the breechblock to the closed position, forcing the cartridge home, and releases the cocking lever, the firing pin and guide being retained in the cocked position by the sear. As the breechblock nears its upper limit of travel, the upper arm of the cocking lever emerges from the breech recess, permitting the cocking lever spring to return the cocking lever to its normal position, with its upper arm projecting rearward, and the lower arm forward, clear of the path of the cocking lug of the firing pin guide. The upward movement of the breechblock is stopped by the impact of the crank trunnions on the rear end of the barrel; the latch then engages the catch, and the breech is locked, ready to fire. . (2) Latching of breech operating handles. (a) To close the breech on the 37-mm guns M3 and M5, the operator of the breech operating handle grasps the operating handle with the right hand, palm to the rear, and quickly closes the breech; he allows his hand to slip free of the operating handle and calls “Up” so that the gunner will know that the gun is ready to fire. (b) Under certain conditions the 37-mm guns M3 and M5 may be fired before the breech operating handle is latched. This involves no element of danger to operat- ing personnel except from movement of the gun in recoil. By following the procedure in (a) above, this condition may be avoided. b. Firing the piece. (1) Operation of the trigger actuator. The trigger actuator is controlled by a plunger. A push on the plunger causes the disk to force the upper portion of the link downward. The link being pivoted, this movement retracts the lower portion of the link which is connected by a cable with the plunger. The cable pulls the trigger lever plunger forward, compresses the spring, and pulls the lower arm of the lever forward and forces the upper arm to the rear. The upper arm of the trigger lever, being in contact with the lower arm of the trigger, forces its rearward. On release of the plunger the trigger actuator mechanism is returned to the cocked position by the action of the spring. The plunger should therefore be released after each firing. There is a handle provided for hand operation of the mechanism. $4%| (2) Operation of the firing mechanism. The trigger arm, which was forced to the rear by the trigger lever, transmits this motion through the trigger hub to the shaft of the tripper, throwing the upper arm of the tripper forward. The tripper arm cams the sear to the right, releasing the sear lug of the firing pin guide from the sear notch. The firing pin and guide, thus released, are impelled forward by the compressed firing spring to fire the round. (3) Retraction of the firing pin and guide. The firing spring, bearing on the pronged stop in the forward end of the firing pin guide, impels the stop, guide, and firing pin forward as a unit. Immediately before the point of the firing pin emerges through the front face of the breechblock bushing, the forward projecting prongs of the firing pin stop strike the inside rear surface of the breechblock bushing, thus stopping the action of the firing spring. The firing pin and guide are then carried on forward by inertia, to strike the primer and fire the round. This final forward motion compresses the firing pin re- tracting spring between the head of the firing pin and the stop; and, after impact of the firing pin on the primer, this spring retracts the pin and guide to their normal position; that is, with the firing pin point flush with or slightly below the front face of the breech. block. 18. Recocking. The firing mechanism can be cocked without opening the breech, by rotating the rearward projecting arm of the cocking lever forward. 19. The Recoil Mechanism. a. Backward movement of the barrel assembly. The ac- 810 * ANTITANK WEAPONS tion of the powder gases on the breech barrel and breechblock at the moment of discharge causes the recoil of the united barrel and breechblock, driving them rearward about 20 inches. Recoil is resisted, its speed regulated, and the movement stopped by action of the recoil mechanism, which is attached to the recoiling parts by the coupler. Two forces resist the movement; the counterrecoil springs are compressed and the movement of the piston head is resisted by the oil in the cylinder. The oil follows two courses as it flows to the front of the piston head. (1) It forces the piston valve open against the resistance of the piston valve spring and flows through the holes in the piston head. (2) It passes through the ports, thence through the hollow portion of the forward end of the piston rod. b. Forward movement of the barrel assembly. (1) Recoil being stopped, the recoiling parts are instantly moved forward by the action of the compressed counterrecoil spring against the piston bracket. (2) The piston valve closed the holes in the piston head just before counterrecoil started. Therefore, the speed of counterrecoil is regulated by the rate at which the oil in the cylinder flows through the hollow portion of the forward end of the piston rod. (3) The final movement of the recoiling parts is stopped, and shock to the gun pre- vented, by action of the counterrecoil buffer, which progressively closes the hollow portion of the piston rod through which the oil flows. 20. Safety Features of the Firing Mechanism. a. The trigger cannot be actuated to trip the sear unless the breech is closed. As the breechblock is lowered, the left guide shoulder of the block passes immediately to the rear of the safety button on the lower arm of the tripper, thus preventing operation of the tripper and holding the trigger in the forward position until the breechblock is closed. b. The offset lower arm of the cocking lever engages the cocking lug of the firing pin guide early in the downward movement of the breechblock and remains in the path of this lug until the block is returned to approximately its closed position. This prevents any possibility of the firing pin striking the cartridge because of premature release of the sear or other failure of the sear to hold the mechanism cocked until the breech is fully closed 21. Immediate Action. a. The gun fails to fire. Check to see that the gun has re- turned completely to battery and cock the piece by pushing the cocking lever forward with the heel of the left hand, taking care to keep the body clear of the gun in case of delayed ignition. If the gun has returned to battery, attempt to fire. If the gun still fails to fire on the third attempt, wait two minutes before opening the breech and ejecting the round. If the gun has not returned to battery, push the gun into battery by hand. If the gun cannot be pushed into battery by hand, and in peace time when the gun does not return to battery, firing will be suspended. A small quantity of oil (about a tablespoonful) will be removed from the recoil cylinder. The gun will then be pushed into battery by hand and firing resumed. 22. Stoppages. a. Failure to fire. (1) Causes: (a) Defective ammunition. (b) Broken or burred firing pin. (c) Weak or broken firing spring. (d) Defective trigger actuator. (e) Improper assembly of trigger mechanism. (f) Broken trigger arm. (g) Gun not completely in battery. (2) Action to remedy. (a) Apply immediate action. (b) If gun still fails to fire, in time of peace wait two minutes and then open breech and inspect ammunition for defects. (c) If ammunition is not faulty, inspect firing mechanism and the trigger actuator mechanism for broken or defective parts or for improper assembly. b. Breech cannot be opened. (1) Causes. (a) Failure to release pressure on trigger actuator plunger after firing. ANTITANK WEAPONs 811 (b) Weak or broken firing pin retractor spring. (c) Weak or broken trigger plunger spring. l (2) Action to remedy. (a) Caution firer to release pressure on the trigger actuator plunger. (b) If the breech still cannot be opened, remove the firing pin and guide assembly and inspect the firing pin retractor, spring. (c) If no defects were found in the firing pin retractor spring disassemble the firing mechanism and inspect for a weak or broken trigger plunger spring. (d) Replace defective parts. c. Failure to extract or eject. (1) Causes. (a) Broken extractors. (b) Dirty chamber. - - (c) Dirty ammunition. (d) Sluggish movement of breech lever to the rear. (2) Action to remedy. (a) Close the breech and open smartly. (b) If this is not effective, remove the empty case with the cleaning brush staff by inserting the staff through the bore from the muzzle. (c) Replace extractors if necessary. (d) Clean the chamber thoroughly. d. Failure to feed. (1) Causes. (a) Defective ammunition (bulged round). (b) Obstruction or dirt in the chamber. (2) Action to remedy. (a) Inspect ammunition. (b) If ammunition is not defective, clean the chamber thoroughly. e. Sluggish recoil and counterrecoil. (1) Causes. (a) Excessive oil in recoil cylinder. (b) Dirty or burred rails or guides; lack of lubrication on rails or guides. (2) Action to remedy. (a) If necessary to continue firing push the gun forward into battery by hand. When necessity for fire ceases clean and grease the rails and guides. If burred, smooth carefully with a fine file or emery paper. (b) If slides or guides are not dirty or burred remove about a tablespoonful of oil from the recoil cylinder. f. When the stoppage cannot be corrected by the application of the immediate action and other remedial action described above, or when no simple remedy can be applied, the gun should be turned over to personnel of the Ordnance Department for examination and repair. f 23. Subcaliber Mount. The subcaliber mount is designed to permit firing with either caliber 22 or caliber .30 ammunition. The mount itself consists of a long tube, which extends the full length of the 37-mm barrel, a recoil housing which acts as a rear bushing for the mount, and a receiver locking frame which receives either a M1903 caliber 30 rifle or a M1922 caliber .22 rifle. The mount is retained in place in the 37-mm gun by means of a nut which screws on the extension tube at the muzzle of the 37-mm gun. It is not necessary to disassemble the 37-mm gun to use the subcaliber mount, other than the trigger mechanism. A caliber .30 and a caliber .22 rifle, modified to fit the subcaliber mount, are furnished with the subcaliber mount. 24. To Install the Subcaliber Mount. Open the breech fully. Insert the long ex- tension tube completely through the barrel of the 37-mm gun. Push the recoil housing into the breech, making sure that the cuts on the sides are in line with the extractors, the rifle bolt being up. Place fiber washer and bronze bushing over the protruding end of the tube. Turn down nut on threaded end of the tube, using spanner wrench provided, in order to securely retain the mount in place. Disassemble the auxiliary trigger mechanism of the 37-mm gun and install the flexible cable of the subcaliber mount. 25. To Remove Either Subcaliber Gun from the Subcaliber Mount. Remove the magazine floor plate, the follower spring, and follower. Remove the front and rear trigger guard screws. Swing the receiver locking frame downward until the gun trigger is cleared. Remove the trigger guard assembly. Remove the subcaliber gun to the rear. 26. To Install Either Subcaliber Gun in the Subcaliber Mount. To install either subcaliber gun in the subcaliber mount, insert the gun muzzle, and forward barrel bushing in the subcaliber mount near housing until the gun is completely seated, with the 812 ANTITANK WEAPONS t bolt up and the trigger down. Insert the trigger guard assembly in the receiver locking frame. Swing the locking frame into its closed position. Replace the front and rear trigger guard screws. Replace the magazine floor plate, follower spring, and follower. Check to make sure that the trigger crank of the subcaliber mount is ahead of the gun trigger. 27. Gun and Carriage Accessories. The following gun and carriage accessories are provided: a. Cleaning brush and rammer. (1) The cleaning brush is made of fibre bristles. The lower end of the brush is provided with an externally threaded stud which can be screwed into the thread end of the forward section of the rammer. The brush is carried in the tool case. 4. (2) The rammer consists of two sections. The forward section is threaded at both ends; one end is threaded to receive the cleaning brush and the other end to receive the rear section of the rammer. The middle of the rear section is reinforced by brass ring to give it added strength when it is used as a trail bar when moving the gun by hand. b. Breech and muzzle covers. These covers are made of waterproofed canvas. They are carried over the breech and muzzle when the gun is not being fired to protect them from dirt, moisture, or obstructions. c. Oil can, one-quart. This can contains recoil cylinder oil. It is carried in its compart- ment of the tool case. d. Oiler, oval, three-ounce. This is the spout type oiler. It contains light lubricating oil and is carried in the tool case. e. Grease gun (Lincoln No. 5951). This grease gun is made to fit onto the lubricating fixtures on the gun and carriage. It is carried in the tool case. - f. Oil gun, with cap. This oil gun is used in refilling the recoil cylinder. It is made of brass and has a fixed threaded spout which is screwed into the filler hole of the recoil cylinder. g. Sight illuminator. This consists of a dry cell battery (type BA-30, Signal Corps) and a wire cable with plugs. The battery and cable are carried in a compartment in the left end of the tool case. The cable is provided with attachment plugs. It is connected to the battery, through the door opening in the left end of the tool case, and to the light bulb seated in the forward arm of the sight bracket. h. Tool roll. The roll is made of canvas and is designed to carry the tools. i. Assorted tools. The tools furnished with the gun are: (1) Hammer, machine, ball-peen, 8-ounce. (2) Pliers, combination slip joint. (3) Punch, 3/32 point x 4 long. (4) Screwdriver, regular, 3-inch. (5) Wrench for wheel stud nuts. (6) Wrench, adjustable, 8-inch. (7) Wrench, engineers, double head, 3% and 9%. (8) Wrench, safety screw, 3/32 hexagonal. (9) Wrench, safety screw, 9% hexagonal. The tool roll and tools are carried in the tool case. j. Towing harness. The towing harness consists of an adjustable canvas shoulder strap and a tow rope. The rope is attached to the shoulder strap. An iron hook is attached to the fºnd of the rope. For towing purposes, the hook is engaged in the towing rings of the trail. - W k. Telescopic sight case. The sight case is made of leather and has a hinged cover. The case is strapped in position on the left shield. 28. Ammunition. a. General. Ammunition for the 37-mm gun, M3, is used as fixed complete rounds. The cartridge case which contains the propelling charge and primer is crimped rigidly to the projectile. The fixed round is loaded into the gun as a unit. b. Classification. The ammunition provided for use in this gun is classified, according to the type of projectile to be fired, as armor piercing, high explosive, canister, and target practice. Other types provided for special purposes in which no projectile is to be fired ANTITANK WEAPONS 813 are blank and drill. The armor-piercing projectile contains a tracer but no explosive filler, whereas the high-explosive projectile contains a high-explosive bursting charge. The practice projectile also contains a tracer but no explosive filler; however, the canister projectile contains no explosive whatsoever. Blank ammunition has no projectile, while drill ammunition is completely inert. c. Painting. All projectiles are painted to prevent rust, and by means of the color to provide a ready means for identification as to type. The color scheme is as follows: Armor piercing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Black. (For 37-mm projectiles which contain no explosive filler or only a tracer.) High explosive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Yellow Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Blue. (Projectile may be inert or may contain a live fuze with spotting charge of black powder.) Inert (dummy or drill) . . . . . . . . . . Black. (Contains no explosive.) d. Care, handling, and preservation. (1) Complete rounds and ammunition com- ponents are packed to withstand conditions ordinarily encountered in the field. The ammunition described herein is packed in sealed, metal-lined packing boxes. Neverthe- less, since explosives are adversely affected by moisture and high temperature, due con- sideration should be given to protect the ammunition from such conditions. (2) Explosive ammunition must be handled with appropriate care at all times. The explosive elements in primers and fuzes are particularly sensitive to undue shock and high temperatures. (3) Do not break moisture-resistant seal until ammunition is to be used. (4) Do not attempt to disassemble any complete rounds or any fuze. (5) Do not allow ammunition to be exposed to the direct rays of the sun for any length of time. More uniform firing is obtained if the rounds are at the same tempera- ture. (6) The complete round should be free of any foreign matter (sand, mud, grease, etc.) before loading it into the gun. If it gets wet or dirty, wipe it off at once. (7) Rounds prepared for firing, but not fired, will be returned to their original packings and appropriately marked. Such components will be used in subsequent firing in order that stocks in opened packings may be kept at a minimum. (8) Do not handle duds. After firing, fuzes are extremely dangerous. Duds are disposed of in accordance with TM 9-1900. AMMUNITION FOR 37-MM GUN, M3 Prescribed fuzes Approxi- Nomenclature mate weight of projectile Model Action (lbs.) Service ammunition Shot, fixed, AP, M51 with tracer, 37-mm guns, M3 and M5 1.92 Shell, fixed, HE, Mk. II, with BDF M38A1, 37-mm guns, M3 and M5 ---. M38A1 i ND 2 1.24 Target practice ammunition shot, fixed, TP, M51, with trader, 37-mm guns, M3 and M5 - 1.92 Blank ammunition Shell, shotgun, 10 gage, blank (8 gr. black powder with dry felt wads) * Drill ammunition Cartridge, drill, M13, 37-mm guns, M3 and M5 ---- 1.92 1 This fuze not classified as horc safe. * ND—nondelay. * Requires adaptor, shot shell (10-gage) M2, shown on G. A. 1785. This adapter con- sists of a standard cartridge case inodified by the addition of a liner which is chambered for a standard 10-gage shotgun shell. 814 6 ANTITANK WEAPONS e. Packing. Twenty rounds are packed in a sealed metal-lined packing box. The following data for the armor piercing ammunition are considered representative for estimating weight and volume requirements: * Weight Volume (lbs.) (cu. ft.) Complete round without packing material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4 . . . . . . . . . . 20 rounds in metal-lined packing box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 2.3 The over-all dimensions of the packing box are 17% by 12 15/16 by 17 21/32 inches. 29. Precautions During Practice Firing. a. Any individual who observes a condition. which makes firing dangerous will immediately call: CEASE FIRING, and if at a distance from the unit firing, will make the prescribed signal therefor. b. Firing will cease immediately at the command cease firing regardless of the source of the command. c. No firing will be done except under the direct supervision of an officer. d. Guns will be loaded only on command of the officer or noncommissioned officer in charge of the firing. e. Firing will commence on any range only after it has been determined that the range is clear and the officer in charge of firing gives the order: COMMENCE FIRING. f. Precautions when firing high-explosive shell. The fuze of the high-explosive shell used in the 37-mm antitank gun is not bore safe. Therefore, during peacetime, it is necessary to provide positive protection against premature bursts in or out of the bore for persons in vicinity of the firing point. The form of protection required is specified in paragraph 14a, AR 750-10. To comply with these instructions, the gun . crew and all other persons within an area 200 yards from the firing gun must be pro- tected by one of the methods specified. The gun will be fired by means of a lanyard fastened to the firing handle. 30. Inspection. During Practice Firing. a. Before each day's practice firing, each gun will be inspected by an officer to insure that the bore is free of obstructions and that excess oil or grease has been removed therefrom. b. After firing and prior to moving the gun from a firing position, it will be inspected by an officer to see that it is unloaded. c. The gun will be cleared as prescribed in Chapter II before anyone moves in front of the muzzles or the gun is moved. 31. Precautions Before Firing. a. No. 1 gunner, will check his position to make certain he is not leaning against the shoulder guard and that no part of his body will be in the path of the gun upon recoil. b. No. 2, assistant gunner, will check his position to be certain his body is clear of the rear of the gun. f c. All ammunition at the firing point must be placed so that it will be impossible to ignite, explode, or detonate it in case of an accident at the gun. Ammunition should be kept in a dry place and protected from the direct rays of the sun. Erratic shots and possibly dangerously high powder pressure may result from overheated ammunition. 32. Precautions During Firing. a. The individual safety precautions listed in the preceding paragraph will be taken during the firing of the gun. b. Ammunition will be inspected to see that it is clean and free of grease and oil. 33. Misfires. a. When a misfire occurs, the gun will be cocked by hand, and without opening the breech, the trigger actuator plunger will again be pressed. During practice firing, at least three attempts to fire the round will be made; if the round still fails to fire, the breech will not be opened until 2 minutes have elapsed. In recocking gun by hand, keep the body clear of the gun. b. When rounds which misfire are removed from the gun, they will be placed at a designated point away from the gun position. They will be destroyed under the direct supervision of an officer in accordance with specific local regulations or in accordance. with instructions contained in TM 9-900 (now published as TR 1370-A). ANTITANK WEAPONS 815 1 11. Questions . What are the principal characteristics of the 37-mm antitank gun, M3? . What is the prime mover of the 37-mm antitank gun? . What is the approximate weight of the projectile fired by the 37-mm antitank gun? . What are the principal parts of the barrel assembly? . What type of sight is used on the sight mount? . Demonstrate the disassembly of the firing pin and guide assembly. . Demonstrate how to disassemble the breechblock and firing mechanism group. . Demonstrate how to assemble the firing mechanism and the breechblock. . Demonstrate the disassembly of the trigger actuator. . Demonstrate the following: a. Open the breech. b. Close the breech. c. Load. d. Unload. e. Adjust the gun in traverse. f. Move the gun in elevation. g. Fire the gun. A. Disengage the traversing mechanism i. Reengage the traversing mechanism. j. Adjust the telescopic sight. What type of grease and lubricating oil should be used in the care and cleaning of the 37-mm antitank gun? 27. tion? 28. 29. . How are oiling and lubricating fittings marked on the gun? . What is the first step in cleaning the bore and chamber? . What care should be taken in storage? . How should the recoil cylinder be filled? . Explain what mechanical functioning takes place when the breech is open. . Explain the extraction. . How can the firing mechanism be cocked without opening the breech? . Can the trigger actuate the sear when the breech is open? . Describe “immediate action” for the 37-mm gun. . Name the stoppages. . What causes the failure to fire? . What action do you take when the breech cannot be opened? . What are the causes for the failure to feed? . What is the purpose of the subcaliber mount? . Name some of the gun and carriage accessories. Why is the ammunition used in the 37-mm antitank gun known as fixed ammuni- Name four types of ammunition. What should any person immediately do when observing a condition which makes firing dangerous? 30. What precautions are taken before firing? 31. When a misfire occurs, what steps are taken? CHAPTER II TRAINING FOR PLACING GUN IN ACTION 34. Purpose and Scope. a. The purpose of training for placing the gun in action is to develop the squad to function as a team with precision and speed in putting the gun into action and taking it out of action, in serving it during firing, and in continuing it in action with the squad at reduced strength. This training may be divided into two phases, elementary and advanced. Elementary training should take the form of a drill, initially without, and later with the prime mover. When the men have become proficient in the initial phase, the training should be extended to an application of the drill to field training under varied tactical and terrain conditions. Throughout training, speed in preparing for action and firing rapidly requires the coordinated effort of each member of the gun squad and should be emphasized. b. Teamwork is attained when each member of the squad thoroughly understands the importance of his duties, their relation to and effect upon duties to be performed by the other members of the squad. c. Precision is acquired by performing each operation and making each move in proper sequence with exactness and in accordance with prescribed procedure. Speed is developed through practice, during which each member of the squad acquires the facility to perform each operation automatically. d. Continuation of the gun in action with the squad at reduced strength is assured by training each member of the squad in the duties of the other members, particularly in the duties of Nos. 1 and 2. This is accomplished by rotating the members during drill. 35. General Rules. a. In general, drill will be executed and commands and signals given as described in FM 22-5. Particular attention should be given to drill for motor and wagon units, extended order, and signals. In executing the drills described herein, the individual soldier will conduct himself in accordance with those provisions of FM 22.5 pertaining to the soldier without arms and the soldier with arms so far as reasonably applicable. ^. b. Except when forming the squad at the command fall in, all training is executed at €aSe. c. All movement in assuming positions other than the movement of the gun by hand will be executed at a run. Speed of execution should be gradually developed as individ- ual and squad proficiency is attained. During the early stages of instruction, movements are carefully explained and demonstrated. The individuals will then be required to exe- cute the movements slowly and carefully. The tempo of the drill is gradually increased until all positions can be assumed at a run and all movements executed rapidly without confusion or lost motion. d. When not specifically prescribed, the squad leader takes position from which he can best supervise and direct training. e. In all training involving movement of the gun by hand, the ammunition bags will be hung over the top of the shield so as to relieve Nos. 3 and 4 of their weight and facilitate their pulling the gun with the towing harness. f. For all training, except when actually used for towing the gun, the towing harness will be carried in the slung position. In the slung position, Nos. 1 and 3 will adjust the breast strap over the right shoulder and across the chest to the left hip; Nos. 2 and 4 over the left shoulder and across the chest to the right hip. The towing rope will be passed completely around the back of the body and the hook engaged in front of the body in ring of shoulder strap. g. Whenever the gun is being moved by hand and the command halt is given, the trail of the gun carriage will be lowered to the ground. 36. Definitions and Terms. a. Coupled. A gun is said to be coupled when its lunette is attached to the pintle of the prime mover. • b. Uncoupled. A gun is said to be uncoupled when its lunette is detached from the pintle of the prime mover. 816 ANTITANK WEAPONS 817 c. Front. The front in a gun squad, with the gun coupled, is the direction in which the trail points; with the gun uncoupled, it is the direction in which the muzzle of the gun points. d. Right (left). The direction right (left) is the right (left) of one facing to the front. e. Readiness for action. Being uncoupled, the gun may be held in one of two stages of readiness for action: (1) In firing position. The gun is prepared to fire instantly. (2) In cover position. The gun is near a reconnoitered and prepared firing position. The gun is prepared for firing as far as practicable in the tactical situation and held under cover. - 37. Organization. a. The five-man gun squad is organized as follows: (1) Squad leader. (2) Gunner, No. 1. (3) Assistant gunner (loader), No. 2. (4) Ammunition carrier, No. 3. (5) Ammunition carrier, No. 4. (6) Chauffeur, No. 5. b. Each member of the squad is given a permanent number as indicated above. If the chauffeur is present for training without his vehicle, he is designated as No. 5 and functions as an additional ammunition carrier. 38. Equipment and Duties. a. The table below shows the equipment carried or worn by members of the gun squad in addition to the regular field equipment; it also summarizes briefly the general duties of the squad members. Equipment Duties Squad leader ------------ Pistol -------------------- In direct command of the gun SQuad and all materiel Field glasses. pertaining thereto, including the prime mover when Watch compass. present. Conducts the squad in accordance with Flashlight. - Orders or instructions of his section leader or of Wire cutters. the commander of the unit to which he is attached. Hand axe. Responsible for the care and maintenance of the Message book. gun and its equipment. Responsible in combat that Shoulder pad. his squad accomplishes its mission. Controls and conducts the fire of the gun and is responsible for its proper concealment. Keeps his section leader in- formed of the status of his ammunition supply. Gunner No. 1 ---------- Pistol -------------------- Iays and fires the gun and acts as squad leader in Towing harness Over the latter’s absence. Is careful to coordinate his right shoulder Onto actions with No. 2. left hip. Pick mattox. Assistant gunner Pistol -------------------- Loads the gun. Coordinates his movements and (loader), No. 2. Towing harness over left duties at the gun with No. 1. shoulder onto right t hip. g Pick mattox. Ammunition carrier, Pistol -------------------- In action, hands ammunition to No. 2 to facilitate No. 3 Towing harness over loading. right shoulder onto left hip. Entrenching shovel. Ammunition bag. Ammunition carrier, Pistol -------------------- Delivers ammunition to the close proximity of No. 3. No. 4. Towing harness Over left Assists in shifting trails and swabs out the bore shoulder onto right at direction of Squad leader. right hip. Entrenching shovel. Ammunition bag. Chauffeur, No. 5 -------- Rifle - || Care and operation of prime mover. (If present for Flashlight. training without vehicle, acts as ammunition car- rier.) In action, may assist as ammunition carrier when situation demands. b. Training will include periods of drill while wearing the gas mask. 39. Elementary Training Without Prime Mover. a. Equipment. For training with- out the prime mover, the individual members of the gun squad are equipped as pre- scribed in paragraph 38. The articles of equipment carried may be modified to meet the actual needs of the training being conducted, except that the towing harness will always be worn (par. 35 f). In addition to individual equipment, the squad will re- 818 ANTITANK WEAPONs quire one 37-mm gun and carriage complete and dummy ammunition in ammunition bags. * b. To secure equipment. For training without the prime mover, the squad will normally be formed and arms inspected as a part of a larger unit (platoon or section). Thereafter, the squad will be marched or otherwise directed to move to the place where the guns and equipment are stored. Under direction of the squad leader, matériel will then be inspected and the individual members of the squad will secure the equipment necessary for the particular training to be conducted. The gun cover will be removed. If dummy ammunition is to be used, it will be placed in the ammunition bags which will be hung over the left and right side of the top of the shield. The gun will then be moved by hand to the location designated by the squad leader. |-EGEND: N SQUAD LEADER ||| É No. 1, GUNNER […] Nos. 2, 3, 4, (APPROPRIATE 3 PACES NUMBER INSERTED ) !!! * * *º | sº, FACING DiRECTION [2] * OR DIRECTION OF MOVEMENT. Plate 8. Fall In. c. To form the squad. (1) Equipment having been secured and the gun having been moved to the location designated by the squad leader, the squad forms as follows: The squad leader places himself to the left of and three paces in rear of the trail spades, facing the front, so that when the squad forms, its center will be opposite the spades. He then commands: FALL IN. The squad forms on the right of the squad leader in two ranks with close interval. The two men in the front rank aline themselves on the right of the squad leader. The two men in the rear rank cover off the men in the front rank. (See Plate 8.) (2) To form the squad in any other location or facing in any other direction than that prescribed in a above, the squad leader places himself at that location or faces the desired direction and prefaces the command fall in with an indication of the assembly point; as, “In front of gun,” “In front of truck,” etc. When the command is given the members of the squad form on the squad leader as described in a above. (3) If the members of the squad have been previously assigned numbers, they will take position in their appropriate place (par. 39d) at the command fall in. d. To call off. (1) The command is: CALL OFF. The man on the right of the squad leader calls off, “One”; the man on the right of No. 1, “Two’’; the man in rear of No. 1, “Three”; the man on the right of No. 3, “Four.” (See Plate 8). (2) After having called off, if a subsequent formation is ordered, the men fall in at once in their proper order. e. Inspection of arms. When the squad is first formed for any drill or exercise, pistols, if carried and not previously inspected, will be inspected immediately after the execu- tion of the command call off. f. To take posts at the gun. (1) The command is: POSTS. The members of the squad move to their posts as shown in Plate 9. No. 1 places himself in rear of the left ANTITANK WEAPONS 819 wheel and alongside the trail, No. 2 in rear of the right wheel and alongside the trail, and Nos. 3 and 4 alongside the left and right spades, respectively; all face to the front. (2) For preliminary instruction, the squad is formed as described in paragraph 39c and the command posts is given from that formation. The command posts, however, is applicable when the members of the gun squad are in or out of ranks. g. To change numbers and duties in the squad. (1) The squad being in any forma- tion, the command is: FALL OUT ONE (TWO, THREE) (or any other number in the squad). At this command, the gunner takes the position of the last number of the squad. No. 2 calls out “One” and moves to the position of No. 1. No. 3 calls out “Two” and moves to the position of No. 2, and in this manner throughout the squad, each man moves up one number. When a number other than the gunner is directed to fall out, he takes the position of the last number of the squad. The numbers following the designated number call out their new number and move to their new positions. The men preceding the designated number do not change their position. 3 Plate 9. Posts of Gun Squad, Gun Uncoupled. (2) During preliminary training the command for rotating the members within the squad should be given only after a movement or command has been completely executed. After each member of the squad is familiar with the duties of each other member the command may be given before the completion of a movement. In such cases each man at once stays the execution of his duties and takes up the duties of his new number. h. To move gun by hand. The squad having taken posts, the squad leader com- mands BY HAND. At this command, Nos. 1 and 2 engage the hooks of their tow ropes in the towing rings on the trails. No. 2 releases the clamp which holds the rear section of the rammer to the right trail. No. 4 then secures this section of the rammer and, assisted by No. 3, inserts it through the rammer rings of the trails so that the rings bear on the brass reinforcements in the middle of the rammer. Nos. 3 and 4 then engage the hooks of their tow ropes in the towing rings on the trails. When all are ready, the squad leader commands, FOLLOW ME, or designates the direction of movement. Nos. 3 and 4, with their right and left hand respectively grasping the ends of the rammer section and their left and right hand the lifting handles, raise the trail. All men move off, pulling the gun, and follow the squad leader or move in the direction indicated by him. The squad leader directs and assists in moving the gun to the desired position or moves out in front, giving the direction of march and reconnoitering the route. In all movement by hand, the ammunition bags are hung over the right and left side of the top of the shield. No attempt should be made to move the gun about with drill-ground precision. (See Plate 10.) i. To prepare gun for firing. (1) General. (a) In general, the gun may be prepared for firing when the members of the squad are in or out of ranks, when the gun is being 820 ANTITANK WEAPONS - -, -lºs ---ºr moved by hand, at a halt, or, in a position of readiness. During preliminary training, however, the squad is trained to prepare the gun for action from the position of “Posts” as described in (f) above. After becoming proficient in this operation, the squad will be trained to go into action under varying conditions. Regardless of the state of readiness of the gun for firing or of the status of the gun squad, whether in or out of ranks, etc., at the command Action, the crew will immediately prepare the gun for firing as described in (2) below, eliminating any part of the procedure already accomplished or adding to it any intervening steps as may be necessary to prepare the gun properly for firing in the location indicated by the squad leader. Plate 10. Moving Gun by Hand. (b) The gun will habitually be prepared for firing resting on the wheel segments, unless the order on wheels, action, is given, in which case the wheel segments will not be lowered. (2) Action while stationary. The gun squad having been posted, the command is: ACTION. (a) The squad leader indicates the general direction for firing. (b) Nos. 3 and 4 raise trails and turn gun so that the muzzle points in the direction indicated by the squad leader; they then lower the trails to the ground. Nos. 1 and 2 assist in turning the gun by pushing on the wheels and shield. (c) Nos. 1 and 2 remove the ammunition bags from the shield and hand them to Nos. 3 and 4, who place them on the ground immediately in rear of the trails. (d) Nos. 1 and 2 then release the clamps which hold the rammer staff to the left and right trails, respectively, remove the staff sections and toss them on the ground in rear of the trails. (e) Nos. 1 and 2 remove the trail locking pins from the carrying holes and hold them. No. 4, at the right spade, pulls the trail lock latch to the rear. No. 3, at the left spade, raises the trail lock lever with his right hand and raises and disengages the trail lock loop and hook with his left hand. Nos. 3 and 4 then, with their right and left hands, respectively, grasp the lifting handles of the trails and extend the trails fully. No. 4 then pushes forward on the lunette latch and raises the lunette to its firing position. Nos. 1 and 2 replace the trail locking pins in their locking holes, locking the trails to the Su DDOIt. pp (f) Nos. 1 and 2 then move to positions in front of the left and right sides of the ANTITANK WEAPONS 821 shield, respectively, and No. 1 releases the apron from its traveling position by pressing back on the apron latch. Both then release the wheel segments by pulling the locking plungers inward and rotate the wheel segments to the rear, retaining the locking plungers in the open position. Nos. 3 and 4 raise the spades slightly and, on word from No. 1, pull to the rear until the wheels are off the ground and the segments are in a vertical position. Nos. 1 and 2 release the wheel segment locking plungers, locking the wheel segments in place. (g) No. 1 then moves to a position inside the left trail by the traversing hand- wheel. No. 2 moves to position inside the right trail opposite the operating handle. No. 1 reaches down with his right hand and pulls the traveling lock latch to the left. No. 2 pulls back on the lever of the traveling lock and disengages the loop from the hook on the recoil cylinder. No. 1 releases the traveling lock latch and elevates the breech until the locking pin on the recoil cylinder is free of the circular bearing on the traveling lock. No. 2 then takes his firing position, opens the breech, and inspects to see that the chamber and bore are clean and clear. No. 1 installs the sight and takes his firing position, depresses the muzzle until it is horizontal, tests the traversing mechanism and trigger actuator mechanism and if found to be in working order calls, “Up.” (h) After pulling the gun back onto the wheel segments, No. 3 removes the ammunition from its containers and arranges it on one of the ammunition bags in a convenient location from which he can furnish ammunition to No. 2; he is assisted by No. 4. As soon as this work is accomplished, No. 3 takes his firing position, ready to hand ammunition to No. 2. (i) When No. 4 finishes assisting No. 3 in handling the ammunition, he secures the cleaning brush from the tool case, assembles the rammer staff, and places it at a convenient location besides the right trail. He then takes his firing position. (j) Any deficiencies noted in the matériel or ammunition by any members of the squad while preparing the gun for action will be immediately reported to the squad leader. (k) For the firing positions of the members of the gun squad during firing, see paragraph 40b. (3) Action while moving by hand. At any time during movement by hand, the squad leader may indicate the point at which he wishes the gun to go into action and command: ACTION. At this command, the squad moves the gun to the designated point and upon arrival thereat turns the gun smartly and points the barrel in the direc- tion indicated by the squad leader. The trails are then dropped to the ground. No. 4 removes the rear section of the rammer staff from the rammer rings, and action pro- ceeds as described in b above. (4) Action from a cover position. The degree of readiness of the gun for firing while in a cover position depends upon several factors (par. 42h); for preliminary training, however, it will be assumed that the firing position has been selected and prepared and the gun withdrawn therefrom to a cover position 5 to 30 yards in rear. Here the gun will be placed in various states of readiness for firing. At the command action the squad will move the gun into the firing position and complete preparation for firing. Training should include moving from the cover position to the firing posi- tion by hand as prescribed in c above and by pushing. Sometimes, for short distances, the gun may be moved more expeditiously by pushing; care must be exercised not to push or pull on the telescope or telescope mount, the traversing mechanism, or the operating handle. If ordered to move, by pushing, the muzzle of the gun is turned to the front, Nos. 1 and 2 grasp the shield supports and wheels, Nos. 3 and 4 grasp the lifting handles and raise the trails, and all then push the gun in the desired direction. j. Out of action. (1) General. (a) The gun may be taken out of action from a firing position or from a cover position. For preliminary training, however, the squad is trained to go out of action from a firing position. After becoming proficient in this operation, the squad will be trained to go out of action from varying conditions. Re- gardless of the state of readiness of the gun for firing, at the command Out of action the gun crew will immediately prepare the gun for movement as described in (2) below, 822 ANTITANK WEAPONS eliminating any part of the procedure already accomplished or adding to it any steps necessary to comply with the instructions of the squad leader. (b) If desired, the squad leader may combine the operation of going out of action with an order to move the gun by hand by giving the command Out of action, by hand. The squad executes Out of action, modifying the procedure and adding the steps necessary to prepare the gun for movement by hand in the most expeditious II].31] IlCI. (2) To go out of action. The command is: OUT OF ACTION. (a) No. 2 unloads the gun, if loaded, and closes the breech. No. 1 releases the trigger by pressing down on the trigger actuator, removes the sight and replaces it in the carrying case. (b) No. 1 then turns the elevating and traversing mechanism until the gun barrel is approximately in the traveling position. When this is done, No. 2 raises the traveling lock into position and accurately centers the gun by means of the traversing handwheel, so that the traveling lock pin in the recoil cylinder can be seated in the circular bearing of the traveling lock. No. 1 assists No. 2 in this operation by further depressing the breech. No. 2 then forces the lever forward into its seat until the traveling lock plunger snaps into position in the eye of the traveling lock. (c) Nos. 1 and 2 then remove the trail locking pins from their locking holes, hold them, and as Nos. 3 and 4 close the trails, they replace the trail locking pins in their traveling holes. (d) In the meantime, No. 3 moves the ammunition clear of the trails and replaces the unused rounds in the ammunition bags. No. 4 assists No. 3 in this task if there is considerable ammunition at the gun, otherwise No. 4 disassembles the rammer staff, places the brush in the tool box, and secures the lid. As Nos. 1 and 2 remove the trail locking pins, Nos. 3 and 4 spring to positions by the left and right spades respectively. No. 4 lowers the lunette to its traveling position, and together they close and lock the trails. - (e) Nos. 1 and 2 then move to positions in front of the shield on the left and right, respectively. They withdraw the wheel segment plungers from their position, holding them while Nos. 3 and 4 raise the spades slightly and pull to the rear until , the wheel segments are free. Nos. 1 and 2 then raise the wheel segments and release the plungers, locking the wheel segments in the traveling position. No. 1 raises the apron to its traveling position. (f) After pulling the gun off the wheel segments, No. 3 completes replacing ammunition in the ammunition bags; No. 4 completes disassembling the rammer staff, hands the forward portion of the staff to No. 1 and the rear portion to No. 2. Nos. 1 and 2 secure the sections of the rammer staff in the traveling position on the trails. No. 3 passes the ammunition bags to Nos. 1 and 2 who hang them over the right and left side of the top of the shield; No. 3 times this operation so as not to interfere with the operation of replacing the rammer staff. (g) All men then take the positions prescribed for “Posts” in paragraph 39f (2). (3) Out of action, by hand. In event the gun is to be moved by hand, No. 4 will insert the rear portion of the rammer staff through the rammer rings, instead of handing it to No. 2 as indicated above, and all men will prepare to move the gun by hand as described in paragraph 39h. (4) Out of action, with gun in action on wheels. If the gun has been in action on wheels, the procedure for taking it out of action is the same as in (2) above, except that it is unnecessary to manipulate the wheel segments. 40. Service of the Piece. a. General. (1) Efficient service of the piece requires the coordinated effort of the entire gun squad. Therefore, prior to firing subcaliber or service ammunition, the members of the squad will be thoroughly trained in the mechanics of serving the piece. The squad will be trained to function as a team while simulating firing, going through the motions with dummy ammunition, of loading, firing, unloading, etc. Rapid loading and unloading will permit rapid firing and should be emphasized. Prior to conducting this training, sufficient instruction must be given ANTITANK WEAPONS 823 to members of the squad in the use of the sight and in laying the piece to enable them to aim properly. Initially, only fixed targets which are easily discernible should be employed; as marksmanship instruction progresses, all types of targets may be used. (2) In order to simulate fire, the squad leader will give an appropriate fire order; for example, dummy ammunition, right front, tank 600, one lead, commence firing. b. Positions of gun squad during firing. (1) The squad leader, near No. 1 in order to obtain a similar view of the target and to assist in the conduct of fire. A suitable place is about 1 pace to the left of and on line with No. 1, in a kneeling position. (2) No. 1 kneels on his right knee with his right hand on the traversing hand- wheel and his left hand on the elevating knob, the upper part of the right arm clear of the shoulder guard. Because of the recoil of the gun, he avoids extending his right arm over the shoulder guard. He operates the elevating mechanism with his left hand and the traversing mechanism with his right hand. He is trained to elevate, traverse, and fire the gun simultaneously, accurately, and rapidly. No. 1 aims and lays the gun as described in paragraphs 44f and 44g. (3) No. 2 assumes a position at the gun that will avoid injury by the recoil. He kneels on his left knee or sits on or straddles the right trail so that he loads with his left hand and opens the breech with his right hand. (4) No. 3 kneels on his left, or both knees, between the trails, near the right spade, so that he can pass ammunition to No. 2. His position clears the path of the ejected cartridge cases. (5) No. 4 insures that sufficient ammunition is kept immediately behind and within convenient reach of No. 3. Otherwise, he is about 1 or 2 paces to the right of the right spade in a prone position. c. To load. (1) Unless specifically ordered otherwise, the gun is loaded the instant the squad leader announces the first element of a fire order. Exceptions to this pro- cedure occur during marksmanship instruction where, as a safety precaution or for control purposes, it is necessary to announce the number of rounds to be fired in an exercise and to specify when the gun is to be loaded. (FM 23-70). (2) To load the gun, No. 3 grasps a round by the nose of the projectile with his right hand and passes it to No. 2, placing the base of the cartridge case in No. 2's open left hand. No. 2 grasps the base of the cartridge with his left hand, turns the projectile to the front as he swings his arm toward the breech, and carefully inserts the round in the breech opening, pushing it into the gun chamber with the fingers until the rim of the cartridge contacts the extractor lips. He then quickly closes the breech. As soon as the breech is closed, No. 2 calls “Up,” so that No. 1 will know that the gun is ready to fire. After inserting the round in the chamber, No. 2 should immediately withdraw his left hand to the left rear, arm extended, hand open, ready to receive the next round from No. 3. d. To fire the gun. The gun having been loaded and the command commence firing having been given, No. 1 will open fire as soon as he is laid on the target. To fire the gun, No. 1 pushes down sharply on the trigger actuator plunger and quickly releases it. If the fire order specifies the number of rounds to be fired, No. 2 will announce “Five (six, etc.) rounds complete” when the number of rounds specified have been fired; otherwise, No. 1 continues to fire until he has disabled or neutralized the target or until he receives an order to cease or suspend firing. e. To unload. (1) To remove the empty casing after firing, No. 2 opens the breech smartly with his right hand. . He immediately reloads the gun as described in c above, unless the command cease firing or a specified number of rounds have been fired. (2) To unload a round which has not been fired, No. 2 slowly opens the breech with the right hand, grasps the round as it is extracted from the chamber with the left hand, and passes it back to No. 3. (3) To unload when the extractor fails to function, No. 2 will attempt to pry the cartridge case or round from the chamber by inserting a screw driver or similar tool between the base of the case and the chamber. In the event the round cannot be removed 824 ANTITANK WEAPONS by this method, No. 4, upon order from the squad leader, will insert the rammer staff into the bore at the muzzle and remove the empty cartridge case by pushing with a steady pressure on the head of the rammer staff. , No. 2, at the breech, receives the ejected round and passes it to No. 3. - (4) In the event of a misfire (during practice firing), the procedure described in paragraphs 22 and 33 will be followed. No. 1 will make three successive attempts to fire the piece by cocking it by hand and operating the firing mechanism. If the gun still fails to fire, and when 2 minutes have elapsed after the last attempt to fire (AR 750-10), No. 2 will unload the gun as described in e (2) above. No. 3 will pass the defective round to No. 4 who will remove it from the vicinity of the firing position to a place indicated by the gun commander. f. To cease or suspend firing. (1) Cease firing. Firing is stopped and the gun, if loaded, is unloaded on command or signal cease firing. The members of the gun crew may leave their firing positions. Cease firing is used to announce long pauses while firing or to prepare for a change of gun position. (2) Suspend firing. At the command suspend firing, firing stops, the gun is loaded and remains ready, or is made ready, for instant resumption of fire. The posts of the gun crew remain unchanged. No. 1 continues to observe and lay on the target or lays on a new target, if one is designated, so that he may resume fire with the least prac- ticable delay the instant the squad leader so directs. Suspend firing is used for short pauses in the firing. For example, when the target disappears temporarily or moves out of range, or when shifting to a new target, etc. g. To clear gun. If the gun has been put into action with service or subcaliber am- munition present, the gun must be cleared before anyone moves in front of the muzzle. At the command: clear gun, No. 2 unloads the gun and leaves the breech open. During practice firing, an officer will then inspect the gun to make sure that there is no ammuni- tion in it. Under service conditions, or in the absence of an officer, the squad leader will make the above inspection. When using subcaliber ammunition, the same procedure is followed, except that: (1) When firing the caliber 30 subcaliber rifle, all rounds will be ejected from the chamber and receiver and the bolt left open after ejecting the last round. * (2) When firing the caliber 22 subcaliber rifle, the ammunition magazine will be removed, the chamber emptied, and the bolt left open. h. To shift trails (new direction). To fire the gun in a new direction which cannot be reached by traversing, the squad leader, or No. 1, orders: NEW DIRECTION, RIGHT (LEFT). At this command, the squad leader grasps the left and No. 4 the right trail lifting handle and together they swing the gun in the new direction. Nos. 1 and 2 move in conformity to their position at the gun as the trails are shifted. No. 1 keeps his eyes at the sight. No. 3 moves the ammunition to an appropriate position in rear of the new gun direction. This movement must be executed rapidly and should be practiced often in preliminary training so as to insure the least possible cessation in fire when it is necessary to shift the trails while engaging a moving target. i. To sink trails. When the first shot is fired, if the soil at the gun position is hard or time is too limited to dig holes for the trail spades, Nos. 3 and 4 are directed to lie across the trails, feet to the rear, to assist in reducing the recoil of the gun and to cause it to seat itself quickly in a stable position. No. 1, under such circumstances, must hold his eye 12 to 14 inches from the eyepiece of the sight. During this pro- cedure, ammunition must be placed within reach of No. 2. 41. Elementary Training With Prime Mover. a. General. The provisions of previous paragraphs are applicable to training with the prime mover. Details of execution should be modified, where necessary, to meet any changes brought about by the presence of the prime mover. t b. Equipment. For training with the prime mover, individual members of the squad are equipped as prescribed in paragraphs, 38 and 39. In addition, the squad is equipped with a 4-ton, 4 x 4, truck or other vehicle for towing the gun and transporting the ANTITANK WEAPONS 825 gun squad, accessories, and ammunition. The chauffeur, who is a member of the gun squad, operates the vehicle under direct supervision of the squad leader. c. Disposition of gun cover. In general, the gun cover should be on the gun when- ever it is towed. Whenever the gun is to be separated from its prime mover for a considerable length of time, or when it may be exposed to a gas attack or inclement weather, the cover should remain on or with the gun. For preliminary training with the prime mover, however, the gun cover will be placed on the gun whenever it is coupled and removed whenever it is uncoupled. After removal, the squad leader will indicate whether the cover is to be left in the prime mover or taken with the gun. If taken with the gun, the cover is bundled up and placed in the space between the shield supports in rear of the shield. d. To load prime mover. The command is: LOAD TRUCK (or other vehicle). At this command, the gun is coupled to the prime mover and the ammunition and equipment loaded on the prime mover under the direction of the squad leader as follows: (1) The gun is moved to a position in rear of the prime mover convenient for coupling and the trail grounded. (2) All members of the gun crew disengage their towing ropes from the towing rings. No. 4 removes the rammer staff from the rammer rings and passes it to No. 2, who secures it on the trail. (3) Nos. 1 and 2 then replace the gun cover. (4) Nos. 3 and 4 load the prime mover. No. 3 takes position in the prime mover and stows the ammunition and equipment as it is passed to him by No. 4. Nos. 1 and 2 assist in loading if this task has not been completed by the time they have replaced the gun cover. (5) When all the ammunition and equipment have been loaded, the gun is coupled to the prime mover: No. 3 at the right spade and No. 4 at the left spade of the trail, raise it and insert the lunette over the towing pintle hook and secure the latch. Nos. 1 and 2 assist by pushing the gun forward from positions at the right and left wheels, respectively. (6) The men then mount the prime mover and take seats. The squad leader takes the seat beside the chauffeur; Nos. 1 and 3 sit on the right side of the prime mover, No. 3 forward; Nos. 2 and 4 on the left side, No. 4 forward. When the pedestal- mounted antiaircraft machine gun is carried, No. 4 acts as gunner. (7) If operating with other prime movers the squad leader signals “Ready to start;” otherwise the truck moves in accordance with the squad leader's instructions. (8) The chauffeur should be trained to assist in loading the prime mover, par- ticularly when speed is essential and there is a considerable amount of ammunition to be loaded. e. To unload prime mover. (1) The squad being in the prime mover, the command is: UNLOAD TRUCK (or other vehicle). At this command, all members of the squad, except the chauffeur, will dismount in an orderly manner and move to the rear of the prime mover. The gun is uncoupled and the prime mover unloaded as follows: (a) Nos. 1 and 2 remove the gun cover, and place it either in the prime mover or on the gun carriage (par. 41c), as directed by the squad leader. (b) Nos. 3 and 4 working on the right and left sides of the trail, respectively, uncouple the gun, No. 3 calling out “Forward” to the chauffeur as the lunette is pulled clear of the pintle. (c) The prime mover moves forward about 3 paces and Nos. 3 and 4 turn the gun so that the muzzle or trail points in the direction ordered by the squad leader. (d) No. 3 then takes position in the prime mover and passes two loaded ammuni- tion bags to No. 4. No. 4 passes the bags to Nos. 1 and 2, who hang them over the shield. In the event Nos. 1 and 2, have not finished removing the gun cover, No. 4 hangs the bags over the shield after the gun cover is removed. (e) When the gun, ammunition, and equipment have been secured, the gun crew takes the positions of “Posts,” or continue their duties to prepare the gun for movement by hand, or for action, depending upon the instructions of the squad leader. 826 ANTITANK WEAPONS (f) When unloaded, the prime mover is driven to a nearby position (correspond- ing to nearest available cover) as directed by the squad leader or prescribed by the transport sergeant. (2) The command unload truck (or other vehicle) may be given when the squad is dismounted from the prime mover and the men are in or out of ranks. The chauffeur, if dismounted, takes his seat in the vehicle and the gun is uncoupled and the prime mover unloaded as described in a above. (3) Additional ammunition and equipment, if present, is unloaded and stacked in accordance with instructions of the squad leader. To expedite this operation, the chauffeur should be trained to assist Nos. 3 and 4. Nos. 1 and 2 should also assist in unloading after they have completed their prescribed duties. f. Action after unloading. In conjunction with the order to unload truck (or other vehicle), the squad leader may order an additional operation, such as moving the gun by hand or going into action. For example, he may order unload truck—action, or unload truck—by hand, or he may merely give the command or signal, action. In any event. the procedures prescribed for the operations ordered should be modified and combined so as to comply with orders in the most expeditious manner practicable. g. To dismount, leaving equipment in prime mover. The squad being in the prime mover, the command or signal is: DISMOUNT. Men (except the driver) get out of the prime mover and form on the squad leader as described in paragraph 39c (2), leaving the equipment in the prime mover. If followed by the command fall out, men leave ranks and the chauffeur dismounts. They remain in the vicinity of the prime mover. The chauffeur leaves his rifle or other small arm on the prime mover unless ordered to carry it. (See par. 42e). h. To entruck. The squad being in or out of ranks (par. 39c (2), the command or signal is: MOUNT. The driver takes his place and the remaining members of the squad get into the prime mover and take their prescribed seats. The squad leader checks the men, and when all are present signals “Ready to start” to his next senior commander, if operating with other vehicles; otherwise he directs the movement of the prime mover. 42. Advanced Training. a. Purpose and scope. (1) The primary purpose of advanced training for placing the gun in action is to develop an operating procedure for the squad under field conditions. The squad, with complete individual and unit equipment, is taught to adapt all of the operations prescribed in previous paragraphs to varied field conditions. Training is conducted under all conditions of visibility and weather. . (2) The general instructions in the following paragraphs in no way cover the entire scope of advanced training. They pertain, however, to certain important features and are based upon practical tests and experience. They are offered as a guide only and may be modified, if desired, as the unit becomes experienced and develops its own procedure. b. Equipment (1) In addition to the equipment prescribed for elementary training, the squad is trained in the use of camouflage nets. (2) For training in handling of ammunition, additional ammunition, preferably live, in its original shipping containers or broken down into bundles of six, should be made available to the squad. c. Moving with gun coupled to prime mover. (1) The prime mover is operated in accordance with the regulations and instructions contained in FM 25-10. Provisions of FM 22-5, where pertinent, are applicable. (2) When operating over very difficult terrain, the gun crew should dismount pre- pared to assist the vehicle forward when necessary. Under certain conditions, it may be desirable to uncouple the gun from the prime mover. (3) The chauffeur is taught that, while it is essential that the unit arrive at the firing position quickly, it is even more important that the gun is not injured en route. He is trained to fully understand the travel limitations of his vehicle with the gun coupled. He is taught the clearance of the prime mover and gun carriage when op- erating over rough ground; how to negotiate turns and avoid obstacles without injuring his vehicle and gun; and the effect the trailing gun has on the truck when starting and stopping. ANTITANK WEAPONS 827 (4) In order to prevent damage to the truck or the gun, the following common sense rules are observed: (a) Do not increase speed in turning about to couple or uncouple the gun. (b) Do not exceed 35 m. p. h. on good roads. (c) Reduce speed— 1. Upon unimproved, slippery, winding roads. 2. When passing other vehicles or troop columns. 3. Approaching areas where road blocks or obstacles are probable. 4. When visibility is poor. (5) Whenever practicable, the route the vehicle is to follow should be reconnoitered in advance. Movement over unreconnoitered routes may result in unnecessary delay at unexpected obstacles or necessitate selecting a new route requiring backtracking and a loss of time disastrous to the accomplishment of the assigned mission. d. Moving uncoupled gun. (1) Facility in moving the gun by hand over difficult terrain is gained only by repeated practice. (2) Moving the uncoupled gun usually occurs from the— (a) Prime mover to cover or firing position. (b) Cover position to a firing position or the reverse. (c) Primary firing position or cover position to an alternate or supplementary firing position. (d) Firing or cover position to the prime mover. (3) Movements by hand should be made as short and as infrequently as practicable. The gunner (No. 1) cannot function as calmly and as accurately if he must repeatedly assist in moving the gun by hand for long distances to put the gun in a new position and the ammunition supply is complicated by frequent or distant changes. (4) Moving a loaded gun is prohibited. This rule will be enforced even while training with dummy ammunition. (5) Whenever practicable, the route to be followed by the gun crew, when they move the gun by hand, should be reconnoitered in advance by the squad leader. How- ever, when time does not permit such advance reconnaissance, the squad leader rapidly precedes the squad, giving the direction of movement and reconnoitering the route. e. Movement of prime mover. The squad leader directs the movement of the prime mover when the gun is moved by hand. Usually he will direct it to join other platoon transports at a previously designated point or he will order the vehicle to await further orders, in the nearest available cover. When the prime mover is placed under cover, the chauffeur removes his rifle or other small arm from the carrier on the truck and carries it slung over the shoulder. He is responsible for concealing his vehicle and is trained to use his camouflage net for this purpose. The position of the prime mover is usually within visual signaling distance of the cover or firing position in order to bring it forward quickly should a change of position or “out of action” be necessary. The chauffeur is trained to maintain visible contact with the squad leader and recon- noiter routes leading from the prime mover to the gun. When the position is to be changed and the prime mover is signaled forward, it should not be unduly exposed at the old or new position. Usually, when changing position, the gun will be drawn by hand to the position where the prime mover has been ordered to report. Repeated training is given the gun crew and chauffeur in this operation with a view to reducing to a minimum the possibility of hostile observation and location of position. f. Approach to firing position. The unit is trained to approach and occupy varied covered firing positions. The following procedure is suggested: the squad leader or his representative leads the vehicle quickly by a previously reconnoitered route to a point close to the firing position where the gun will be uncoupled from the prime mover. This location will be determined by the terrain and the enemy situation. At this point, instructions should be given relative to ammunition, position of the prime mover, and the order to move the gun by hand. The gun is then moved by hand, following the leader or to a point designated by him, where preparations are made for firing. During the movement forward, whether the gun is drawn by the 828 ANTITANK WEAPONS prime mover or by hand, the crew are alert and prepared to go into action. Observation of the battlefield must be continuous. g. Preparing firing position. The extent to which a firing position is prepared de- pends upon the tactical situation, particularly in relation to the time available and the contemplated action. . For training purposes, the squad will be instructed in occupying and preparing firing positions in accordance with specific situations. In addition to the tactical considerations involved in selecting a firing position, the following physical characteristics are desirable: | *N) 9 do." *— t’ 3” *- F– 9 - I RAMP TO ROLL GUN INTO EMPLACEMENT Plate 11. Emplacement for 37-MM Antitank Gun. (1) The gun is usually fired from an open position, taking maximum advantage of partial defilade. At times, a small parapet 6 to 10 inches high, semicircular in shape, may be thrown up in front of the gun. The parapet must be located so as not to block the movement of the wheels when the trails are shifted. If the relief of the parapet is too high, its purpose may be defeated by the ease with which it can be detected by the enemy. Plate 11 shows a type of emplacement which might be used for the gun in exceptional circumstances, such as stabilized or semistabilized warfare. This em- placement requires 175 to 200 cubic feet of excavation. Regardless of the type of firing position used, proper camouflage is essential; therefore, the squad is trained to expertly camouflage the firing position, making use of the gun camouflage net wherever practicable. . ANTITANK WEAPONS . 829 (2) It is desirable to place the gun immediately in rear of cover so that it just clears it in firing. A check should be made by a quick glance through the gun barrel (not through the telescope) to insure that the gun will clear the cover in firing. Measures are taken to prevent dust from flying up before the muzzle when the gun is fired. Spreading the gun cover, dampened burlap bags, or brush under the muzzle tends to keep down dust. (3) The gun should have an excellent field of fire to include the maximum effec- tive range and traverse to the flanks. It may be necessary to partially clear a field of fire. (4) A level base for the trail spades at the firing position facilitates rapid shifting of the gun in traverse. (5) Provision should be made for seating the trail spades regardless of the direction in which the gun is to be fired. (6) Cover and concealment for the gun crew in the immediate vicinity of the firing position or in a cover position are provided. If no natural cover or concealment is available, it should be constructed. Care must be exercised in digging individual pits or making any other excavations near the gun so as not to interfere with the movement of the gun into or out of the firing position, or with the free movement of the trails when they are shifted laterally. (7) Ammunition is placed below ground when practicable so that it is readily accessible to the gun crew. Its location should not interfere with the occupation of the firing position or the quick shifting of the gun in traverse. If time is available, covering should be placed over the ammunition. (8) Local protection in the form of concertina wire, obstacles, etc., is desirable. (9) Covered approaches between the firing position and the location of the prime mover should be reconnoitered. h. Cover position. (1) The firing position, being located in the open, is usually subject to hostile fire and observation. It is therefore essential that the gun and equip- ment be kept under cover in close proximity to the firing position and so concealed that the enemy cannot recognize or discover the firing position prior to opening fire. This nearby position is known as the “cover position.” The squad is trained in select- ing and preparing cover positions and should practice repeatedly going into and evacuating the firing position. Care must be exercised in such training to insure that the gun or crew is not silhouetted against the skyline or bright background. (2) Suitable cover positions may be found in draws, reverse slopes, wooded areas, behind cliffs, cut banks, hedges, or stone fences. Equipment and personnel should be so situated that they are well concealed and covered. (3) In open terrain, nearby cover and concealment may be scarce and a suitable cover position may be lacking. The unit is trained to resort to artificial means for cover and concealment. Use of camouflage for this purpose is emphasized. Similarly, in a surprise meeting with enemy tanks or mechanized forces, speed in delivering effective fire upon the enemy will be a more important consideration than cover and concealment. Consequently, the squad should be trained to move rapidly into a firing position directly from the prime mover. * (4) While in a cover position the gun, equipment, and ammunition are prepared for firing as far as practicable. The degree of preparedness depends upon the distance between the cover position and the firing position, and the character of the intervening terrain. When the command Action is given, the gun is quickly moved into the firing position to engage the enemy. (5) If the gun is in a cover position and the squad leader wishes to quickly occupy the firing position and engage a target, he may employ one of the following methods: (a) If target is visible from cover position. The squad leader commands: LEFT FRONT, EDGE OF WOODS, TANK FOURTH FROM LEFT, 800. The gunner confirms that he recognizes the target. The squad leader then commands: Action. Upon the command action, the gun is moved quickly into its firing position, prepared for action, laid on the target, and firing begins at the command commence firing. (b) If target is not visible from cover position. Upon the command action, the 830. ANTITANK WEAPONS I * gun will be moved quickly into the firing position, prepared for action, and the fire order follows: FRONT, TANK THIRD FROM RIGHT, 800, ONE LEAD–COM- MENCE FIRING. Fire is opened when the gun is laid on the target. i. Alternate and supplementary firing positions. An alternate position may be se- lected for each primary firing position. The squad is trained to move rapidly from a firing position or cover position into an alternate position and open fire on the enemy. Similar training is conducted in connection with the occupation of supplementary posi- tions. Care must be exercised by the squad, while changing position, to take full advantage of available cover and concealment to avoid enemy observation. j. To take gun out of action. (1) Different methods of taking the gun out of action should be explained in detail and practiced. The following methods are given as a general guide: (a) The gun being in a defiladed or partially defiladed position, the squad leader commands. OUT OF ACTION, BY HAND, or OUT OF ACTION, LOAD TRUCK (or other vehicle), etc. At these commands the gun, if only partially defiladed, is pulled back to full defilade and there prepared for movement by hand, or movement to the prime mover or designated point for coupling. (b) The gun being in action at a position where the operation of going out of action would expose the squad to observation and there is cover close at hand, preferably in the immediate rear, the squad leader commands: OUT OF ACTION, COVER CLOSE BEHIND (or otherwise). The gun is unloaded and pulled to the cover posi- tion and there prepared for movement as directed by the squad leader. (c) The gun being in a firing position where there is scant cover and it is desired to conceal from the enemy the action of the crew as much as possible, the squad leader commands: OUT OF ACTION, SCANT COVER. At this command, the gun crew working so as to avoid exposure where possible, prepare the gun and equipment only to the extent necessary for movement and move the gun to a location designated by the squad leader. Here the squad leader orders: BY HAND, LOAD TRUCK (or other vehicle), or such other action as he may desire. (2) The importance of this phase of training in getting the gun out of action must be understood by all members of the gun squad. Once fire has been opened, the gun will immediately draw fire from an alert enemy. Since direct fire only can be employed, the firing position will be exposed and will usually come under fire, neces- sitating a prompt change of position. To meet these conditions, a combination of speed and use of proper methods is essential. (3) In a crisis, fire once opened must be continued, as one soldier can operate the gun. The squad is trained not to withdraw under hostile fire during a tank attack. In case of necessity the weapon may be disabled by removing the firing pin and guide assembly from the breech block. (See par. 4.) k. Coupling gun to prime mover. At the command or signal assemble, the prime mover comes forward rapidly, approaching as near as possible to the gun, which has usually been drawn by hand from the firing position to the nearest available cover. The prime mover halts facing in the direction indicated by the squad leader to facilitate moving out. The prime mover is then loaded as described in paragraph 41d. l. Avoiding hostile fire. The gun crew must be trained to take cover quickly to avoid a hostile artillery concentration. While firing, at the command or signal down or take cover, Nos. 1, 2, and 3 spring sideways away from the gun. All members of the crew lie close to the ground, taking advantage of nearby natural cover and con- cealment, or seeking protection in the fox holes which have been prepared for the purpose. m. Ammunition supply. The squad is trained in moving ammunition from the prime mover to the firing position and to effect this supply during action. The squad leader keeps informed at all times as to amount of ammunition at hand, and where and how he can replenish same. Sufficient ammunition must be available at the gun position to insure successful completion of the fire missions. Upon occupation of a firing position, the squad leader indicates the amount of ammunition to be placed in ANTITANK WEAPONS 831 the close proximity of the gun. Arrangements are made for rapid replenishment of ammunition under all circumstances from the prime mover or the section ammunition truck. In addition to the ammunition carriers, the chauffeur is available to transfer ammunition by hand. After accomplishing a fire mission, ammunition at the gun and on the prime mover must be replenished. The amount of ammunition used should be reported to the section leader who will arrange for its replenishment. Questions . What is the purpose of training for placing the gun in action? . Is all training executed at attention? . When is the gun said to be coupled? . How is the five-man gun squad organized? . How is the gun loaded? How is the gun fired? . How is the gun unloaded? . At what command is the prime mover loaded? . What is the command or signal for dismounting when leaving equipment in prime mover? 10. What is “cover position”? 11. What is an “alternate position”? CHAPTER III MARKSMANSHIP 43. General. a. Purpose. The purpose of antitank marksmanship instruction with the 37-mm antitank gun is to train personnel to deliver prompt and accurate fire on moving or stationary targets. The final measure of the effectiveness of the 37-mm antitank gun in battle is its ability to destroy or neutralize rapidly the targets assigned to 11. b. Scope. (1) Training in antitank marksmanship is divided into the following phases: (a) Preparatory marksmanship training. (b) Instruction and record firing practice on the 1000-inch range. (2) Instruction in the first phase of training forms the basis for training in the second phase. It is therefore essential that the sequence of instruction be such that each man become proficient in one phase before proceeding to the next. c. Prior training. Before receiving instruction in marksmanship, the soldier will be proficient in mechanical training, elementary training for placing the gun in action, and service of the piece as contained in Chapters I and II. 44. Preparatory Marksmanship Training. a. Purpose. Preparatory marksmanship training is designed to teach the soldier a method of performing each operation in. volved in antitank marksmanship and to drill him therein until he attains the skill to perform all operations with accuracy and speed. b. Scope. Preparatory training consists of the following exercises which have for their purpose the progressive instruction and training of the soldier in the fundamentals of antitank marksmanship: (1) Aiming exercises. (2) Tracking exercises. c. Method of instruction. (1) The applicatory method of instruction is used through- out. Each exercise is first explained and demonstrated to all men undergoing instruc- tion. The demonstration is performed by a group which has been previously trained to perform the exercise. Each man is then given practical work in the exercise. Finally, the men are examined in order to determine their progress or proficiency. (2) The officer in charge of instruction details such assistants as he may require. Assistant instructors will usually be the various leaders of the units undergoing instruc- 832 ANTITANK WEAPONS tion; however, specially selected men may be used for this duty. The six-gun platoon is about the largest group that can be efficiently instructed by a single instructor, who usually is the platoon leader. The section leaders act as assistant instructors to organize and supervise the work within their sections. The squad leaders act as squad instructors and conduct instruction at each gun. It is an advantage to have the assistant instruc- tors trained in advance, but it is not essential where units are being hastily organized and time is not available. (3) The instruction must be individual and thorough. A squad is about the largest group in which each individual can be closely supervised. Each man is brought to as high a state of proficiency as time permits. (4) The coach and pupil method is used wherever applicable. Under this method the men are grouped in pairs and take turns in coaching each other. (5) Upon the completion of the explanation and demonstration of any exercise, the instructor sends the men to their guns, where, under the supervision of the section leaders, the squad instructors (squad leaders or specially selected men) conduct the practical work. (6) When conducting aiming and tracking exercises, instruction may be expedited by having all or part of the guns execute the same exercise simultaneously, in which case the exercises are conducted by one individual who issues the orders and causes the target(s) to be operated in a manner similar to that employed in conducting 1000- inch range firing. During such exercises, a careful check is made at each gun by use of the aiming device to insure correct and accurate aiming and smooth tracking. (7) Throughout marksmanship instruction, a competitive spirit should be de- veloped between squads and individuals. During preparatory instruction, as the men become trained in fundamentals, competitive exercises are devised to create added inter- est in the work. Speed in manipulation and accuracy in aiming should be emphasized throughout. Each individual performing an operation must be carefully checked by section or squad leaders to insure correct application of prescribed methods of aiming and tracking. Failure to make such a check may permit the development of speed at the expense of accuracy, which is not desirable. d. Equipment. Assuming that six squads are undergoing instruction simultaneously, the following equipment, in addition to the six guns, is required for preparatory training: (1) One or two transparent diagrams of the telescope reticle. (2) Small portable blackboard. w (3) Three portable standing frames and the following aiming silhouette targets. (a) Three single tank. (b) Three multiple tank. (4) One sled, target carrier. (5) One 1000-inch range apparatus for operating moving targets. (6) Six aiming devises (par. 3g). (7) Stop watch. (8) Tape measure, 50 feet or longer. (9) One progress and proficiency card for each group undergoing instruction. e. Procedure. (1) Initial training in preparatory marksmanship can usually be con- ducted in the immediate vicinity of barracks or camp. If floor space and lighting facilities are available, some of the instruction may be conducted indoors. For outdoor instruction, a cleared, fairly level area of ground measuring about 180 feet by 45 feet will accommodate a six-gun platoon. More advanced preparatory training in marks- manship should be conducted on the 1000-inch moving target range. (2) A compact and convenient arrangement of guns and targets for preparatory marksmanship training is shown in Plate 12. This arrangement is particularly de- sirable because it permits simultaneous instruction of all gun squads within a relatively small area; this will facilitate control and supervision by the platoon leader. Instruc- tion for the assembled platoon is conducted in the vicinity of some convenient point, such as D. Upon the completion of this instruction, the men are sent to their respec- ANTITANK WEAPONS 833 tive guns along the lines A-B and E-F. Here, the squad leaders conduct individual instruction under the direct supervision of section leaders or other designated non- commissioned officers. The platoon leader assisted by his platoon sergeant or other noncommissioned officers is free to move about and generally supervise the instruction. For aiming exercises, the portable aiming targets, which bear aiming tank silhouettes on both sides, are arranged along line C-D. When tracking exercises are conducted, the sled target is pulled along the line C-D at specified speeds. All guns can par- ticipate simultaneously in the same tracking exercise by following the procedure out- lined in paragraph 44 g (5) (b). GUN Li NE TOOO INCHES TARGET L Miſſ • * * * 1 OOO INCHES # Plate 12. Gun and Target Arrangement for Preparatory Marksmanship Training. GUN LINE 4. f. Aiming exercises. (1) Purpose. (a) The purpose of these exercises is to teach the soldier the correct use of the telescope; how to aim on targets, both moving and stationary, for range; and how to use the lead markings in the sight. These exercises are divided as follows: 1. Aiming for range. 2. Aiming with leads. 3. Combined aiming for range and lead. (b) All the exercises listed above are conducted on stationary targets so that instruction in aiming will not involve the more advanced element of tracking. (c) The transparent diagram of the telescope reticle is used in all aiming exer- cises to illustrate the use of the range markings and the correct points of aim. (2) Aiming for range. In this exercise, the gunner is taught to take the correct firing position (par. 40b), how to aim at stationary targets, and how to apply the range table (par. 47b (3)). The gunner looks through the telescope with his right eye and simultaneously looks along the outside of the telescope with his left eye at the target. The position of the eye is correct if the telescope is not noticed and the appropriate marking in the telescope reticle appears to be resting independently on the target. (a) Fixed targets. 1. The gunner is next taught how to aim at fixed targets. He should understand that the telescope is not marked for precision firing on small FA1 (1) 834 ANTITANK WEAPONS tactical targets such as machine guns, antitank guns, etc., but that at times the tactical situation may be such that they will be called upon to engage such targets. The method of engaging this type of target is described in paragraphs 48d and 49e and f. 2. The point representing the range is laid initially in the center of the target. Illustrations similar to those in Plate 13, showing the point of aim on stationary tank targets at different ranges, are used. Upon observation of the first round, the range point in the telescope is raised or lowered on the target to bring the strike into the target. a. RANGE O-400 YO3, - G. RANGE 400-3CO Yºs. O sº S. c. RANGE BOO-1300 Y D D. RANGE 1300-17OO YDS. Plate 13. Aiming at Stationary Tank or Mechanized Vehicle. 3. The gunner is required to aim the gun for announced ranges on stationary tank silhouette targets, each operation being carefully checked by the squad instructor. Practice is thus continued until each gunner is thoroughly familiar with the prescribed method of aiming with any announced range throughout the range limits of the telescope. When the men become familiar with the range table and range markings in the telescope, speed in laying on a target with a specified range is emphasized. (b) Moving targets. 1. After the gunner has become familiar with the correct method of aiming at stationary tank targets at different ranges, he is taught how to aim for range at moving targets. 2. He should understand the difference between aiming at fixed and moving targets. The principal differences are, first, when engaging a moving target a different aiming point (on the target) is used, and second, the gunner must track a moving target by manipulating the elevating and traversing mechanism. 3. When firing on a moving target, the gunner must learn to apply the range table instinctively, changing the range marking used as the target travels from one range zone to another. For example, assuming the gunner first engages a target which is traveling toward the gun position at a range of 800 yards, he aims the center (600- yard) dot on the target; as the target moves in from 800 yards to 400 yards he con- tinues to use the same dot, “600-yard zone.” Then, as the target continues toward the gun it enters the “zero zone”. (0 to 400 yards); the gunner automatically changes the range marking used (center dot) and lays the zero range marking (top dot) on the target. 4. The illustrations in Plate 14 show the point of aim to use in marksmanship training on tank silhouette targets; the black dot indicates the point of aim. The fol. lowing rule is applicable to firing at all types of moving targets: Except when the target is moving directly away from or toward the gun position, always aim fairly low in the forward third of the reticle. For preliminary marksmanship instruction and 1000-inch ANTITANK WEAPONS 835 range firing, where the tank silhouette target is used, the aiming point specified in the above rule will be used throughout. 5. The assistant instructor demonstrates to the gunner at the gun the proper aiming point on tank targets assumed to be moving in various directions. The gunner is required to lay for various announced ranges on targets assumed to be moving in various directions. The exercise is continued until all members of the squad have a thorough understanding of where to aim on moving tank targets and how to apply the range table. (3) Aiming with leads. Before proceeding with the lead exercises, the gunner is given an explanation of the use of leads. The explanation must be sufficiently com- prehensive to insure an understanding of the practical application of their use to field firing. (See par. (a) 1 and 2 below.) * > « » –2- O r fº O (ſ) <ſ Uſ) HD —y- ~~ LH9) is 9 NILWWITTIOO INſ|OW LH919 14. Sight, M1901 (French). This sight (Plate 19) furnished with each 75-mm gun and carriage, M1897MI, M1897MIA2, or M1897A4, is the element by which the piece is aimed in direction and laid or aimed to the correct angle of site. No correction for cant is applied. * a. Description. The collimator, attached to a long shank with a removable extension, is arranged to be turned to any required value of azimuth or lateral deflection. The entire sight is elevated or depressed by the angle of sight handwheel of the gun carriage, angle of site being introduced either directly (aimed fire) by means of the MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION 897 collimator line of sight, or indirectly (laid fire), using a level which is arranged to be inclined as required through a limited range. These sights are being equipped with the instrument light, M3, operated from a flashlight cell and carried on the shield of the carriage. • b. Care and preservation. (1) Avoid striking or bumping any part of the instrument, particularly the locating surfaces of the levels, extension, and sight mount socket which should also be kept clean, free from grit, and lightly coated with petrolatum. (2) Periodically, oil sight mount using oil, lubricating, for aircraft instruments and machine guns. Five oil holes with swinging covers are provided for this purpose, designated by numbers 20 to 24, inclusive. Turn deflection knob as required to provide access to each of the two oil holes served by oil hole 21. Apply a few drops of oil occasionally on shank above the azimuth scale, at the same time pressing down on shank and turning it slowly. c. Accessories and spare parts. The carrying case for the collimating sight also contains space for a gunner's quadrant. The extension has a separate carrying case. A cover for the sight mount is provided. Spare parts consisting of a collimating sight, level, auxiliary level, and carrying case are provided. Parts of these sights are not interchangeable with similar parts of sights of different serial number and care must be taken that all parts pertaining to one serial number are kept together. CHAPTER IV AMMUNITION 15. General. a. Form issued. Ammunition for the 75-mm guns, M1897, M1897A2, and M1897A4, is issued in the form of “fixed” rounds, either unfuzed or as fuzed com- plete rounds. A complete round includes all of the ammunition components used in a cannon to fire one round. b. Fixed ammunition. In fixed ammunition the cartridge case, which contains the propelling charge and primer, is crimped rigidly to the projectile. Until recently, designs of fixed rounds provided for issue of the round unfuzed, the fuze to be assembled just prior to firing. In current designs the round is issued as a fixed com- plete round, the fuze being assembled to the round “as issued.” 16. Classification. Dependent upon the kind of filler, projectiles may be classified according to type as explosive, chemical, or inert. Explosive projectiles comprise high explosive and practice, and shrapnel. High explosive projectiles contain a high ex- plosive bursting charge, whereas shrapnel and practice projectiles contain a relatively small quantity of low explosive filler. The modern shrapnel is a projectile designed to carry a large number of spherical shot to a distance from the gun and there discharge them over an extended area. The low explosive filler for practice projectiles is intended solely as a spotting charge and for some purposes may be omitted. Chemical projectiles comprise those containing a chemical filler, that is, a chemical agent which produces either a toxic or an irritating physiological effect, a screening smoke, an incendiary ac- tion, or, a combination of these. Inert projectiles contain no explosive. 17. Identification. Ammunition, including components, is completely identified by means of the painting, marking (includes ammunition lot number), and the accompany- ing data card. Other essential information such as weight zone and muzzle velocity may be obtained from the marking and data card. A 5- by 8-inch card, known as an am- munition data card, is packed in each packing box with the ammunition, or in the case of bundle packing, with the round in each fiber container. When required, assem- bling instructions are printed on the reverse side of the card. 18. Weight Zone Markings. Because it is not practicable to manufacture projectiles, shrapnel excepted, within the narrow weight limits required for the desired accuracy of fire, projectiles are grouped into weight zones in order that appropriate ballistic correc- tions indicated by firing tables may be applied. The weight zone of each projectile is FA1 (1) 898 MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION "9ý ºzn. H UIQſA ‘IXTIWI ‘GIH ‘pºx!）， Uuuuſ-g!, IſºuſS “IŻ 34 EIGI ！：---------------:XVW £2'92 ——— 39}}VHO H3C]AWOd O}},\d HO HN SBIVOIONI SSBTHSVT1-J, JO NOISSIWO (MOVIE NI ONIX'Jvw)'HBONOd HNH JO 308vHO 9NITTB3OH3 SB1VOIQNI |-woma）-_^ ，（~J __^[−NONNVO JO BdAL ONV JB8ITVO[[ §=*ſurol IGN， IN to H - Ē +#ğſº||× –l-1}}Q_ſ}Si lº- ©ſºs， N|-H+ +E{Ē tā ā gº º tº sº y —- , , , J -. NONNVO JO Bd)， 1 QNV·|* }}BT||-||-|O Bc})\lt}}|B|8|Wf]N 1OT1 ONV/ TITTEIHS HO TBC]OWN‘838n1QV JQNWW 83CMQd 30. STWILINIClNOOBS （JBd LBB， NI 9NIX{}}\/WN BNOZ LH9|E|AW}}|B|C|NWOc} -JO TO8|WAS/JLIOOTBA B'TZZ[\W *8; 3Zn）. I UIQſA ‘8ȚIAI ‘GIH ‘p3x4） I urut-g!, IIºuſS ’03 34 eſaſ :X\/W O9’92 _—--~ſ>→<！-I ±<ſ £ E TOEI-+> (1)LID 2 -![] F， f， ）j+02 La-1 TTĒ，92 T）©_ae→*--� NONNYJO BO BdÅL ONV,væri：| }}BT]|-} -JO Bd), E TlBHS JO TEOJOWN 9N|X|^{\fWN BNOZ 1H5)|BMW NAAOHS 1ON 3SVO B9C]|}}|l}}VO -¿O BSV/8 NO 9N|cſ|WVIS 39}}VHO TV/W}-}ON SE LONBO Bc}|\}_1S BINO }}38WTIN LOT NO||LINñWWW/ NWOHS 1ON 3SVO B9C]]}}_1}{\70 -}O 3SV78 NO 9NIdWV1S }}B8WñN LOTI NOLLINT)WWW MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION 899 (MOTIBĄ NI ĐN!x\!ww) /\/?J9-3TT18— '92 XO^Jejcjvf---- !，{I}ğ Iſraelſ №ſ § ta lº||S||P w;# ！！ Þ||?||? #ğ F: [ä][}]|× }ģÈ un es • •№ ºn ſºn °22 （XO}}c}dV—a - 39&]\WHO AJ3G/WOG OMJAc} BO HN SBIVOICINI SS3THSVT-J, JO NOISSIWO '83G/WOd HN3 + O_398.JVHO 9NITTEJOJd SE IVOIQNI _ºffºvo:JO 3dÅL GNVsarvo（~ • •ſºlſtº]ſae =H= |||| #; ;4§||Š||š =H=ſu:$3>|>|> =H=Ēț¢ £ [3]|$)||× =H=fia-#3È la es |-Ť■ ■ ■ 9NİX HVW BNOZ LH9|EM| ●}}38WTIN LOT! (JN\/ſae }}|B}}[]]Oy:JTINVW NJEJQAWOd -JO STV||LINIQNOOBS （JBd LBE-, NI ‘MJ3OMOd JO TOEWASALIOOTBA BTZZO'N 39&]\WHO TV/WAJON SE LONBCJ Bd|}JLS ENO “TTEHS HBGwnN LOT NOLLINņwww. Shell 75-mm Fixed, Smoke, WP, MkII. Plate 22. 900 • MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION marked thereon by means of crosses, one, two, three, or more, dependent upon weight of the projectile. A weight zone lighter than one cross is indicated by L. LL indicates a weight zone lighter than L. Two crosses indicate normal weight. 19. Care and Preservation. a. Complete rounds and ammunition components are packed to withstand conditions ordinarily encountered in the field. Each complete round is packed in an individual moisture-resistant metal or fiber container and then in a wooden packing box or bundle. Fuzes which are issued separately are packed in sealed metal-lined boxes. Nevertheless, since explosives are adversely affected by moisture and high temperature, due consideration should be given to the following: (1) Do not break moisture-resistant seal until ammunition is to be used. (2) Protect ammunition, particularly fuzes, from high temperatures, including the direct rays of the sun. More uniform firing is obtained if rounds are at the same temperature. b. Do not attempt to dissemble any fuze. c. Do not remove adapter closing plug from unfuzed rounds until fuze is to be assembled thereto. The adapter closing plug is provided to keep the fuze opening free of foreign matter in order that the fuze may be readily and properly screwed in. d. Handle fuzes with care. The explosive elements are particularly sensitive to undue shock and high temperature. e. The complete round should be free of foreign matter, sand, mud, grease, etc., before loading into the gun. f. Do not remove protection or safety devices from fuzes until just before use. g. Components of rounds prepared for firing but not fired will be returned to their original packings and appropriately marked. Such components will be used first in subsequent firings in order that stocks of opened packings may be kept at a minimum. 20. Authorized Rounds. The 75-mm guns, M1897, M1897A2, and M1897A4, being chambered alike, fire the same ammunition. The ammunition authorized for use therein is listed in TM 9-305. 21. Fuzes. a. General. A fuze is a mechanical device used with a projectile to explode it at the time and under the circumstance desired. Note. No attempt will be made to disassemble any fuze. The only authorized operation will be that of screwing the fuze into the projectile, or out if not fired. b. Types. (1) Fuzes may be classified into two principal types, namely, those which function by time action a certain number of seconds after firing, and those which function as the result of impact of the fuze or the projectile with a resistant object. (2) Further subdivision of the impact types is dependent upon quickness of action, classifications being superquick, nondelay, short delay, and long delay. (3) Dependent upon manner of arming, certain fuzes are considered to be bore- safe as distinct from those which are not boresafe. A boresafe fuze is one in which the explosive train is so interrupted that prior to firing and while the projectile is in the bore of the cannon, premature functioning of the projectile cannot occur even though the more sensitive explosive elements in the fuze should function prematurely. c. Boresafe and nonboresafe. Fuzes classified as boresafe and nonboresafe are— Nonboresafe Boresafe Point detonating: Point detonating: Mk. III, superquick: Without interrupter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * - - - M48.” With interrupter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M54.” Mk. IIIA, superquick: * Without interrupter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . T18.1 With interrupter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mk. IV, short delay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . e s e Mk. IV Star, short delay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M46 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M47 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *Assembled to fixed round. Not issued separately for use in the field. -CD, P. D. F. MK.III LOT (HXX}-(; F. A. S. Q. LOADER'S LOT NUMBER, LOADER'S INITIALS AND DATE (MONTH AND YEAR) LOADED. -----"T" *- *-ºs- -m-, -- -mºs - -* - * -smºmmº- • **-*. *-* *-** * * * -sms *-meº - - - * - ºr - - - - - - • -- --> *----- * * - * *- -* * * * * mºm-mºº- - Mº- Y-# APPRox. BLUE-GRAY band rºl r ) ri firl L J L J L J L J L ] 743 MAX. Plate 23. Fuze, Mk. III, Superquick, with Interrupter. Dºs 2.65 MAX. 2.65 MAX. LOADER'S LOT NUMBER, LOADER'S INITIALS AND DATE (MONTH AND YEAR) LOADED. : > Plate 24. Fuze, Point Detonating, M35. 902 MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION 22. Point Detonating Fuzes. a. Mk. III, superquick. (1) Without interrupter. Except that this fuze has no interrupter, it is the same as the Mk. III, superquick, with inter- rupter. With this exception the description in (2) below applies. ſ= Þs Yº- -- – ſo ©ſ) $º O (/) —l e s ºf 3 : t ºf E # re 2 O & z : S. " _l sº | # 2 3 = Cº. Tºr gº ul * § # gº : 3. Sº 2 < ...F. S 3 g : O P. A. of # tº P. A. • C) 5 lil &O OC 2 -> PDF M46 # = } PDF M47| #: ś • * sº e 5 : F. N/ ; : ſº f ; ; ## = rirº, riri. ~ * ~f~ ºf ºf ºf H. spºt LOT l-L J, Jil, Li S Lil # LOT [jſjſ: -ſ; 3 = § r-r-, rºl-r-, -, #2 * : Fºr ºf , ; ; ; ;\ | 9 |! : L-1 (-1 Li Li L. J ; : # i.J. J. J . . ] { } § 3. § O O 5 : ſº < c, ſº O 2. J & sº - “C E es ‘s CNR ſh- e $ : T-- J § -: T I ſº o hrs iſ) CNº. $ .. 24 VT vT × < T-E lº) co | CN + H × <ſ > Uſ) co CNJ | -\– J i -— (2) With interrupter. (a) Description. This fuze, shown in Plate 23, is of the direct action type intended to detonate with the least possible penetration of the projectile. It should not be used in ammunition with a reduced charge since its use at this lower velocity causes the projectile to be unstable in flight. (b) Preparation for firing. To assemble the fuze to the round proceed as follows: 1. Remove adapter closing plug from the projectile. MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION 903 2. Visually inspect fuze cavity and threads. They should be free of any foreign matter which would interfere with the proper assembly of the fuze. 3. Screw fuze into the adapter by hand. (It is essential that the felt washer provided with the fuze be under detonator socket flange when fuze is screwed into adapter.) Tighten with fuze wrench. Use only fuzes on which the original water- proof seal of lead foil cap is unbroken. 4. Before loading the round into the gun remove waterproof cap by pulling on the exposed loose end of tape. Examine spiral (brass ribbon) where it is coiled around the fuze and safety pin visually to see that they are in good condition. When either is damaged or missing, the fuze will be removed and replaced by a serviceable fuze. Complete round is then ready for firing. The unserviceable fuze will be disposed of. b. Mk. IIIA, superquick. (1) Without interrupter. This fuze may be distinguished from the Mk. III, superquick, without interrupter, by the A in the model designation stamped on the body of the fuze. Otherwise, the only difference between these two fuzes is arrangement of upper detonator. (2) With interrupter. This fuze may be distinguished from the Mk. III, super- quick, with interrupter, by the A in the model designation, stamped on the body of the fuze. Otherwise, the only difference between these two fuzes is in arrangement of upper detonator. c. Mk. IV, short delay. This fuze will be replaced by the point detonating fuze, M47 (g below). Pending replacement, the Mk. IV, short delay, will be used as provided for in existing instructions. d. Mk. IV, Star, short delay. This fuze will be replaced by the point detonating fuze, M47 (g below). Pending replacement, the Mk. IV Star, short delay, will be used as provided for in existing instructions. e. M35. (1) Description. This fuze, shown in Plate 24, is a modified Mk. III, superquick type. Compared with the Mk. III type, it is somewhat shorter, and a sleeve has been added to hold the spiral (brass ribbon) in position. The sleeve is held in place by a pin which is sheared by setback in firing, thereby freeing the spiral. For safety in transportation a spring clip, designated “sleeve support,” is used. This fuze like the Mk. III type is unsuitable for use in reduced charge rounds due to lack of stability of the projectile. (2) Preparation for firing. To assemble the fuze to the round, proceed as follows: (a) Remove adapter closing plug from projectile. (b) Visually inspect fuze cavity and threads. They should be free of foreign matter which would interfere with the proper assembly of the fuze. (c) Screw fuze into adapter by hand. (It is essential that the felt washer provided with the fuze be under detonator socket flange when fuze is screwed into adapter.) Tighten with fuze wrench. (d) By means of a pull on the ring, remove sleeve support. The round is then ready for firing. f. M46. (1) Description. This fuze, a superquick type, shown in Plate 25, is a further modification of the Mk. III type. The firing mechanism has been modified to eliminate the spiral and split rings. A lighter firing pin is supported on a brass cup which is sufficiently strong to resist the setback produced by acceleration in the gun, but which is crushed when the firing pin is driven into the primer on impact. This fuze is suitable for use with either normal or reduced charge rounds. (2) Preparation for firing. To fuze the round proceed as follows: (a) Remove adapter closing plug from projectile. (b) Visually inspect fuze cavity and threads. They should be free of foreign matter which would interfere with the proper assembly of the fuze. (c) Screw fuze into adapter by hand. (It is essential that the felt washer provided with the fuze be under detonator socket flange when fuze is screwed into adapter.) Tighten with fuze wrench. The complete round is then ready for firing. g. M47. (1) Description. This fuze, a delay type, shown in Plate 26, is identical ballistically with the point detonating fuze, M46. It can be distinguished from the 904 MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION latter fuze, however, by the marking and the black head, the M46 fuze has a white head. To provide for delay action, a delay pellet, about 0.05 second, is incorporated in the explosive train between upper detonator and lower detonator. (2) Preparation for firing. To fuze the round proceed as follows: (a) Remove adapter closing plug from projectile. º (b) Visually inspect fuze cavity and threads. They should be free of foreign matter which would interfere with proper assembly of the fuze. (c) Screw fuze into adapter by hand. (It is essential that the felt washer provided with the fuze be under detonator socket flange when fuze is screwed into adapter.) Tighten with fuze wrench. The round is then ready for firing. h. M48. (1) Description. This fuze, shown in Plate 27, is a combination super- quick and short delay type. It will always be issued assembled to shell. The fuze contains two actions, superquick and delay. On the side of the fuze near the base is a slotted “setting sleeve” and two registration lines, one parallel to axis of fuze, the other at right angles thereto. The line parallel to the axis is marked S. Q., the other DELAY. To set the fuze, the setting sleeve is turned so that the slot is alined with S. Q. or DELAY, whichever is required. The setting may be made or changed at will with a screw driver or other similar instrument any time before firing, even in the dark by noting the position of the slot, parallel to the fuze axis for S. Q., at 4.55 MAX- - +81 MAX- DATE MONTH ANDYEAR U 2= *P H -n C NJ ſm T - E. - 3. JS H CO ſu Plate 27. Fuze, Point Detonating, M48. right angles thereto for DELAY. It should be noted that in this fuze even though set superquick, the delay action will operate if the superquick action fails to function. (2) Preparation for firing. Prior to firing it is only necessary to set the fuze and this only when delay action is required. When shipped the fuze is set superquick. i. M54. (1) Description. This standard fuze, shown in Plate 28, is a combination time and superquick type. These fuzes will always be issued assembled to shell. A safety pin extends through the fuze to secure the time plunger during shipment. The fuze contains two actions, time and superquick. The superquick action is always operative and will function on impact, unless prior functioning has been caused by the time action. Therefore, to set the fuze for superquick action, it is required that the time action be set either at safe (S) or for a time longer than the expected time of flight. The time train ring, graduated for 25 seconds, is similar to that of other powder time train fuzes. To prevent extremely short time action, an internal safety feature is incorporated in the time train. This safety feature prevents the time action from functioning should the fuze be set for less than 0.4 seconds. Therefore when setting for time action, the setting should always be greater than this minimum of 0.4 seconds. The fuze is set for time by means of a fuze setter. m (2) Preparation for firing. Prior to firing, the safety pin must be withdrawn from the fuze. If superquick action is required, the graduated time ring is set safe (S) or for a time greater than the expected time of flight. Note. The fuze, as shipped, is set safe. If time action is required, the graduated time train ring is set for the required time of burning by means of a fuze setter. MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION 905 j. TI8. (1) Description. This fuze, shown in Plate 29, is a superquick time type. . These fuzes will always be issued assembled to shell. The fuze provides only for superquick action. (2) Preparation for firing. No special preparation prior to firing is required. TYPE AND MODEL OF FUZE 4.55 MAX: H.8 MAX: - |- | § R; º N) O d Ö 3. 3. LOADERS *- ãL- LOT NUMBER LOADER'S INITIALS DATE MONTH ANDYEAR LOADED Plate 28. Fuze, Point Detonating, M54. 4.55 MAX. Wºr- -81 MAX- | 23. Packing. a. Fixed rounds of 75-mm gun ammunition are packed in individual metal or fiber containers, and these in wooden boxes containing four rounds or in special bundle packings of three rounds. While the weights of the individual rounds vary somewhat, depending upon type and model, the following data are considered represen- tative for estimating weight and volume requirements: U . LOADERS LOT NUMBER, LOADERS INITIALS QND DATE MONTH AND YEAR LOADED Plate 29. Fuze, Point Detonating, T18. Weight Volume (pounds) (cubic feet) Complete round without packing material . . . . 18 3 rounds in bundle packing . . . . . . . . . . . 69 1.0 4 rounds in wooden packing box . . . . . . . . . . . 100 1.7 The overall dimensions of the packings are: 3-round bundle (inches), 27% by 8.10 by 7.57. 4-round box (inches), 30% by 91%6 by 91%6. Bundles for oversea shipment are crated. 906 MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION b. Fuzes. Similar representative data for fuzes are: Approximate dimensions of wooden box (inches), 18 by 9 by 8. Approximate volume (cubic feet), 0.80. Approximate weight of box and 50 fuzes" (pounds), 53. 24. Subcaliber. a. General. The shell, fixed, practice, Mk. II, with fuze, practice, M38, 37-mm gun, M1916 is authorized for use in the 37-mm gun, M1916, when used for subcaliber purposes with the 75-mm gun, M1897, M1897A2, and M1897A4. This am- munition is issued in the form of fixed complete rounds. The projectile is fitted with a base fuze and contains a low explosive filler of black powder. When used for target practice purposes the low explosive filler serves as a spotting charge. The complete round is shown in Plate 30, and may be identified by the marking indicated thereon. causes or ºn and Moot or cºnce ºf ºtºs ºn sº tºo ºurºſure ºur nor or ºu ºn tº In º - "ºº" ºn On Rºº Sºº- Cºllº AND ºr ºf CANNON Kºº ºf Fºllº, Moſt of sºut Bº PDR, Blue ºn tº Max - ºn tº lºss Plate 30. Shell 37-mm Fixed, Practice, Mk. II with Fuze, Practice M38. b. Packing. Two standard packings of 60 rounds each are provided, one, a wooden box with metal liner for oversea shipments, the other a wooden box without metal liner for domestic shipments. Data for these packings are as follows: Weight Volume (pounds) (cubic feet) Complete round without packing material . . . . . . . . . 1.62 Oversea shipments: Box with metal liner (60 rounds) . . . . . . . . . . . 128 1.99 Overall dimensions of box (inches); 23% 6 by 13% 6 by 11%. 6. Domestic shipments: Box without metal liner (60 rounds) . . . . . . . . . . 115 1.60 Overall dimensions of box (inches), 21% by 121146 by 10%2. * Point detonating fuse. Mk. IV, short delay, being smaller, is packed 100 per box of approxi- mately the same size and weight. Questions . Give brief description of breechblock? . What are the functions of a respirator? . How should aiming lantern be cared for? . Name important points in treatment of gunner's quadrant? i MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION SECTION 3 THE 75-MM HOWITZER CONTENTS Paragraphs Chapter I. General Information and Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2 Chapter II. Description and Operation of 75-mm Pack Howitzers, M1A1 and M1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-7 Chapter III. Description and Operation of 75-mm Pack Howitzer Carriage, M1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17 Chapter IV. Description and Operation of 75-mm Pack Howitzer Carriage M3A1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-33 Chapter V. Description and Operation of 75-mm Howitzer Carriages, M3 and M2A1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-40 Chapter VI. Sighting Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-51 Chapter VII. Ammunition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52-61 CHAPTER I GENERAL INFORMATION AND DATA 1. General Information. The 75-mm pack howitzer is mounted on either of two types of carriages. The 75-mm pack howitzer consists of a 75-mm pack howitzer, M1 or M1A1, mounted on a 75-mm pack howitzer carriage, M1; and the 75-mm field howitzer consists of a 75-mm pack howitzer M1 or M1A1, mounted on a 75-mm field howitzer carriage M2A1, M3 or M3A1. The pack howitzer carriage is arranged for dismounting into six mule-packs. This type has wooden wheels, steel tires, and axle traversing mechanism. The field howitzer carriage may be distinguished by its rubber tires and firing base. (Plate 10). The howitzer tube, top and bottom sleighs, cradle and recoil mechanism are essentially the same on both types of carriages. 2. Data. a. 75-mm pack howitzer, M1 and M1A1. Weight with recoil mechanism, pounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .543.56 Length, calibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.9 Rifling: Uniform, right; one turn in 20 calibers; 28 grooves. 0.03 inches deep. Diameter of bore between lands, inches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.95 Pressure, maximum pounds per square inch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26,000 Muzzle velocity, feet per second, maximum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,250 Muzzle velocity, feet per second, minimum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700 Life, approximate, rounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . . . . . . . 12,000 Breech mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Horizontal sliding wedge Firing mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Continuous pull (firing lock, M13) b. 75-mm howitzer carriages. Carriage M1 (pack) M3A1 (field) M3 (field) 1 M2A1 (field)1 Range, maximum, yards .................................... 9,489 9,489 9,489 9,489 Weights: Howitzer and carriage in firing posi- tion, pounds .............. ........................................... 1,269 2,089 2,023 1,949 Howitzer and carriage in traveling position, pounds ..... --- tº º * 3,334 Tube with accessories, pounds ... 245 Bottom sleigh with accessories, pounds 236 Cradle and top sleigh With a C- cessories, pounds ....................................... 240 907 908 MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION Carriage M1 (pack) M3A1 (field) M3 (field)1 M2A1 (field): Front trail with accessories, pounds 257 Rear trail, axle, and sight with accessories, pounds ................................ 259 Wheels and breechblock with ac- Cessories, pounds ..................................... 250 Total pounds ................................... 1,487 Projectiles, standard: Shell, HE, M48, with fuze, M48 or M54, pounds ............................................ 14.7 14.7 14. 7 14.7 Recoil mechanism: - Type: All hydropneumatic, constant, With floating piston. Length of recoil, inches: NOrmal 32. 32. 32. 32. Maximum 33. 65 33. 65 33.65 33. 65 Trail: Type Modified Split Split Split box. Spread, maximum, degrees ........................ ............................. 46% 46% 45 Elevation: Maximum, degrees and mils (plus) (45°) 800 (49.5°) 880 (49.5°) 880 (50°) 889 Minimum, degrees and mils (minus) (5°) 89 (9°) 160 (9°) 160 (9°) 160 Traverse: Maximum total, degrees and mils ... (5.3°) 95 (45°) 800 (45°) 800 (45°) 800 Sighting System: Components: Telescope, panoramic, model ............ MI1 M1 1M1 M1 Mount, telescope, model ........................ M3 M16 M16 M16 Elbow, telescope, model M5 M5 M5 Quadrant, range, model - M3 M3 M3 Transportation 6-mule 6-horse 6-horse 6-horse pack team team team Time to emplace, minutes .............................. 3 3 3. 3 Setter, fuze: % Type Hand Bracket Bracket Bracket 1 The data applying to the howitzer and carriage, M3A1, in general, will also apply with negligible error to the M2A1 and M3 carriages. These carriages are 66 pounds lighter and, in over-all-length 2% inches Shorter than the M3A1. * Includes loaded lirnber. Note—Phillips pack saddle not included, weights 94.5 pounds. CHAPTER II DESCRIPTION AND OPERATION OF 75-MM PACK HOWITZERS, M1A1 AND M1 3. 75-mm pack howitzer, M1A1. The 75-mm pack howitzer M1A1, is standard. This howitzer is in two groups, the tube assembly and the breech mechanism assembly. This division facilitates pack transportation. These assemblies may be readily and and easily disassembled or assembled. (See Plate 11.) 4. Tube Assembly. The tube assembly is provided with a front eyebolt, A9195, lifting eye, A8979, and two studs, A12792 and A12793. The front eyebolt is used, in con- junction with a lifting bar (or trail handspike), as a means to screw the tube into the breech ring. It also serves as a lifting eye. The lifting eye, together with the front eyebolt, is used as a means of lifting the tube. The lifting eye folds down against the tube when the latter is assembled on the carriage. The studs guide the tube in and out of the breech ring and prevent jamming the threads. Lugs are provided as stops for the barrel when the barrel is being assembled to the breech ring. Interrupted threads enable rapid assembly and disassembly of the tube and breech ring, one-eighth turn being required. (See Plate 11.) MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION 909 5. Breech Mechanism. a. Description. The breech mechanism is the horizontal sliding wedge type, hand operated by means of a lever pivoted to the breech ring. The breech mechanism consists of the breech ring, breechblock, operating lever, trigger, firing lock, M13, C8662; gear cover, A12131; operating lever pivot, B8029; and trigger shaft, A12138. Interrupted threads enable rapid assembly of the breech mechanism and the howitzer tube. Two lugs projecting from the front face have cam grooves to guide the two studs on the tube when assembling the barrel to the breech ring. Two lugs, one on each side of the upward cylindrical portion, serve to lock the breech ring to the recoil mechanism. The leveling plates, A12121, are inlaid in the top of the breech ring to form seats for the gunner's quadrant. The trigger is provided with a trigger knob for attaching the lanyard to the trigger. (See Plate 11.) Firing cose Firing pin holder sleeve Fºng ºn neige. firing pin Firing pin Cotter pin Seor spring Plate 1. Firing Lock, M13, in Firing Position. b. Operation. (1) To open the breech, grasp the handle of the operating lever, B8028, and press the latch, A12125, in against the latch spring, A12128, which un- latches the lever. Swing the lever to the right and around to the rear until it strikes the breech ring. As the breechblock moves to the open position it actuates the ex- tractor, B8027, which ejects the cartridge case. In opening the breech rapidly the oper- ator should retain his hold on the lever to prevent rebound of the breechblock. (2) To close the breech, reverse the manipulation of the operating lever. Plate 2. Firing Lock, M13, At Moment of Tripping the Sear. 6. Firing Lock, M13. a. Description. The firing lock, M13, (Plate 1) is an assembly conisting of the firing case, firing pin, firing pin bushing, firing pin holder, cotter pin, (for firing pin holder), firing pin holder sleeve, (firing) spring, trigger fork, sear, and (sear) spring, (See Plate 11.) The firing mechanism is of the continuous-pull type and fits into an axial hole in the breechblock. The firing lock is retained in position in the breechblock by sector lugs on the exterior of the lock engaging with lugs on 910 MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION the block. The firing lock is prevented from rotating out of engagement by the trigger shaft, A12138, which lies transversely in the breechblock and has near its left end a square section which fits into a square hole in the trigger fork of the firing lock. The right end of the trigger shaft has a partial spur gear which meshes with a similar gear on the trigger. The firing pin holder has a cylindrical head which slides in the bore of the firing case, and a flat stem, which passes to the rear through the firing spring, through the firing pin holder sleeve, and between the prongs of the trigger fork. Plate 3. Firing Lock, M13, At Moment of Striking the Primer. The firing pin is loosely secured to the front end of the firing pin holder by means of a bushing and a cotter pin, forming an assembly. The sear rests in a groove below the center of the firing case. The rear end of the sear rotates about the trigger shaft, in- dependent of the trigger shaft motion, and the forward end of the sear is pushed upward into contact with the firing pin holder through the action of the sear spring. A notch at the front end of the sear engages the head of the firing pin holder in the readiness position. The upper surface of the sear, to the rear of the notch, has a cam surface upon which the firing pin holder sleeve rides. This sleeve encircles the firing L Trigger fork pivot. Lever arm. Force exerted by firing pin holder sleeve. Force exerted by firing pin holder. ; Plate 4. Firing Lock, M13, Automatic Cocking. spring and has an enlarged portion at the top rear upon which the extreme end of the trigger fork presses. The trigger fork in a Y-shaped piece; the upper ends of the Y contact the sleeve, so that when the trigger is rotated the fork forces the sleeve forward. The fork straddles the firing pin holder and engages the T-head on the rear end of the holder. The lower leg of the fork has a square hole through which the trigger shaft passes. Firing is accomplished by a rearward pull on the lanyard. The force of this pull has no effect on the force of the blow on the primer. As the trigger shaft is rotated by the trigger, with its connected lanyard, the trigger fork forces the firing pin holder sleeve forward, this action compressing the firing spring. When the proper amount of compression is reached, the sleeve engages the upper cam surface of the : BOLT-BADX3AH NUT-BBAXIE –TR SCREW-BCKX2AD EQUILIBRATOR TRAIL, FRONT RING-AMS724 TRAIL, REAR NUT-A2O809 º LINK-BIT’678 | EP @: >2; A © § gºal LOCK-A3552 Fº SCREW-BCNX2AA A PIN-A21724 º CLAMP-A1822O NUT-BBNXIB -75 MM PACK_HOWITZER CARRIAGE, Mi SECTION-A-A SCREW-BCNX2CK |NUT-BBAXIA STRAP-QADXMBA 29-INCH WHEEL. M4A Plate 5. 75-mm Pack Howitzer Carriage, M1. 912 MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION sear compressing the sear spring and releasing the firing pin and holder. (See Plate 2.) The firing pin holder flies forward under pressure of the spring, and the firing pin strikes the primer. (See Plate 3.) Upon release of the lanyard, the firing lock parts return to their readiness position in the following manner: The firing spring presses forward on the firing pin holder and rearward on the sleeve. (See Plate 4.) The ears of the T-head at the rear end of the firing pin holder thus press forward on the rear PIN - BIOS6 O9 HANDLE- B13942 TURNBUCKLE - A15733 Plate 6. 75-mm Howitzer Carriage, M3A1, Traveling Position. surface of the trigger fork, and the upper rear of the sleeve pushes rearward on the front surface of the extreme ends on the trigger fork. These efforts are equal in strength, but that of the sleeve acts against a longer lever arm, overcomes the pull of the firing pin holder, and rotates the trigger fork about the axis of the trigger shaft, drawing the firing pin holder back until its head is again engaged with the sear. (See Plate 4.) FIRING BASE LOCK PEDAL STOP-Al4O327— NUT-BBHXIA PIN-A157738 WASHER-BEBXIM NUT-A158O38 iPIN-BFAXICR PIN-BFAXIDK |PIN-BFEXIAD BASE-D31347 PIN-BFAXIBB PLUNGER-B|44943 RETAINER-A157735 Plate 7. 75-mm Howitzer Carriage, M3A1, Firing Position. b. Operation. Firing is accomplished by a sharp pull on the lanyard. The firing pin returns automatically to the cocked position when the lanyard is slackened. 7. 75-mm Pack Howitzer, M1. The 75-mm pack mowitzer, M1, is identical with the 75-mm pack howitzer, M1A1, with the exception of the breech ring assembly and the breechlock assembly. These assemblies are not interchangeable on the models of howitzers. (See Plate 11.) MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION 913 TRAIL, RIGHT l_EVER - Blé4176 PIN - A155843 tº HOOK - A18962 LEVER-A1896O HANDSPIKE ELEVATING HANDWHEEL LUNETTE, M6-C45804 LOOP-AI896– SOCKET __–TRAIL, LEFT 3 TRAVERSING HANOWHEEL Plate 8. 75-mm Howitzer Carriage, M3, Plan View. &º _* < \ ^ sº `-TRAIL, RIGHT HOOK - A18962 LEVER - A1896.O Nº LUNETTE, M6-C458O4 S–ELEVATING HANDWHEEL HANDSPIKE LOOP - A157O23 PIN - A15769 O TRAIL, LEFT LEVER - Bla;4|76 TRAVERSING HANOWHEEL Plate 9. 75-mm Howitzer Carriage, M3A1, Plan View. CHAPTER III DESCRIPTION AND OPERATION OF 75-MM PACK HOWITZER CARRIAGE, M1 8. 75-mm Pack Howitzer Carriage, M1. The 75-mm pack howitzer carriage, M1, is the standard for pack artillery. The design is for traverse on the axle. To compensate for the unbalanced weight about the trunnions, spring equilibrators are set within the front trails. Like the 75-mm pack howitzer this carriage may be separated, readily and easily, into groups suitable for pack transportation. The primary groups are the recoil mechanism, including the bottom sleigh, cradle and top sleigh, front trail, rear trail, and the * which are carried on the same pack load as the breech mechanism. (See Plate 5. a. The elevating mechanism, rockers, and equilibrators are assembled to the front trail and are carried in pack as a unit. The axle brackets, into which the detachable axle and traversing mechanism are assembled, are built into the front trail for two posi- tions of the axle. In the first or firing position the axle is well forward where the weight of the axle and wheels is advantageously placed to increase the firing stability of the carriage. The second position is that arranged for towing when the weight of the entire matériel is nearly balanced over the axle. In the second position the axle rests in rear axle bearings. b. In the arrangement for towing, the axle is moved from its bearings in the front of the trail to others underneath and slightly in rear of the trunnion bearings of the rockers. The rear trail is disconnected and a towing pole attached in its place. The cradle, sleigh, and howitzer are lifted from the rockers and set back until the rear trunnions lie in brackets just forward of the trail locking device. The front of the cradle rests on the reinforce to the forward trail transoms. The rear trail is placed above the top sleigh, spade end toward the towing pole and a cincha passed about the whole combination to hold it together. c. During movements by rail, water, or truck, the matériel should be arranged as prescibed in b above and lashed together. This arrangement takes the weight off the elevating mechanism and reduces the possibility of damage. * 9. Recoil Mechanism. a. When the howitzer is fired, the force which propels the projectile forward reacts upon the howitzer and drives it to the rear. It is necessary to check this force in a gradual manner so as not to cause displacement of the carriage. Also, the howitzer must be brought back into battery position before it can be fired again. These objects are accomplished by the recoil mechanism which is of the hydro- pneumatic type. It combines the recoil and counterrecoil systems housed within separate cylinders. The two cylinders, known respectively as the recoil cylinder and the recupera- tor cylinder, are fixed underneath the bottom sleigh and are screwed into the yoke. The piston rod is secured to the cradle by means of the piston rod latch. The yoke and cylinders move with the bottom sleigh and howitzer while the piston rod remains sta- tionary. On each side of the bottom sleigh there are strips or slides which engage the slideways of the cradle which guide the sleigh in recoil and counterrecoil. b. Oil index. The recuperator cylinder front head is fitted with an oil index. The function of the oil index is to show the amount of reserve oil in the mechanism. Should the howitzer be fired with the oil index, A15893 (Plate 12), indicating a loss of oil in the system, considerable additional stress may occur in the recoil mechanism and cause damage. It is therefore necessary to force in enough reserve oil to move the oil index until it is flush with the extension on the oil index follower assembled in the recuperator cylinder front head, C5803. c. (1) The recoil cylinder filling valve, A19763, is contained in the recoil cylinder filling valve housing, B105275. This valve is opened by means of the oil extractor when it is necessary to remove reserve oil, or by the oil screw filler when it is necessary to re- plenish recoil oil, which may have leaked through the recoil piston stuffing box or through the oil index packing. It may also be necessary to replace the oil withdrawn from the system due to expansion of the oil caused by firing. 914 MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION 915 (2) The recoil cylinder is closed at the rear by the recoil cylinder rear head. As this head is on the low pressure side of the piston, elaborate packing is not required. In order to relieve the accumulation of oil that may pass the piston, a relief opening is provided in the cylinder head through which the oil may be ejected. Closing the relief opening is a %-inch hexagon head cap screw which prevents the recoil cylinder (rear head) lock from becoming loosened, and prevents dirt from being sucked into the cylinder. The leaking oil may be released by removing the cap screw on the rear head. 10. Cradle. The slides on the bottom sleigh are fitted to the ways on the cradle. The piston rod latch, B17569, slides vertically in ways in the front end of the cradle. When dropped behind the piston rod nut it secures the piston rod to the cradle, and, with the bottom sleigh and the howitzer in the cradle, it cannot be disengaged, as interference with the howitzer tube prevents the latch from rising. An automatic piston rod latch stem, A20726, is provided for holding the piston rod latch in either the open or locked position. The sight brackets are fitted with a sight retaining shaft, A37140, which is automatically returned to the locked position. A spring-controlled plunger, A37304, is provided to hold a lug of the telescope mount against headless screw, A37305, which may be adjusted by means of nut, BBDXIC. Accuracy of alinement of the sight in azimuth is thereby maintained and quick removal of the telescope mount is provided for. (See Plate 12.) 11. Equilibrators. Two equilibrators are provided to overcome the preponderance of weight resulting from the position of the rocker trunnions so far to the rear of the center of gravity of the tipping parts. The equilibrator is composed of the barrel, stem, equilibrator helical spring, equilibrator stem plug, equilibrator pin lock, and screw, for fastening the lock in place. The equilibrator pressure is adjustable within limits to secure the lightest and most uniform resistance to elevation and depression. The rear end of the barrel and the plug are adapted to receive the equilibrator locking tool to hold the equilibrator compressed while it is being inserted or dismounted. The load on the spring when the locking tool is inserted is approximately 1400 pounds. 12. Rockers. The rockers are segments of internal gears, located on either side of the cradle in the space between inner and outer flasks of the front trail side elements. The rockers pivot on trunnion pins. 13. Axle, Traversing Mechanism, and Wheels. a. The axle is fitted with left and right axle arms. The left arm, is pinned, whereas the right arm, is attached with a screw, for disassembling purposes. The axle is grooved to form an inner race for the traversing mechanism bearing balls. b. The axle is retained in its bearings in the trail by means of a sleeve. The sleeve may be inserted by matching the proper surfaces. After assembling it may be locked by turning 90°, by means of the hinged handle lock, A3363, which, when released, becomes a lever by which the sleeve may be turned. The body of the axle is graduated in mils for traverse, the right end of the sleeve forming the index of the graduations. c. The traversing mechanism is composed of the traversing nut, C8018; handwheel, C8019; machine screw, BCKX2CG; ball bearing, CAAX1AU; ball bearing cap, B13968; ball bearing nut, A15810; and seventy-one 5/16-inch steel balls, CCAX1D. The dust cover, C1666, is provided to prevent the entry of dirt or foreign matter into the me- chanism. When the matériel is transported on its wheels the handwheel is locked to the trail to prevent it from turning and running the axle off center. d. The wheels (Plate 5) are 29 inches in diameter, steel-tired, and are secured to the axle arm by the linchpin, A15722. A drag link, B17678 (Plate 5), is provided on the outer end of the hub ring. 14. Front Trail. Openings are provided at the front of each side member of the front trail to house the rockers. At the front end, between the side members of the trail, the upper elevating gear case D3848, the rocker pinion shaft tube, B13506, and rocker pinion shaft tube bearing are assembled. The elevating worm, A16, and the elevating worm wheel, A15, are inclosed within the gear case. The rocker pinion shaft, B5570, is inclosed within the rocker pinion shaft tube. Axle bearings are provided at the front end of the trail which retain the axle when the piece is in firing position. At the bottom and 916 MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION to the rear of the trunnion bearings, two additional axle bearings are fitted for retaining the axle when the matériel is transported by towing. Two bearings are assembled toward the rear of the front trail in which the rear ends of the equilibrator rest, the front ends being supported in bearing surfaces in the rockers. Brackets on the top, toward the rear, support the cradle when arranged for towing. Trail hinges are attached to the rear end of the trail. These hinges engage with other hinges on the rear trail for assembling the matériel in firing position. The trail fulcrum plungers, B6832, housed within the trail connecting mechanism housing, pass through the eyes of the hinges. The trail fulcrum plungers are moved in and out by means of the trail fulcrum, B6833, and two trail fulcrum links. A8690. By the use of a lifting bar, through the eye of the fulcrum, it may be turned 90°, which engages or disengages the plungers with the hinges. The trail connecting mechanism is also utilized when attaching the towing pole. 15. Rear Trail. The rear trail is similar to the front trail in construction. It is fitted with a spade in order to prevent backward movement of the carriage when the howitzer is fired. It is also provided with a socket for the purpose of maneuvering the carriage by use of the handspike. The sponge staves are transported on the inside of the rear trail. The axle and traversing mechanism assembly is carried inside the trail with the right end of the axle in the bore of the handspike socket and the left end over the rear trail front transom. (See Plate 5.) HANDLE-BIO86O8 PIN-BIO8609 NUT-A158038 PIN-BFAXIDK -—/ N-- SS IY-3 || || - PIN PLUNGER-B)44334 `sº PIN-Al4O4O5 FIRING BASE & TRAVELING_LOCK - 75MM HOWITZER CARRIAGE, M3 SCREW - BCTXIBF PIN-A158054 LOCK-A3552 lscREw-BCNx2AA EQUILIBRATOR CAP EQUILIBRATOR CYLINDER BAQREL-BIO863O SPRING-Aſ36543 22 23° J– Kº N 75 MM HOWITZER CARRIAGE, M3A Plate 10. 75-mm Howitzer Carriages, M3 and M3A1—Firing Position with Firing Base and Traveling Lock, ! 16. Top Sleigh. The top sleigh is composed of the top sleigh body, top sleigh clamp- ing cam, B104254; top sleigh clamping latch, A18873; top sleigh clamping latch pin, A3872; cam bushing, A3580; and a thong, A17950, for retaining the latch pin. The top sleigh retains the howitzer in the bottom sleigh and also forms a covering for it. The cam, hand operated by means of the socket of the handspike, when turned to the locked position forces the top sleigh forward. By inserting the top sleigh clamping latch pin the two sleighs are locked together and retained in position. (See Plate 12.) 17. Bottom Sleigh. a. The bottom sleigh forms a seat for the howitzer and maintains alinement of the tube and breech ring when assembled. b. The recoil indicator bracket, B104820, which carries the recoil indicator, A19262, § BREECH MECHANISM, 75 MM PACK HOWTIZER_MJ SECTION_A- A STUD-A12792 STUD-A12793 RING, BREECH BUSHING-A21299 FIRIN9 LOCK M13, CGS62 HOLDERs 88.187 SPRING-A12:34 BUSHING-A12579 CASE-CŞ537 & IN-A12755 —ſ-- | | & * * * - sºº J w Plaº-Azer tº ºbº © \_{O EXTRAGI ON"BöU27 "º- R. PIVOT-38029: \– |N| = | ge PIN - A12126 SCREW-A1223 FORK-A1232 PIN-BFAXl60 SCREW-A12834 CATCH-AI222 SLEEVE-A12133 SEAR-8803; COVER-A1231 SPRING-A12135 SCREW-A12/30 (LEVER-88O28 SCREW-BCTXIBE St. EYE-A8979 Sºº-ºº: EYEBOLT-A995 TUBE --> irº i | 8REECH MECHANISM .75 M M HOWITZER M1A1 A PIVOT-A12127 TRIGGER THE BREECHBLOCK ASSEMBLY 8 BREECH RING ASSEMBLY OF SHAFT-A12138 THE HOWITZER MIAI ARE NOT INTERCHANGEABLE WITH THE BREECHBLOCK BREECHBLOCK ASSEMBLY 8 BREECH RING ASSEMBLY OF THE HOWITZER MI Plate 11. 75-mm Pack Howitzer, M1 and M1A1, with Breech Mechanism and Firing Lock, M13. 918 MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION NIXO-39-Nſe] Oßł XO-38-NI& 9:29 tº tz|\7-9NINES 89089 W/-}}|3|N!\713}} 68|6O18 - 13 VHS ty - \; āFāTNõTTĒģ$ 8.2/O2\7-AWAB? JOS 2t>1/19 W/-9N|8c3S with its spring, A1344, and handle, A1343, for recording the length of recoil, is bolted to 2) • O NQ} 1 O 2S 209 29 v-9NIJđS t»OÇZºw-839Nnna 909-19 v - NABAJOS OIXO89 - 1/nN the right side of the bottom sleigh near the front. The recoil indicator is a spring plunger arrangement and may be set so that its point will trace a path in grease or ÕÕGĘjvy- NIXO-38-N|c} t»92 tº Oſº - WW7O– ſwfQ W Eſſºv|x-ſ}}\70 83Z LINAOH WWN GA §ī£W E97 （jv0 （JBZ LINNOH WW G/. 5, gggo − ogs; TV7 ēW （357TH HVO BEZLIWOH WW94. W|XO B8-H3HSV/WA（JO - H913T1S 8 BT1QV7}}O CJB|X809- NABY JOS OO ITF ， ! ÞīgāX308-MESOS | 61Gotiv-dols *ų3țøTS puſę 9Ipe IO-S05eļJJeO JºzņļAAOH Uuuu-g!, puie JºzņļAA0H 310'eaſ uuuu-g!, ‘ŻI 93:eIJI 5o15.510 NTTī003№ 5NIĘGĘSTīāī5TLīāīūTŇ5"Nõī553 * * \/|X888 - 1/\ſ\; ___ …–… ~ ~ =~=+ *-*** WA380S HIXO39-?）. BHSV/NA NOI I O3S99||X809- NA BAJOS 99998- 1}}Oddſ\S H913T1S WOL 1O8 angvºj 2/89 V-Nļd — OO|X£3O8 - NA380S f\| Iſºſflulf\f\（） ſāko”， iTOE o Hºy|3TS dO 1 - ------ ~- - --~- - ~ ~ - 92/O2V-W31S īWTĒVĪJŪwŤ JEZIīMOH XOVJTWWGĀTŅOTĀ91īSTā īāīūō ogggv-9NIHSne-ºff /%' 9/290883N v138 96t»8|\7- L'EXISV19) |G99||V-MABHOS W77||XOO9-NABAJOS 9{,}9\f-d'OLS g2, O2\; - NA380 }-||XO33-)-33 HSV 699/19-HO LVTI \ . . . similar substance smeared on top of the cradle. The length of recoil may be read on a When not in use the recoil indicator is raised and retained out of contact with the cradle by its handle resting in a notch in the wall of the bracket. scale cut in the cradle. (See Plate 12.) *…* CHAPTER IV DESCRIPTION AND OPERATION OF 75-MM HOWITZER CARRIAGE, M3A1 18. 75-mm Howitzer Carriage, M3A1. The 75-mm howitzer carriage, M3A1, is the present standard designed especially for high speed travel. This carriage is a split trail type vehicle having pneumatic tired disk and rim wheels mounted on antifriction bearings . and equipped with standard commercial automobile brakes. Spring equilibrators support the unbalanced weight of the tipping parts (See Plate 6.) 19. Recoil Mechanism. See paragraph 9. 20. Cradle. The slides on the bottom sleigh are fitted to the ways on the cradle. The piston rod latch, B17569, slides vertically in ways in the front end of the cradle. When dropped behind the piston rod nut it secures the piston rod to the cradle, and with the bottom sleigh and the howitzer in the cradle it cannot be disengaged, as interference with the howitzer tube prevents the latch from rising. An automatic piston rod latch stem, A20726, is provided for holding the piston rod latch in either open or locked posi- tion. (See section D-D, Plate 12.) The sight brackets are fitted with a sight retaining shaft, B109189, which is automatically returned to the locked position. A sight clamping screw, A141500, is provided to hold a lug of the telescope mount, or of the range quad- rant, against a headless screw, A141501, which may be adjusted by loosening the nut, BBDX1C. (See section C-C, Plate 12.) Accuracy of alinement of the sight in azimuth is thereby maintained and quick removal of the telescope mount is provided for. 21. Top Carriage. The top carriage has trunnion bearings at the top which support the cradle and cup-shaped bearings at the bottom to support the lower ends of the equilibrators. The elevating gear case and pads, for attaching the traversing and elevating handwheel shaft brackets, are fitted to the top carriage. (See Plate 10.) 22. Bottom Carriage. The bottom carriage is fitted with a pintle bearing, trail brackets, trail lock pin bracket, firing base hinge brackets, stops to locate the traveling lock in traveling position and a traversing rack. (See Plate 10.) 23. Elevating Mechanism. The tipping parts may be elevated or depressed by means of the elevating handwheel, C2247, located on the right side of the carriage. Stops are provided at each end of the elevating arc, C59570, which regulate maximum elevation and depression. The rotating parts are mounted on oil-sealed antifriction bearings. (See Plates 9 and 12.) 24. Traversing Mechanism. The carriage may be traversed in the desired direction by means of the traversing handwheel, C2247, located on the left side of the carriage. Stops are provided at each end of the traversing rack, C59562, to regulate maximum traverse. The rotating parts are mounted on oil-sealed antifriction bearings. (See Plate 9.) g 25. Equilibrators. Two equilibrators are provided to overcome the preponderance of weight resulting from the position of the rocker trunnions so far to the rear of the center of gravity of the tipping parts. The high speed howitzer equilibrator is com- posed of the equilibrator spring, A136543; equilibrator barrel, B108630; equilibrator cylinder assembly, and equilibrator trunnion pin lock, A3552. Adjustment of the spring trunnion is obtained by adjusting the equilibrator trunnion pins. The equili- brators for carriage, M3A1, are equipped with the bent pin, A158054. (See Plate 10.) 26. Trails. When spread to their full open position the trails are locked by means of the trail lock pins, A157690. The pins are inserted in the trail lock pin brackets of the trail and through mating holes in the trail lock pin brackets on the bottom carriage. When the trails are closed to their traveling position they are locked together by means of a toggle type mechanism. In the operation of locking the trails together the trail lock hook, A18962, which is connected to the trail lock lever, A18960, on the right trail, is inserted into the trail lock loop, A157023, assembled to the left trail. When the trail lock lever is pressed down it draws the two trails together tightly, and by inserting a cotter pin through the trail lock lever and the trail connection bracket they are locked in traveling position. (See Plate 9.) 919 920 MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION 27. Wheels. Each wheel consists of disk and rim, pneumatic truck-bus balloon tire, puncture-sealing or bullet-sealing inner tube, and a tire locking ring. 28. Brake Mechanism. The brake mechanism for the 75-mm howitzer carriage, M3A1, is the internal expanding type. The brake shoes, C62667, actuated by the hand brake lever, B150601, are attached to the brake cam shaft, B150584. Movement of the brake lever forces the brake cam, B144968, against the brake cam rollers, B144955, of the brake shoes causing them to expand against the brake drums which are rigidly at- tached to the wheels. When the brake lever is placed in the “off” position the brake shoes are forced toward the center of the wheel by means of the brake shoe retracting spring, B144956 and B144957. a. Movement of the hand brake lever, B150601, is controlled by the brake ratchet pawl engaging teeth of the brake ratchet rack, B150685. b. The brake shoes may be adjusted for wear by means of the brake adjusting wedge. 29. Wheel carriers. The wheel carriers for the carriage, M3A1, are designed to facilitate changing the carriage from the firing to traveling, or from traveling to firing positions. They are assembled to the bottom carriage by wheel carrier pins. Bronze washers, A140573, and slotted nuts are assembled on the wheel carrier pins to retain the wheel carrier to the bottom carriage with just enough tension to allow a revolving movement of the wheel carrier without undue end play. The wheel spindle, B144817, assembled to the wheel carrier, is retained in a rigid position by means of tapered surfaces on the shank and secured by a washer and slotted nut assembled to the wheel spindle. 30. Wheel Latch. The wheel latch mechanism secures the wheel carriers in traveling and firing positions. To release the wheel carrier press down on the wheel latch plunger, A161606 (A157080 for carriages M2A1 and M3). The wheel latch lever actuates the wheel latch bolt, A161602 (A140408 for carriages M2A1 and M3), which engages mating holes in the spring carriers and wheel carriers when in either traveling or firing position. The movement of the wheel latch bolt is controlled by slots cut on the side of the wheel carrier brackets. 31. Firing Base. The firing base, pertaining to the 75-mm howitzer carriage, M3A1, is designed to combine the functions of the firing base and traveling lock. When travel- ing the firing base is swung up until the slotted bearing of the base engages the cradle lock pin, B108609, and is secured by turning the cradle lock pin handle, B13942, parallel with the cradle. (See Plate 6.) - 32. Firing Base Lock. The firing base lock of the 75-mm howitzer carriage, M3A1, consists of a firing base lock plunger, B144943, actuated downward by a compression spring and withdrawn by depressing the firing base lock pedal. The plunger is retained in a housing on the bottom carriage. The firing base lock spring retainer, A157735, which is screwed into the upper end of the housing, controls the motion of the upper end of the plunger. The lower end of the plunger is enlarged to fit the inside of the opening in the firing base and to retain the compression spring at its lower end. When the firing base is dropped into firing position the compression spring automatically actuates the plunger locking the firing base. (See Plate 7.) 33. Cradle Lock. The cradle lock consists of a cylindrical pin, B108609, flattened on two sides and rotated by the cradle lock pin handle which in turn is secured to the cradle by means of a turnbuckle. When the cradle lock pin handle, B13942, is in a vertical position it allows the traveling lock to be seated. Turning the cradle lock pin handle to a horizontal position locks the traveling lock to the cradle. (See Plate 6.) CHAPTER V DESCRIPTION AND OPERATION OF 75-MM HOWITZER CARRIAGES, M3 AND M2A1 34. General. The 75-mm howitzer carriages, M3 and M2A1, have the same general appearance as the M3A1 carriage. The major differences in construction are as follows: a. The M3 carriages have spring carriers at the present time, whereas the M2A1 and M3A1 models have springless carriers. However, changes are to be made on all of the M3 carriages which will embody replacement of the spring carriers by the M3A1 type springless wheel carriers. b. The M3 and M2A1 carriages have a traveling lock, whereas on the M3A1 carriage this function is performed by the firing base when in traveling position. c. The M3 carriages have external brake mechanisms while the M3A1 and M2A1 carriages have the internal type. However, it is contemplated that the present external brakes on the M3 carriages are to be replaced by the internal type. d. The position of the cradle lock pin hole of the M3A1 carriage is changed. e. The shape of the trails is changed, and the lunette of the M3 carriage is placed on the left trail while that of the M3A1 carriage is attached to the right trail. f. The equilibrator trunnion pins are changed according to paragraph 40. 35. Brakes. The brake band is actuated by means of a brake lever, C59579, hinged to the carriers, D7291 and D7304, by the brake shafts, B108597 and B108598. Movement of the brake lever causes the brake band to hug the brake drum, creating enough friction to bring the vehicle to a stop. The brake band may be adjusted by means of the brake band adjusting nut, A137462, and equalized by means of the fillister head screw, A137598, in the guide. (See Plate 13.) # 36. Spring Carriers. a. The spring carriers of the 75-mm howitzer carriage, M3, are designed to absorb the road shocks in conjunction with the pneumatic tired wheels and thereby improve the riding qualities of the carriage. (See Plate 13.) b. The spring carrier bracket is a steel casting containing two bored cylinders. Each cylinder contains a helical spring, A140597; spring carrier shaft upper bushing, A140586; and spring buffer, A140584. The top of each cylinder is closed by means of a bracket buffer cap screwed to it and retained in position by means of a set screw, BCTX1BF. Spring carrier shafts, B108606, are assembled through the cylinder and attached to the wheel carrier by nuts at each end of the shaft. 37. Firing Base. The firing base pertaining to the 75-mm howitzer carriages, M3 and M2A1, is designed to support the weight of the carriage when in firing position. The base swings on pins which connect the firing base to the bottom carriage. When traveling, the base is swung upward and is locked to the traveling lock by the spring actuated lock plunger, B144334. (See Plate 10.) 38. Firing Base Lock. The firing base lock pertaining to the 75-mm howitzer carriages, M3 and M2A1, is assembled near the bottom of the front of the bottom carriage. The mechanism is composed of the two spring actuated latches actuated by a toggle action which is operated by the firing base lock release. The release, B108619, is oper- ated by the foot and when pressed down will disengage the latches and permit the firing base to be swung into traveling position. The latches return to their engaged position by the tension of the springs and will automatically latch the firing base when dropped into firing position. * 39. Traveling Lock. The traveling lock of the 75-mm howitzer carriages, M3 and M2A1, supports the cradle and firing base when in traveling position. The traveling lock is hinged to the bottom carriage and when in traveling position it is locked to the cradle by means of the cradle lock pin, B108609. In firing position the traveling lock is disengaged from the cradle and lowered until the stop at the bottom of each leg comes in contact with the bottom carriage. (See Plate 10.) 40. Equilibrators. The equilibrators for the M3 and M2A1 carriages are identical with those on the M3A1 carriage except that the equilibrator on the left side of the carriage is equipped with a straight equilibrator trunnion pin, A21724, whereas the equilibrator on the right side has a bent pin. 921 § ºf: SS & § {N * C--> º COVER-Blá1737 FITTING-CLOX1A NUT-BBAX2D washBR-BEAX3K ARRIER (LEFT)-D729. CARRIER (RIGHT)-D73O4 WASHER-BEAXIH NUT-8BAXIA SCREW-BCKX4AE AP - Al4O6OO BUFFER-Al4O584 SCREW-BCTX2C BUSHING-Al4O586 SHAFT-B(O86O6 SPRING-Al4O597 FITTING-CLDXIA AP-A (4 O588 UT-BBGX2D PIN-BFAXIOL BRACKET (RIGHT) - D7272 BRACKET (LEFT) - D727 3 Ri ARRIER FOR 7 ſ M__HOWITZER CARRIAGE M3 SCREW-A137994 SCREw-BCKX2CK NUT-A137462 SCREW-BCBXIED SPRING-Al37995 NUT-888XIC WASHER-AI3792O RANK-Al4O516 |NUT-BBHXIC ñFT (LEFT)-BIO8597 PIN-BFAXIDK HAFT (RIGHT)-BIO8598 &S FITTING-CU-DX1A RACK • B I4 434 O iSº S- PIN-Al4O569 PIN-BFAXIDF WASHER-Al4O573 NUT-BBHX2A PIN-BFAX2AC LEVER-C59579 SCREW-A138O42 *> WASHER-BEBXIM !9. - - PIN-BFAXIDF ; : | BAND ^{i} i- NUT-BBBX1A *::: * SCREW-A137598 BRAKE MECHANISM FOR 75 MM HOWTIZER CARRIAGE M3. Plate 13. 75-mm Howitzer Carriage—Brake Mechanism and Spring Carrier. CHAPTER VI SIGHTING EQUIPMENT 41. Lamp, Aiming post. This is the same as used with the 75-mm gun and described in Section 2 of Materiel and Ammunition, this volume. - 42. Telescope, Panoramic, M1, and Mount, Telescope, M3. The standard components of the sighting system on the 75-mm howitzer, M1 (pack), are the M1 panoramic telescope and the M3 telescope mount. The telescope and mount (Plate 14) are used for aiming and laying for elevation. The mount automatically applies the corrections in azimuth and elevation for cant of the carriage. It is mounted in a socket on the left side of the cradle. It must be removed before traveling. TELESCOPE, ELEVATHON - Iº-##tº- (Immſ NORMAL" INDEXES Fir- c s | @ | THROWOUT LEVER ºf El Hiſt LEVEL ANGLE OF SITE ELEVATION —=55ATE ROSS EE Nº f(-\\ **º-ed a | P © – = { NG) NOOOO CLAMPING SCREW | ORUM BRACKET t- SCREW | Plate 14. Telescope Mount, M3, with Panoramic Telescope, M1. 43. Telescope, Panoramic, M1, and Mount, Telescope, M16. This telescope and mount (Plate 15), furnished with each 75-mm howitzer and carriage, M2A1, M3, and M3A1, form sighting element for aiming the howitzer in direction. This mount is of the azimuth-compensating type, automatically applying the necessary azimuth correction for trunnion cant. It mounts in a socket in the sight bracket on the left-half side of the cradle of the howitzer. It is removed for traveling. 44. Telescope, Elbow, M4, and Mount, Telescope, M17. This telescope and mount were formerly used on the 75-mm howitzer and carriage, M2, which has been con- verted to M2A1. The M2A1 uses the same sighting equipment as the 75-mm howitzer and carriage, M3 or M3A1. 45. Post, Aiming. These are the same as those described for the 75-mm gun in Section 2 Materiel and Ammunition this volume. 923 § KNOB TELESCOPE ELEVATION. | "NORMAL" INDEXES AZIMUTH O SCALE Ø A. MICROMETER |HOUSING KNOB H-Hº Oll. CU S LEVEL ANGLE OF SITE LEVEL THROWOUT LEVER GROSS LEVEL KNOB VATION CLAMPING SC REW Plate 15. Telescope Mount, M16, with Panoramic Telescope, M1. MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION 925 46. Quadrants, Gunner's. See 75-mm gun as above. 47. Quadrant, Range, M3, and Telescope, Elbow, M5. This quadrant and telescope, (Plate 16), are used for laying the howitzer, on carriages M2A1, M3, and M3A1, in elevation. The quadrant mounts in a socket in the sight bracket on the right side of the cradle. It is removed for traveling. The telescope is mounted on the quadrant but is removed for traveling. When using direct laying, the angle of elevation is intro- duced by means of range graduations on the telescope reticle and angle of site is in- troduced directly. When using indirect laying, the elevation angle, or the correspond- ing range, and angle, of site are set off on scales and automatically corrected for trun- nion cant, the proper laying of the piece being indicated by the centering of the level bubbles. –ELBow TELESCOPE , M5 "º º ** º ANGLE OF SITE --LEVEL tº scale ºveres ºt lateral Motion - - - Plate 16. Range Quadrant, M3, with Elbow Telescope, M5. 48. Quadrant, Range, M2. This range quadrant was formerly used on the 75-mm howitzer and carriage, M2, which has now been converted to M2A1. It uses the same sighting equipment as the 75-mm howitzer and carriage, M3 and M3A1. - 49. Sight Bore. The bore sight is used to indicate the direction of the axis of the bore of the piece for alinement and verification of sights. Each bore sight is composed of a breech and muzzle element. a. Description. (1) The breech bore sight, is a disk which fits accurately in the chamber of the howitzer. The model of the howitzer for which it is to be used is en- graved on the disk. (2) The muzzle bore sight includes a cord, to be stretched tightly across the muzzle, vertically and horizontally in the score marks thereon and a belt buckled around the muzzle to hold the cord in place. b. Operation. With the two elements in place, sight through the aperture in the breech bore sight. The direction of the axis is indicated by the cord intersection. 926 MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION c. Care and preservation. Handle the breech bore sight carefully to prevent nicks and burs. Wind the cord and belt compactly when not in use. 50. Sleeve, Aiming Post, M1. Two of these sleeves are furnished with each 75-mm pack howitzer and carriage, M1. Each sleeve fits over a lifting bar to permit use as aiming posts. 51. Targets, Testing. A testing target is used during the bore sighting of sights and subcaliber equipment. Four targets are provided with each weapon, except pack howitzers, with which only one target is provided. The aiming points corresponding to the axis of bore, subcaliber bore, and the lines of sight are plainly designated. It is essential that the proper aiming points be selected, and that the target be positioned vertically and in a vertical plane. Chapter VII AMMUNITION 52. General. a. Ammunition for the 75-mm pack howitzers, M1A1 and M1, is issued fuzed in the form of “fixed” and “semifixed” complete rounds. A complete round includes all of the ammunition components used in a cannon to fire one round. b. Fixed ammunition. In fixed ammunition, the cartridge case, which contains the propelling charge and primer, is crimped rigidly to the projectile. The fixed complete round is loaded into the cannon as a unit. c. Semifixed ammunition. Semifixed ammunition differs from fixed ammunition in that the projectile is a free fit in the cartridge case and the propellant is divided into increments. Thus, the projectile may be removed in the field and the propelling charge adjusted for the desired zone of fire. As in the case of fixed ammunition, the complete round is loaded into the cannon as a unit. causen ºpt ºf tº Mººl ºf Gºli --- | Fºuntricºlºr NUMBERAND lººter's NITIALs KINº QF FILLER- | rººtſ ºf tº Anity ºf OF CARTRIDGECASE Mººl ºf SHELL- ºr ºf MARKING- – Yellow ſºngine Ark- 255 MAX T Mºufactuºsºſtal sºld YEAR ºf MANUFACTURE plate 17, shell, semifixed, he, M48, with fuze pd M54. 53. Classification. Dependent upon the kind of filler, projectiles may be classified as explosive, chemical, or inert. Explosive projectiles comprise high explosive and practice projectiles and shrapnel. High explosive projectiles contain a high explosive bursting charge, whereas shrapnel and practice projectiles contain a relatively small quantity of low explosive filler. The modern shrapnel is a projectile designed to carry a large number of spherical shot to a distance from the gun and there discharge them over an extended area. The low explosive filler for practice projectiles is intended solely as a spotting charge and for some purposes may be omitted. Chemical projectiles comprise those containing a chemical filler; that is, a chemical agent which produces either a toxic or an irritating physiological effect, a screening smoke, incendiary action, or a combination of these. Inert projectiles contain no explosive. 54. Firing Tables, FT 75-1-3 is used for all ammunition, 75-mm pack howitzers, M1 and M1A1. MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION 927 55. Identification. To identify completely an ammunition lot, it is necessary to state in full the kind of ammunition, the ammunition lot number, and the manufacturer's name. This information plus other essential information such as weight zone and muzzle velocity may be obtained from the painting and marking of the round and the accompanying data card. (See Plate 17.) 56. Authorized Rounds. The 75-mm pack howitzers, M1A1 and M1, being chambered alike, fire the same ammunition. The ammunition authorized for use therein is listed below; see also Plate 17. It will be noted that the designation completely identi- fies the ammunition as to type and model of the projectile and the fuze, and caliber of cannon in which the round is fired. To the nomenclature of ammunition which is issued fuzed, shrapnel excepted, a suffixed statement such as “w/PDF M48’’ indicates the type and model of fuze assembled thereto. AMMUNITION FOR 75-MM PACK HOWITZERS, M1A1 AND M1 Approximate Prescribed fuzes weight of pro- Nomenclature jectile as fired Model Action (pounds) Service ammunition Shell, semifixed, H. E., M48, w/PDF, M48, 75-mm M43 pack howitzer, M1A1 and M1. Shell, semifixed, H. E., M48, w/PDF M54, 75-mm M54................ SQ-Time 14.60 pack howitzer, M1A1 and M1. SQ?-Del 8 14.60 * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Shell, semifixed, H. E., M41, w/PDF M48, 75-mm M48. SQ-Del,..., 13.82 pack howitzer, M1A1 and M1. Shell, semifixed, H. E., M41, W/PDF M54, 75-mm M54................ SQ-Time 13.82 pack howitzer, M1A1 and M1. Shell, semifixed, H. E., M41A1, W/PDF M48, 75-mm M48................. SQ-Del. 13.76 pack howitzer, M1A1 and M1. Shell, semifixed, H. E., M41A1, W/PDF M54, 75-mm M54. ............ SQ-Time 13.76 pack howitzer, M1A1 and M1. 1 Point detonating fuze. * Superquick. & Delay. 57. Propelling Charges. The charges for the 75-mm pack howitzers are of the base and increment type. They consist of a base section and three increments, permitting four zones of fire. When it is desired to use other than the full charge, the projectile is re- moved from the cartridge case, the required number of increments removed, and the connecting twine broken. The projectile is then replaced in the cartridge case. Unused increments are destroyed under the direct supervision of the battery executive. The arrangement of the charges in the complete round is shown in Plate 17. 58. Fuzes. a. General. A fuze is a mechanical device used with a projectile to explode it at the time and under the circumstances desired. NOTE. No attempt will be made to disassemble any fuze. b. Types. (1) Fuzes may be classified into two principal types—namely, those which function by time action a certain number of seconds after firing, and those which function as a result of impact of the projectile with a resistant object such as earth, water, or structural material. 59. Fuze, P. D., M48. See description under 75-mm gun, Section 2 Matériel and and Ammunition. 60. Fuze, P. D., M54. See under 75-mm gun as above. 61. ‘Packing. See under 75-mm gun as above. Questions 1. What is the weight of this howitzer? 2. Describe the breech mechanism. 3. What is the function of the recoil oil index? 4. How are the rotating parts of the traversing mechanism mounted? MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION SECTION 4 THE 155-MM HOWITZER CONTENTS Paragraphs Chapter I. Description and Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-13 Chapter II. Special Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-17 Chapter III. Sighting Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18–22 Chapter IV. Ammunition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-27 CHAPTER I DESCRIPTION AND OPERATION 1. Description of 155-mm Howitzer, M1918. a. The 155-mm howitzer, M1918 (Plate 1), is of American manufacture. It is a short, stocky cannon of the built-up type. The name and model of the howitzer are stamped on the left side of the jacket just below the counterweight. The name of the manufacturer, year of manufacture, serial num- ber, and weight including the breech mechanism are stamped on the muzzle. b. Data, 155-mm Howitzer, M1918. Length of barrel (breech face to muzzle face) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91.8108 inches. Length of bore in calibers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.64. Weight of projectile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 pounds. Weight of charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.70 pounds. Travel of projectile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69.8817 inches. Volume of chamber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425 cubic inches. Maximum pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26,500 pound s per square inch. Muzzle velocity and muzzle energy at given elevations for different types of ammunition will be found in firing tables. Weight of howitzer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2740 pounds. Rifling, uniform right-hand twist, one turn in 25,586 calibers, number of grooves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48. Total weight, howitzer and carriage, completely equipped, firing Position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8262 pounds. Height above ground, highest point, top of shield, 1965 mm . . . . . . . . . 77.36 inches. . Range of elevation from 0° to 42° 20' Traverse to right or left . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52.5 mils. c. The breech mechanism is of the interrupted screw type and consists mainly of the gas check pad, breechblock, breechblock carrier, and a percussion type firing mechanism. The gas check pad is of the plastic type. The breechblock rotates on the pintle of the breechblock carrier and is locked in position in the breech recess by threaded sectors. The mechanism is operated by an operating lever which, in conjunction with the rack, rotates the breechblock and swings the breechblock carrier to the open or closed position. The breechblock carrier is hinged to swing on the right side of the howitzer. d. The firing mechanism (Plate 4) is of the screw type. This firing mechanism is common to the 155-mm gun, M1918 MI; the 8-inch howitzer, M1917 (Mk. VI and Mk. VIII/4); and the 240-mm howitzer. The firing mechanism block latch assembly (Plate 4) is provided as a safety measure for use in connection therewith. e. A maximum rate of fire for four or five rounds per minute may be attained but can not be continued for more than a few minutes, due principally to the heating effect and the difficulty of preparing and handling the ammunition. The normal rate is two FA1 (1) 929 930 MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION rounds per minute. The howitzer may be loaded at any attainable angle of elevation, the limits of elevation being from zero to 42° 20'. The approximate life of the howitzer before relining becomes necessary is 7500 rounds. f. Firing is accomplished either from the rear by pulling the lanyard attached to the percussion hammer (24A), Plate 2, or from the right side of the carriage by movement of the firing hammer operating shaft striker which strikes the arm on the end of the percussion hammer operating shaft (22A), Plate 2. Ta- E. cº ! O 3–3. O}# = Jæ s—32A-ScREW 3OA-PLATES 32C-EYE |CA -TUBE IOC-JACKET 32B-COUNTERWEIGHT Š SS /// ////////////////// *////// ZZZZZZ//// 35B-BRIDLE Plate 1. 155-mm Howitzer, M1918 2. Description of 155-mm Howitzer, M1917. The 155-mm howitzer, M1917, is of French manufacture and is similar to the 155-mm howitzer, M1918, with regard to build, weight, dimensions, and ballistics. The differences are— a. The design of the firing mechanism of the M1917 howitzer is of the vertical sliding type. b. Certain parts of the breech mechanism are interchangeable with those of the M1918. Such parts are indicated by note symbol “:#” in Standard Nomenclature List No. C-3. They are not repeated in Standard Nomenclature List No. C-17. c. The breechblock differs from the M1918 in that a cam surface on the breech face raises the firing mechanism upward when the breechblock is rotated to the unlocked position. Another raised surface extends about one-twelfth of a turn on the breech face. This surface is directly in front of the opening in the breechblock carrier through which the spur on the percussion hammer passes. The travel of the percussion hammer is limited by this surface except where a recess is cut through the raised surface for the spur to enter when the breechblock is locked in the firing position. - d. The mushroom head (known on other cannon as obturator spindle) extends farther to the rear in the M1917 howitzer. It is, therefore, not interchangeable with the M1918. The mushroom spindle nut is screwed on to the spindle of the mushroom head and is secured by the mushroom spindle nut key assembly. e. The percussion hammer is slightly different. f. Although some howitzers, M1917, are in service they are equipped with breech- blocks, M1918, and it is expected that this change will be made in all cases prior to issue to the service. 3. Operation of Breech Mechanism, M1918. a. To open the breech. (1) Raise the firing mechanism block latch (48A), Plate 2, and unscrew the firing mechanism as- sembly (Plate 4) by turning to the left. The breech mechanism can not be opened without first removing the firing mechanism. Any attempt to do so will result in jam- ming the firing mechanism safety plunger (50K), Plate 4. Press down on the operating lever handle sleeve (16B), Plate 2, to disengage it from the breechblock carrier lever catch (13D), Plate 3, and pull the operating lever (15A), Plate 2, to the rear and around to the right. In the first part of this movement the operating lever turns on the pintle of the lever and the lug on the underside operates the breechblock rack (23A), MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION 931 ”uusſuteuſ03 IN 11033.181 ºz ºſteſ， ---- № ſſſſſſſſſ 1）\，HS-ſºº…….… ♥ ！!！！！！！！ laelººº }^ſ（-iae）. ſaen： Eº） ſaeſſae -ſºſ | / ſaenmaeneº Maes-ºººº nogaeº ſſſſſſſſſſſſſ-ſae！ №ſº-Oſſºlº（）ſ. -|-- |ſae ſſſſſſſſſſſſſſſſſſſ:- ſſſſſſſ·ſaeae ſſſſſſſſſſ- -ºsººv ſaeſſae-ſae！ №ſº-ºſae ſ. ſººrlºgſ ſolvovaº ſſſſſſſſſſſſſ į ſaevae №ſ ſºſſºſ- || ~º： | || .|- saecae 932 MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION "swºłA pºu oņoºs-uusqueųoºſ， qøøøışı "º ºpeiae |-ººººººoººººººººſae ae ----ſaeſ.|-- ſael，º'||ſae ： :（）ſae ：：：：：：：|×| ： ---- ſae：|-|- ：： -----__ --- ： ſaeſaeaeae （）|--（） ）\， ſaevaeºººººº ſaevae|- ſae ſae： \，\！）// }||-ſae|×\\ |-ſae· | （）|- |-|- ：ſae： . ： ： aº ： ： ： .|- - ： . . . . . .|× |- |- ſae ： ： |׺ |×，-·cr： №ae" |\,\，|×№ſº：|- MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION 933 Plate 2, which rotates the breechblock, disengaging its threads from the threads in the breech recess. When the breechblock is fully unlocked further rotation is prevented by a lug on the breechblock rack coming in contact with the breechblock rack lock (23C), Plate 2, preventing further movement of the operating lever independent of the breech- block carrier (13C), Plate 3. Further pull on the operating lever draws the breechblock carrier away from the breech face of the howitzer. (2) As the breechblock carrier (13C), Plate 3, moves away from the breech face, the breechblock rack lock (23C), Plate 2, moves up in its seat in the front face of the carrier under pressure of the breechblock rack lock spring (23B), and engages a slot in the rack, locking the rack from movement and the breechblock from rotation in either direction. (3) As the breechblock carrier moves away from the howitzer the percussion ham- mer shaft plunger (22L), Plate 2, is forced up by the percussion hammer shaft plunger spring (22K) into a recess in the percussion hammer operating shaft (22A) and locks the shaft against rotation. This is a safety feature to prevent possible injury to the per- cussion hammer. (4) When the operating lever (15A), Plate 3, reaches the full-opened position the right end of the operating lever latch (16L) engages the operating lever catch (16F), and locks the mechanism in the open position. f b. To close the breech. (1) Press down on the operating lever handle sleeve (16B), Plate 2, to disengage the handle from the operating lever catch (16F), and pull to the left and forward. (2) As the breechblock carrier (13C), Plate 3, comes in contact with the breech face of the howitzer, the breechblock rack lock (23C), Plate 2, is pushed down into its seat which unlocks the breechblock rack. Further movement of the operating lever (15A), Plate 3, from this point moves the breechblock rack to the left and screws the breechblock home. The breechblock, rotation advances the block slightly due to the lead of the threads which further presses the gas check pad (20A), Plate 3, between the ob- turator spindle (53A) and the breechblock. The expansion of the gas check pad provides initial sealing of the breech which is made final and complete by the backward movement of the obturator spindle as a result of chamber pressure in firing. * gº (3) As the breechblock carrier reaches the breech face of the howitzer in the closing movement, the bevel on the underside of the breechblock carrier forces the percussion hammer shaft plunger (22L), Plate 2, down and frees the percussion hammer operatin shaft (22A). When the mechanism is fully closed, the operating lever handle (16A), Plate 3, engages the breechblock carrier lever catch (13D) locking the mechanism. (4) Screw in the firing mechanism (Plate 4) until its handle (A12255) passes as far beyond the firing mechanism block latch (48A), Plate 2, as it will go. The firing mech- anism can not be screwed in until the breech mechanism is closed and locked, this be- ing a safety feature. 4. Operation of Firing Mechanism, M1918. The firing mechanism (Plate 4) is held in the hand and loaded with a primer by sliding the rim of the primer under the primer holder (B8058), Plate 4. The primer is held in place by means of the U-shaped opening in the holder. This locates the cap in the primer directly in front of the firing pin (A12258). The firing mechanism is then screwed into the firing mechanism housing (50B), seating the primer in the obturator spindle plug (B241) as the firing mechanism block handle (A12255) passes the firing mechanism block latch (48A), and is locked in position. 5. Operation of Breech Mechanism, M1917. a. To open the breech. Press down on the operating lever handle to disengage it, from the breechblock carrier lever catch, pull the lever to the rear and around to the right. As the breechblock starts to rotate to the unlocked position the cam surface on its breech face engages the nose on the front face of the firing mechanism slide and raises the slide in its housing, carrying the firing pin above the primer and prevents any possibility of firing until the breech is again fully locked. In all other respects the operation of opening is similar to the operation of opening the mechanism for the M1918. 934 - MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION b. To close the breech. (1) Press down on the operating lever handle to disengage the operating lever latch from the operating lever catch, and move the operating ſever to the left and forward. - (2) When the mechanism is fully closed and latched the firing mechanism slide is left in a partially raised position, ready for the insertion of a primer, after which the slide is forced down by hand until the plunger latches it in the firing position. - º º º: - º - - º º º - - : º -- º = # , º - * * E - … - trial 3. º - tº 2 º - 9 º ºsé |>. º ºz º. Fº > * ºr nº lºinºſº | * º ºn tº P- ºr ºr º #5 ºf -- º ºn ºf - .E. º º - : * * * º || tº a tº * Q - º º º - - º, º | c º – * º - * * N. º º º º º * * *— 2 : 5, # * * º º ſº - 6. Operation of Firing Mechanism, M1917. The firing mechanism of the M1917 howitzer is of the vertical sliding type. It operates in conjunction with the primer extractor and the obturator spindle nut. 7. Description of Carriage, M1918. The carriage, M1918 is of the class in which the howitzer recoils and counterrecoils on a cradle controlled by a hydropneumatic re- coil mechanism. It may be used for direct laying on the target but it is especially de- signed for high-angle indirect fire. It is made up principally of the sleigh, which houses MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION 935 '8I6IIN ‘93ēļJIBO puſe JºzņļAAOH uTUuſ-ggI ºg 34 eĻI |4.ſvis Hliða gawwys º seſſoas„29NINE Lsvº-o69 º， ，2æs==（\ſ|]]ETONV}{-\/? 9 || *\\| \\¿№è=ÊĒ(）{{\\§. ***ŒŽÎ%）/s， -№ĒĢŽŻZa`<ſ?）\ \\_\！C//R%/////Şe}\，O-Oºſ! NČŇļX®©7XOOH-O9）,Q~ *ſaeĢĘ\/ſ&#ffſſºț¢ HOJL\ººl-2DO3●{{!\！ĒĢĒŅĒĻ\§§ ©NION/OT^ "^AO!！}&\vº}}&& !$$ANTIGWNEISS \）/ （TlO]\/&O ANTEVNESSV EMI&SGNWHeNIC won‘83www.ae|| [\r -- ,§. QNW E-V/22||�7� OOH-9A9ſ （WIEWNESSV LH9||S Oł}^N\w\-JONwoj” 3SVO Ō {È? *}E^OO-C29！P! |«• C_X“è!\/8SSOHO-O £9*Tº EHAVACINĮVH-\ytvo| ¿?e}\/CD - E º 8TEEHAAGNVH-9ț76{ *…Î 5， İſ） rºſſº¿→-; Gº- �·|y?-|- |-|įT| ſſ || |\-||_|_||l|_ſ.L=|=|=\!\， →•GÐ-*}， №， …”’,'. * nazwanaea， 3.LY/~lcſ - E99 iL-~~~~ → · ȚNIVHO - W ty 9 ~EţăJ { ſ * \ /T 29C] |TIS -º 2 & 1 4 VOTI 3 -v/g/, 936 MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION the recoil mechanism, and to which the howitzer is directly connected; the cradle; the trail flasks, right and left, which are fitted with trunnion bearings for seating the cradle trunnions and to which the spade is attached; the axle and the wheels. The wheels are rubber tired. The carriage is equipped with a shield of armor plate 4 millimeters thick for protection of the gun crew from rifle and shrapnel fire. The shield is made up of right and left shield plates suitably tied together. The panoramic sight case is attached to the left shield and supported by helical springs. 8. Description of Carriage, M1917. This carriage is of French manufacture. It has fº--— —N & l \ Ç } º 4. © Nº - 63 X º: 3 |e “ .* * 7. º 6-4 6. I • . * * / eſ) N- * 4. º: tº “p. -6. / ~! # 4 + ** 6. e O tſ) iſ 4. $ t Q. H º J “p. º —l N- 9. º Q- C 2. -Q. < p § º, e. -º- MN wº £ 4 -ē § O *ilo #| 2 || N Þ 4- 9. 3 # 3.71 e. o lº | GD ; : . . . . ; < & 5 “”. G. º iſ 6. & 9. © # * * * / | *. H/ .5 º 4 @- A • * * ! * © 2 có < 6|| * H. 3. ºn 4}. * @ 6 E. g. * 4. gº < ūj > O ; : & $ .* ºr cº O º On Q GD o ou J bſ) S dº. -S 3 & º. > Cº. X O > º O - O $º Uſ) §: # 3 §:-- º * -> *= ** *** * * O & rº; tº ºf «s. 'i uſ) & e s }{" * 4. * | } | Gº Zá - * ſ --- *- S kºe * t ſe * º º | 5. ** | | © Sºlţi ºr. N ||||| O | N = |; / # = |||}| 2 L || || |||}|\e O ; :3 | 3. *4 | §§§ o ſf TST \_o § e. #º |||}. QC ‘Uz. |||ſi * º | | | $2 tº #|| : i. 3. !'}}| || : 5 24 | 93 & || O E lul / O 2}|| iſ § & S 2 2|| as 7 tº ſº. — Lu &#|| !- 2 L = C, tal O à sº tºº & sºº ºft % % ºf W. C. tº- I º #|| I. # 9 & 5 5 * ; cºś 9 S. º ż 3 # to 4 *:::: ** | * : £ 3, § -: nº on dº Si io.ſ.º. 3 | tº $ 3: £ 3 ââ :### ſº tu nº tu tº ºf T Ol Cl §§ § 3 ; 7 º ż §§ to dº sº. [D “ſ “C 0. | º g : º sº cº £º Ö 3 d d H C | º tal O | F tſ) MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION 937 a curved shield, but no panoramic sight case attached; steel tired wheels; the trail has no safety chain ring for limiting the swing of the limber; the tool box packings are differently arranged from those of the M1918; there are small differences in the acces- sories furnished. With these exceptions, the design of the carriage is similar to that of the carriage, M1918. : > O # § < J ſº ºf? H º O CO S. : © egº sº © GD Ú) H. ; : º § s: -> Z 92 # * & # 3 & * < c E- o Or - tuſ ; ; g tal > d |- ſºlº (D Cº. Ž ºf E *; 2 Dr. © uj (D z I. 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Operation of Carriage, M1918. a. Elevating and depressing. Located on the left side of the carriage is the elevating handwheel, Plate 9, which is unlatched by pressing down on the elevating handwheel knob, thereby unlocking it from the elevating hand- wheel latch plate. By moving the elevating handwheel in a clockwise direction it ele- 938 MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION vates the howitzer to the various firing angles from zero to 42°. Moving the elevated handwheel in the opposite direction will depress the piece. b. Traversing. The traversing handwheels are located on the left and right sides of the carriage. When turned they transmit motion to the traversing screw, which slides the carriage upon the axle, the trail pivoting on the spade. The movement of traverse each side of the center of the axle is 3°, or a total of 105 mils. c. Axle traveling lock. The axle traveling lock is to relieve the traversing screw from road stresses. This arrangement is for locking the carriage to the axle. Care must be taken when about to travel, to see that the carriage has been traversed to the center of the axle and that the axle traveling lock is in the position marked “To Travel,” and that the carriage can no longer be moved by the traversing handwheels. d. Road brake. The brake handle (162A), Plate 5, is located on the right side of the carriage just in front of the right shield. When the brake is applied, brake shoes (162C), Plate 7, bear directly on the rubber tires (C6981) of the wheels. When traveling, the brake should be operated, when necessary, by a dismounted man. 10. Operation of Carriage, M1917. The carriage, M1917, is operated in the same manner as described for the M1918 carriage. 11. Description of Carriage Limber, M1918. a. The 155-mm howitzer carriage limber, M1918, is a 2-wheeled vehicle for supporting the trail of the carriage when traveling. b. It is composed of a frame section to which are attached the bucket holder, grease- box holder, picket rope hooks, and picket rope support; an axle, attached to which are two axle brackets; two wheels; drawbar and connecting plates, bolts, etc.; and a limber prop. The name plate giving the serial number of the limber, model, name of manu- facturer, year of completion and initials of inspector is located on the middle rail top plate near the front end. c. The safety chain is attached by the safety chain loop, secured across the frame with two riveted clamps. The safety-chain hook is hooked through the safety chain ring of the carriage trail after limbering. The chain then prevents damage to the limber tires by contact with the carriage trail in making short turns. d. A limber prop to support the frame when not in transport is attached by the prop- carrying ring. When traveling the limber prop is drawn up under the left front rail and there held by the prop chain. 12. Description of Carriage Limber, M1917. The M1917 limber was originally de- signed for animal draft and had a draft pole and springs, doubletree chain eyes and picket rope hooks permanently attached to the side rails, steel-tired wheels, and a bracket for electric lighting equipment. It was not equipped with a bucket holder nor safety chain. However, a little less than half of these limbers are now equipped with drawbars and connecting pieces for motor traction. The remainder have had the horse draft poles removed, but have not as yet been equipped with drawbars and connecting pieces. 13. Description of Caisson, M1918. a. The 155-mm caisson, M1918, is a 2-wheeled, spring supported vehicle for the transportation of ammunition. It is normally a motor- ized vehicle, but is so designed that it may be converted into horse draft. Two caissons limbered together form a train drawn by a medium tractor. The caisson carries 14 complete rounds of ammunition and two extra powder charges. b. A name plate giving name of vehicle, model, name of manufacturer, date of com- pletion, initials of inspector and serial number is riveted to the rear plate. c. The wheels have steel tires, and dust guards are buckled about the base of the axle spindle. Attached to the chest are a lantern bracket, bucket holder, and strap and implement fastenings for securing the various accessories furnished with the caisson. CHAPTER II SPECIAL GROUPS 14. Description of Howitzer Groups. a. Barrel assembly. The barrel of the M1918 howitzer consists of a tube which extends the entire length (Plate 1); a jacket (10C) which is screwed and shrunk on; a bridle (35B); a counterweight (32B); holding down band (36A), Plate 6; and breech key (35C), Plate 1. On the underside of the breech end of the jacket the bridle is attached by four howitzer bridle fastening screws. The counterweight is fastened to the upper side of the breech end of the jacket by six counterweight screws. The holding-down band encircles the front end of the jacket and is secured by three holding-down band screws. Leveling plates (30A), Plate 1, which form seats for the gunner's quadrant are set into the counter- weight. Three lifting eyes (32C) are also attached to the counterweight. These lifting eyes are also used for attaching the tackle block for returning the howitzer to battery from traveling position. The breech key passes through the bridle and sleigh and locks the howitzer and recoil mechanism together when mounted. b. The greater part of the percussion mechanism is also attached to the barrel assembly. c. The percussion hammer fires the howitzer by striking the firing pin. It is assembled on the percussion hammer operating shaft, the latter being journaled in the percussion hammer operating shaft housing. d. Breech mechanism, M1918. (1) The breechblock (28A), Plates 2 and 3, is of the cylindrical interrupted screw type. The outer diameter is divided into eight sectors, the threads being removed from four sectors. This permits the threads of the breechblock to engage with those in the breech recess. The breechblock is locked by a one-eighth turn. It is threaded to screw into the breechblock carrier. A portion of these threads is cut away and gear teeth are cut in this space for the purpose of rotating the breech- block when it is brought into engagement with a horizontally disposed rack mounted in the breechblock carrier and moved by operation of the operating lever. The center of the breechblock is bored to receive the obturator spindle, and at the rear end so that it will slide over the pintle of the breechblock carrier. An assembling stud is screwed into the breech face of the breechblock to form a stop for locating it in position for assembling the breechblock rack. (2) The breechblock carrier (13C), Plates 2 and 3, swings from two lugs on the right side of the jacket, and is hinged thereto by the pintle of the operating lever (15A), Plate 3, which passes through the two lugs of the jacket and the lug of the carrier. (Plate 3). … r (3) The obturator spindle (53A), Plate 3, passes through the breechblock and the pintle of the breechblock carrier. It is retained in position by screwing it into the firing mechanism housing (50B), Plates 2 and 3, which is assembled in the bore of the breechblock carrier. The rear end of the obturator spindle contains the obturator spindle plug (B241), Plates 3 and 4, and obturator spindle plug gasket (A325), Plate 4. The front end contains the obturator spindle vent bushing (A362), Plate 3. A vent hole is bored through the obturator spindle from end to end to conduct the flame of the primer to the chamber of the howitzer. (4) The gas check pad (20A) Plate 3, is assembled on the obturator spindle between the obturator spindle head and the filling-in disk (20B) and bears against the front of the breechblock. It supports the front and rear split rings (20C) and (20D) and seals the powder chamber so that gases can not escape. The gas check pad is composed of three parts asbestos and one part nonfluid oil pressed in a mold under hydraulic pressure, covered with cotton duck and again pressed. (5) The firing mechanism, M1918, is an assembly composed of the firing mechanism block (C3554), Plate 4; firing mechanism block handle (A12255), Plate 2; firing mechanism block handle collar (A12254), Plate 4; firing pin (A12258), Plate 3; firing pin guide (A12256); firing pin housing (A12257); firing pin spring (A12261); primer holder (B8058), Plate 4; firing mechanism shoe and two safety set screws (Aſ2260). 939 940 MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION The exterior of the firing mechanism block is threaded and screws into the firing mechanism housing. The interior is threaded to receive the primer holder. The firing pin is retained by the firing pin housing screwed into the rear end of the firing mechanism block. 15. Recoil Mechanism. (Plate 8). When the howitzer is fired the force which propels the projectile forward reacts upon the howitzer and drives it to the rear. It is neces- sary to check this force in a gradual manner so as not to cause displacement of the carriage. Also, the howitzer must be brought back into battery position before it can be fired again. These objects are accomplished by the recoil mechanism which is of the hydropneumatic type and combines the recoil and counterrecoil systems, both being housed within the several cylinders of the sleigh. 16. Elevating Mechanism. (Plate 9). By means of the elevating mechanism the cradle, sleigh, and howitzer are elevated or depressed to the various firing angles from zero to 42°. & § * & g # Action of Broke & Counterne coil Mechanism { / 5 -: # * Reservoirs sº-ºr-º-º-º- U § º & 2222222222222222222222222 - --------- =H. COUIT) terrecoil piston Ö) | SS -º-º-º-º----> º, 5 lºº § & 19 3| } sº E Counterrecoil tº buffer rod Position of :- counterrecoil 8 mechanism s C Position of * lorokº. Plate 8. 155-mm Howitzer-Recoil System. The elevating segments (101A and 101B), Plate 6, attached to the cradle are sections of an internal gear of 266 teeth. These segments are actuated by pinions of 11 teeth on the elevating pinion shaft (102B), Plate 6, which operates in bearings secured to the trail. On the left end of the elevating pinion shaft is fixed the 66-toothed elevating worm wheel, Plate 7, meshing with the right-hand, single-thread elevating worm. On the upper end of the elevating worm shaft is fitted the elevating handwheel, Plates 5 and 7, which is provided with a knob of a spring locking type. A downward pressure on the elevating handwheel knob, Plate 7, unlocks it from the elevating handwheel latch plate and allows the handwheel to be turned. Unless the handwheel is thus deliberately unlatched, the elevating mechanism is locked against all movement in traveling and undesired movements due to the shock of firing. 17. Traversing Mechanism. Traverse of the howitzer is obtained by the carriage sliding on the axle, the trail pivoting about the spade. The amount of movement MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION 941 Azzº'e-o/-site scale Azegle-of-site develſ viaz Arzęte-of-site meicrometer Kºob Cross-ſevez bzzbb/e 7Fajarafore % /~~ Sight elevačíreg worm2 ºzo& ---> * X& ge %2 SNYº ſº iº shareſſ Ževačíreg Jeanedarkeez ===a_-aſ-GT5-3T3T3T3-3-6 ŽZevačízº shaft Cradſ/e Pross-Zevez worm2 ſtreob ©ºk) «–- O|| A.zºzºW & RS- V S Plate 9. 155-mm Howitzer, M1918—Elevation Laying Device. from the position of midtraverse is indicated by the index of the azimuth scale imbedded in the left end of the axle. CHAPTER III SIGHTING EQUIPMENT 18. General. The howitzer has the dependent line of sighting with but one elevating mechanism. The sighting mechanism consists of the quadrant sight, M1918, upon which is mounted the telescope, panoramic, M6 (panoramic sight, M1917). 19. The Quadrant Sight. a. The quadrant sight is mounted on the left cradle trunnion. It consists of a bracket, a sight body, a cross-leveling mechanism, an elevating mechanism, and an angle-of-site mechanism. b. The bracket is a casting, the upper part of which is secured to the left cradle trunnion by a bolt and tenons cut in the trunnion. The lower part of the bracket has 942 MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION a cylindrical bore, the axis of which is parallel to the bore of the howitzer, and in which the cylindrical front portion of the sight body is so mounted that it can be rotated. c. The cross-leveling mechanism consists of a worm, operated by a knurled hand- wheel, which is mounted in the cylindrical portion of the bracket, and which actuates a worm wheel segment cut in the cylindrical portion of the sight body, causing it to rotate in the bracket. An antibacklash spring prevents lost motion between worm and segment, and a stop limits the rotation. A clamp permits locking in any position. A cross level is mounted on the rear of the sight shank and serves to level the sight laterally. The cross-leveling mechanism corrects for difference of level of the gun wheels, and insures that the deflection is applied properly as a horizontal angle. 20. Elevating Mechanism. (Plate 9). a. The elevating mechanism consists of a sight shank, elevating worm and worm wheel, and an elevating scale drum which is gradu- ated in mils. There is no scale graduated in yards or meters. The rear portion of the sight body is a drumshaped housing within which is mounted the elevating worm wheel; to the rim of this worm wheel is attached the elevating scale drum. The teeth of the elevating worm wheel engage a worm mounted on the top of the housing. This worm is provided with a knurled handwheel, and has an eccentric throw-out mechanism by means of which the worm can be disengaged from the worm wheel. b. The sight shank is a curved bar, the upper end of which is provided with a T slot to receive the telescope, panoramic, M6. The lower curved portion of the shank is an annular rack passing through the elevating worm wheel housing and engaging the teeth of a pinion cut in the hub of the elevating worm wheel. c. Turning the elevating worm causes rotation of the elevating worm wheel and elevating scale drum; and, through the pinion, causes the sight shank to rise on the arc of a circle. 21. The angle-of-site mechanism is attached to the sight shank just below the pano- ramic telescope seat. The angle of site worm housing contains a worm wheel. On the shaft of the worm wheel, outside the housing, is mounted an angle-of-site level and a pointer. On top of the housing is the angle-of-site scale. The horizontal or zero position is indicated by the graduation 300. Settings greater or less than 300 indicate respectively, plus or minus angles of site. The worm wheel is actuated by a worm passing through the housing and provided with a micrometer knob. The angle of site is set by turning the knob until the setting desired is indicated by the pointer and the micrometer. 22. Elevation. The howitzer is laid for elevation as follows: (1) Set the angle of site on the angle-of-site scale by means of the angle-of-site micrometer knob. This gives the angle-of-site level vial an inclination to the bore of the howitzer equal to the angle of site. (2) By means of the elevating worm handwheel, set the proper elevation for range on the elevating scale drum. This has the effect of raising the sight shank on the arc of a circle and of giving the angle-of-site level vial a further inclination equal to the eleva- tion for range. The vial now is inclined to the horizontal by an amount equal to the quadrant elevation. 3) By means of the elevating handwheel of the howitzer, elevate the howitzer until the angle-of-site bubble is centered. The howitzer, therefore, is laid for elevation when the appropriate settings for range and angle of site have been set opposite their respective indexes, and the angle-of-site bubble has been centered. A change in either angle of site or in range will throw the bubble off center, requiring operation of the elevating mechanism to relevel the bubble. (4) Center the cross-level bubble by means of the cross-leveling mechanism, to cor- rect for difference in level of the gun wheels. Repeat (3) if necessary. (5) The gunner's quadrant is often used in laying for elevation. The chief of sec- tion sets the angle of elevation on the gunner's quadrant when it is used. CHAPTER IV AMMUNITION 23. Ammunition. Ammunition for the 155-mm howitzers is separate loading. The shell, propelling charge, fuzes, and primers are packed separately. The fuze is screwed into the front end of the shell just before it is loaded. After the shell is rammed home in the bore, the propelling charge is inserted and the breech closed. A primer is inserted in the firing mechanism and the firing mechanism then screwed into the breechblock. 24. Fuzes. a. The fuze may be a time fuze, a point detonating, or a combination fuze. Fuzes M46, M47, M51, and M55 are used with 155-mm howitzer ammunition. Fuzes M46, and M47 were described in connection with the 75-mm gun, Section 2, Matériel and Ammunition. STAMPED ON REVERSE SHE- Loader's tº NUMBER, TYPE AND MODEL OF FUZE LOADERS hºſtals, ANT - - MONTH AND YEAR LOADED " SLEEVE Plate 10. Fuze, P.D., M51, with Booster M21. b. Fuze, P. D., M51, wºbooster M21. In this fuze (Plate 10), the booster instead of being a component of the loaded projectile is permanently attached to the fuze at the time of manufacture. The fuze contains two actions, superquick (SQ) and delay, and is classified as boresafe. Although both actions are initiated on impact, functioning of the shell depends upon the setting of the fuze. When the fuze is set delay, the superquick action is so interrupted that the projectile functions with delay action. It should be noted, however, that if the superquick action should malfunction when the fuze is set SQ, the projectile will function with delay action rather than be a dud. On the side of the fuze near the base is a slotted "setting sleeve” and two registration lines; the one parallel to the axis is marked “SQ,” the other “delay.” As shipped the fuze is set SQ.. To set the fuze for delay action it is only necessary to turn the setting sleeve so that its slot is alined with delay. A delay pellet–0.05 second—incorporated in the delay action train provides for the delay action. The setting may be made or changed at will with a screw driver or other similar instrument any time before firing, even in the dark, by noting 943 944 MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION the position of the slot—parallel to the fuze axis for superquick action, at right angles thereto for delay. A cotter pin with pull ring is assembled to the booster to prevent accidental movement of the detonator during shipment. This cotter pin is to be with- drawn just prior to assembling the fuze with booster to the projectile. To fuze the projectile proceed as follows: (1) Remove eyebolt lifting plug from the projectile. FUZE PROJECTILE PROPELLING CHARGE l FRINMER Plate 11. Separate-loading Ammunition. (2) Visually inspect fuze cavity and threads. They should be free of foreign matter which would interfere with the proper assembly of the fuze. (3) Remove cotter pin from booster. (4) Screw fuze with booster into projectile. Tighten with fuze wrench. (5) Set fuze. If delay action is required, aline slot in setting sleeve with delay; if superquick, aline slot with SQ–setting as shipped. Fuze may be reset as required. c. Fuze M54. Fuze M54 is a combination point detonating and time fuze. When MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION - 945 detonated by impact it is superquick. The time train is 25 seconds. This fuze includes the M21 booster and is shipped with the fuze and booster assembled. 25. Projectile. The shell is steel and filled with a bursting charge of trinitrotoluene (T N T). The shell is cylindrical in shape with an ogive head and a tapered (boattail) base. The shell has a copper rotating band which is cut by the lands of the rifling. The remaining part of the rotating band slides down the twisting grooves of the bore and imparts spin to the projectile. 26. Propelling Charge. The propelling charge is made up of seven bags of powder tied together. The cartridge bags containing the propelling charge for the 155-mm howitzer are known as the base and increment type, in that they consist of a base section and six increment sections, permitting seven zones of fire. The base section (Charge 1) contains an igniter pad holding three ounces of black igniting powder. This igniter pad forms the rear end of the base section. Four tying straps are sewed to the base section, by means of which the increment sections are attached to the base section, thus forming a unit of the propelling charge. When it is desired to use other than the full charge, the tying straps are untied, the required number of increments are removed, and the tying straps tied again over the re- maining increments. The entire charge, consisting of the base section and the six incre- ment sections, constitute Charge 7. Removing the top increment section forms Charge 6, and so on, until all increment sections are removed, when the base section only remains, which is Charge 1. The word ZONE (followed by a numeral) is stenciled on top of each bag. The term in use, and the command for any particular zone, is the word CHARGE followed by the zone number. 27. Primer. The primer is the Mark IIA1, 21 grain percussion primer. It contains a pellet of some easily detonated substance such as fulminate of mercury and 21 grains of black powder. Questions 1. Of what type is this piece? 2. Of what type is its firing mechanism? 3. How is this howitzer laid for elevation? 4. What kind of fuzes may be used? 5. How many bags of powder in a propelling charge? MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION SECTION 5 OTHER CALIBERS CONTENTS Paragraphs Chapter I. 155-mm Gun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-16 Chapter II. 8-inch Howitzer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17–26 Chapter III. 240-mm Howitzer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27–44 CHAPTER I 155-MM GUN 1. Introduction. a. The 155-mm gun of French design is tractor-drawn. The car- riage is of the split trail, hydro-pneumatic, variable recoil type. Some of these guns were manufactured in France (M1917) and some in the United States (M1918M1). Firing a 95-pound projectile to a maximum range of about eighteen thousand yards, this weapon is a valuable addition to our mobile armament. This gun can be fired from zero to thirty-five degrees in elevation when the firing platform and the spades are on the same level, while higher elevations can be obtained by sinking the spades into the ground. b. Carriage. The gun is mounted in the cradle, to which it is connected by the recoil and recuperator piston rods which are secured to a lug on the breech end when in the firing position. When fired, the gun recoils in the cradle, and its movement is guided by the longitudinal gibs, or clips, on the gun, which slide through slots in the cradle. The movement of the piece is controlled during recoil by the operation of the parts within the recoil and recuperator cylinders, which, during recoil, store up sufficient energy within the recuperator cylinders to return the piece to the firing position. The cradle is sup- ported by the top carriage, which is mounted upon and traverses on the bottom carriage, or chassis. The bottom carriage is mounted upon the axle by interchangeable connections therewith for traveling and firing positions. It is braced to the rear by two trail members connected to it by hinge, joints which permit the movement of the trails from firing position to traveling position. 2. Firing and Traveling Positions. a. In the firing position the trails are spread and their outer ends attached to buried spades. The shoes are usually attached to the wheels. As this gun has a relatively long recoil a pit is necessary to receive the breech at high angle fire. * b. Due to the weight of the gun it is not practicable to move the gun any great distance with its weight entirely supported by its wheels. When it is desired to take the traveling position (Plate 1) the trails are released from the spades, brought together, and supported on a two wheeled bogie or limber. The gun is disconnected from the recuperator and recoil cylinders, then moved to the rear so that a part of its weight is supported by the bogie. Also the weight of the gun is transferred from the axle to the traveling spring, which is not used during firing. 3. Breech Mechanism. a. The breech mechanism (Plates 3, 4, 5,) consists of the breechblock; the block carrier, with operating lever, hinge pin, and rack; the obturation mechanism; the firing mechanism; the operating lever latch and bracket; and the counter- O£36. p b. The breechblock is of the slotted screw type, having four plain sectors and four threaded sectors, and can therefore be closed in one-eighth of a turn. It is screwed into the front of the block carrier, which swings horizontally on the hinge pin. The block carrier is operated by the operating lever. When the operating-lever handle is pulled to 947 948 MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION the rear, a straight rack, which is located in the block carrier and is actuated by the oper- ating lever, is engaged with a toothed segment on top of the breechblock and the breech- block is rotated. At the end of this motion, the operating lever and the rack are locked positively to the block carrier by a rack lock. Continued pull on the operating-lever handle swings the block carrier to the right, withdrawing the breechblock from the breech recess. An operating-lever latch, which runs through the operating lever, locks the breech mechanism in the open position. The upper part of the hinge pin has a projection to which the counterbalance (counterpoise) tension rod of the counterbalance (counterpoise) is connected. The obturator is of the DeBange type, with a gas-check pad, made of one part nonfluid oil and three parts asbestos, held in place with a canvas cover. , 31 32 33 34 35 : f r \ –4– ==== E. t P. ---. 18 25 26 zeszszss/s/szasz's://s22s22s22s22s22s22s22&sºzºs;zszsz. Plate 1. 155-mm Gun in Traveling Position. 1. Top carriage 13. Traversing-bar lock 24. Counterrecoil cylinder pis- 2. Elevating handwheel 14. Brake lever ton rod end 3. Cradle trunnion 15. Brake quadrant 25. Brake-operating cable 4. Sighting gear casing 16. Trail-clanping transom 26. Trail hinge-pin nut, 5. Traversing handwheel 17. Trail-clamping bolt 27. Brake drum. 6. Cradle 18. Drawbar 28. Brake rocker arm. 7. Middle gib (or clip) 19. Drawbar tie 29. Recoil-regulating arm 8. Rear gib (or clip) 20. Drawbar keys 30. Automatic filler housing 9. Breech ring 21. Limber stop 31. Trail hinge pins 10. Counterpoise cylinder 22. Trail 32. Trail locking bolts 11. Counterpoise Spring rod 23. Recoil cylinder piston rod 33. Bottom carriage 12. Operating-lever handle end 34. Cradle 35. Retracting rack bars c. When the breech is closed, the threaded parts of the block mesh with the threaded parts of the breech ring and the operating lever prevents any rotary movement of the breechblock. To open the breech, press down on the handle of the operating lever to disengage it from the block-carrier lever catch. Pull lever to rear and then to the right. 4. Firing Mechanism Housing. The firing mechanism housing connects the obturator spindle to the block carrier. The obturator spindle spring holds the obturator pad tightly between the mushroom head and the breechblock. The firing mechanism block is bored out to receive the firing pin guide and the primer seat plug, which is screwed into the block and encircles the firing pin guide. The primer seat plug has a slot cut into its forward end to receive the head of the primer. The firing pin is held in the firing- mechanism block by a housing. The firing pin spring causes the firing pin to project sufficiently to be struck by the percussion hammer. There is a safety device, consisting MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION 949 of a flange on the block and a lug on the percussion hammer, which prevents the ham- mer from striking the firing pin except when the firing mechanism is screwed fully home. Screwed to the face of the carrier, to the right and above the firing mechanism housing, is the firing mechanism block safety latch, which prevents the block from unscrewing when the piece is fired. A spring-pressed safety plunger in the upper side of the firing mechanism housing prevents insertion of the firing mechanism block before the breech- block is fully closed. Long recoil #: – -- 6 S ºš º gºš º º ------ § z, sº--zczsºzºs 2 º: 27 26 o Plate 2. 155-mm Gun and Carriage (Side View and Section). 1. Muzzle bell 13. Jacket 25. Chassis (bottom carriage) 2. Clip hoop screw 14. Counterpoise cylinder 26. Traversing worm 3. Hoop screw 15. Breech mechanism 27. Axle Spring 4. Jacket Screw 16. Breech ring 28. Caterpillar band Segment 5. Recoil lug 17. Firing mechanism 29. Caterpillar band Shoe 6. Breechblock 18. Traversing-bar lock 30. Brake rocker arm. 7. Hoop A 19. Trail 31. Gun axle 8. Recoil cylinder 20. Spade clamping bolts 32. Recoil piston 9. Elevating rack 21. Limber stop 33. Cradle 10. Cradle a SSen bled 22. Short recoil 34. Tube 11. Traversing mechanism 23. Piston-rod nut 35. Hoop B 12. Elevating mechanism 24. Top carriage 36. Clip hoop After the gun is fired and before opening the breech, press back the firing mechanism block safety latch to free the handle of the firing block, unscrew the firing mechanism block, and slide the used primer out of the slot in the primer seat plug. 5. Counterbalance Mechanism. The counterbalance mechanism (counterpoise) (Plate 7) facilitates opening and closing the breech. It consists of a counterbalanced cylinder which it attached to the gun by a bracket and in which a tension rod slides. When the breechlock is swung open, the spring in the cylinder is compressed by the piston until the block and carrier have reached the outer limit of their arc of travel and further movement requires lifting their weight to the open position. After passing this point, the spring extends and assists in completing the movement. The action is similar in closing the breech. 6. Cradle. The cradle (Plate 8) connects the gun to the top carriage and to the traversing and elevating mechanisms, guides the gun during recoil, and houses the parts of the recoil and recuperator mechanisms. It is a machined steel forging, pivoted 950 MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION by trunnions in the trunnion bearings of the top carriage, and houses the recoil and recuperator mechanisms. The gun clips, or gibs, are seated in guiding slots on its upper side, and beneath the cradle is fastened the elevating rack, which meshes with the elevating worm of the elevating mechanism. 7. Recoil and Recuperator Mechanism. a. The cradle contains three longitudinal bores. 51A - Plate 3. Breech Mechanism, 155-mm Gun (Rear View). 14A. Breechlock carrier 24C. Breechblock carrier lever catch 15A. Breechlock 31A. Counterbalance cylinder 16A. Rack 48. Firing mechanism block latch and holder 18B. Operating-lever handle A12217. Percussion hammer lock bolt 18C. Operating lever A12264. Percussion hammer operating shaft collar 19A. Operating-lever latch B8060. Percussion hammer operating shaft 19F. Operating-lever latch trunnion screw B19594. Percussion hammer The largest of the bores (Plate 10) contains the recoil mechanism; the smaller two contain the parts of the recuperator. The recoil mechanism consists of a piston and a hollow piston rod, inside of which is housed the control rod. The piston rod, connected to the lug of the breech ring, is movable and recoils with the gun. The piston is bored with ports which, through the agency of grooves of variable depth milled along the length of the control rod, accommodate the flow of oil from one side of the piston to the other. The control rod assembled within the bore of the piston rod rotates but does not recoil, being rotably attached at its front end to the cylinder head. The amount of rotation is a function of the angle of elevation of the gun and is automatically controlled. As the angle of elevation increases, the recoil is shortened by diminishing the area of the orifice through which the oil is forced during recoil. The rotation of the control rod is accomplished through the medium of a regulating arm fixed at one end to the top carriage and having a longitudinal motion during opera- tion of the elevating mechanism. This motion is transmitted to the control rod through a cam and two gear sectors. MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION 951 b. Recuperator. The recuperator mechanism (Plate 10) consists of two cylinders— one containing a piston and piston rod attached to the recoil lug of the breech ring, the other containing a mushroom valve and a diaphragm. The diaphragm separates the oil contained in the first cylinder and, in part, in the second from the compressed gas which compels the return of the gun to battery after recoil. Normally, there must always be a small reserve of oil between the diaphragm and the mushroom valve. Under that condition, the recuperator gauge projects 5 mm from the rear face of the cradle. If it does not project the recuperator reservoir must be refilled. Plate 4. Breech Mechanism, 155-mm Gun (Sectionalized). 28B. Obturator-spindle spring 29C, Obturator split ring, 14A. Block carrier seat, front front 15A. Breechblock 28C. Obturator-spindle spring 29D. Obturator Split ring, 16A, Rack seat, rear rear 18C, Operating lever 28B. Obturator-spindle spring- 29E. Obturator inner ring 19A. Operating-lever latch supporting washer A362. Obturator-spindle vent 27A. Mushroom head 29A. Gas-check pad bushing 28A. Obturator-spindle spring 29B. Obturator filling-in disc B19694. Percussion hammer c. Replenisher. The replenisher (Plate 9) is a device which communicates with the recoil cylinder and keeps it completely full of oil at all times. It also serves as a reservoir to permit the escape from the recoil cylinder of the excess of oil which forms whenever the oil pressure is increased by the heat developed during firing. Its capacity is about 1.7 quarts. A piston, prolonged to the rear by a spindle-rod extension, forms a gauge which makes it possible to ascertain at any time the quantity of oil in the replenisher. A millimeter scale is used for measuring the distance from the rear face of the replenisher to the end of the piston spindle. The normal working position is 150 mm in front from the rear face of the replenisher. 952 MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION Plate 5. Breech Mechanism, 155-mm Gun (Schematic). 1. Rotating rack 4. Hinge pin 7. Breechblock 2. Operating lug 5. Block carrier plate 8. Breech ring 3. Operating lever 6. Operating handle //A AOLſ JA/A 7Y PLUAVGº/P P//?/WG AMAC//A A//5A///00/5/AMG OA7U/2470?_5///AVG /////VGAMEC/14 A/A5M ĐLOCºf ///?/AVG AA/ //f/A/G A-MAV //OU/5/AMG rearw852M awaamrat /*LAA/GAf 3A / Aſ 7TM (UG. /*/ºv/c/P.SAAT /*LU/G H– JA/A 7"Y LATCH S //p/We Aray 5//?/W6 ///º/V6 A/AVGUIOſ CyPºſé Cºf 5/06/{ - Ar’ ~ V / * ...” Plate 6. French Type of Firing Mechanism. Counterbalance cylinder ZZºº-º-º-º-º-º: zºzº Pº Lºſ ZºZº. ZIZ ZTLZIZLZ-LZCZTLº. Counterbalance Rack lock Counterbalance cylinder head i f f f f f f f f f bracket collarſ. Counterbalance Spring | | 9 KM Counterbaland. _ſ^ Z}_|| || cylindep head pivoted Counterbalance ºff- Pl Ston j) H.A Counterbalance <- tlinge pin /J Operating lever latch * = Counterbalance tension rod / ZZ Operating lever catch @)) \, (3) º ſ ſ º s º Rack lock — 9- Breech closed WS: Counterbalance W \ Dlock carrier Tºl--Hinge pin driving washer Rack lock spring- * Counterbalance regulatin Operating U =P 42- 9. ...at lever catch - --- Counterbalance (CW bracket @ regulating nut V-2 ÞTl|| * e la Hinge pin collar regulating screw & Hinoe pin collar detent C-1 fling p ~~~" %$S. Well y--" * * * † e ‘º Plate 7. Counterbalance, 155-mm Gun (Counterpoise). 954 MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION 8. Traversing and Elevating Mechanism. a. Traversing. The traversing mechanism consists of a shaft and gear train assembled in bearings in the top carriage and actuating a worm (also supported in the top carriage) enmeshed with a rack bolted to the bottom carriage. A handwheel on the left side of the top carriage operates the gearing. Cradle Recuperator drain hole ecuperator Recoil cylind filling hole filling hole Recuperator gauge Piston rod yoke Recoil regulating Y Recuperator al"In UH–H3 piston rod Recoil piston rod Elevating rack—". s = Plate 8. Rear View of Cradle, 155-mm Gun. Recoil cylinder Replenisher drain hole *~Top Carriage g rod yoke Recoil cylinder Recoll regulating arm filling hole Elevating rack Plate 9. Side View of Recoil Mechanism, 155-mm Gun. Two circular bronze castings (the elevating and traversing gear box and gear box cover) are assembled one within the other on the left top side of the top carriage. On the outer end of a shaft seated in a bearing in the cover is keyed and pinned the traversing handwheel; to the other end within the gear box is secured a helical driving pinion which drives a gear mounted on a short shaft in the gear box. A connecting shaft joins the short gear shaft to a pinion shaft which is seated in a pinion box in the lower front part of the top carriage. The connecting shaft is fitted to both the gear shaft and the pinion shaft by a semi-universal ball-and-socket joint, which permits quick disassembly of the connecting shaft and provides flexibility within the mech- MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION 955 anism. A pinion on the traversing pinion shaft drives the traversing worm shaft. The traversing worm assembled on its shaft meshes in a rack on the rear side of the axle housing. b. Elevating. The parts of the elevating mechanism are similar to those of the tra- versing assembly, and their method of operation is identically like that of the traversing assembly. The elevating handwheel is mounted on a shaft, in the gear-box and, through a helical driving pinion, drives a gear on an inclined shafting. The lower end of the shafting is supported in a gear-box secured in the front lower part of the top carriage. Two meshed pinions in the gear-box continue the drive to the elevating worm shaft and worm which is enmeshed with a rack attached to the bottom of the cradle. Co.72/e3 reo. 62 r 2/ A6 ſº 20 Plate 10. Recoil and Recuperator Systems, 155-mm Gun. 1. COntrol rod 9. Filling and drain plug 17. Gear Segments 2. Control rod. 10. Oil index rod 18. Sleeve inside cylinder 3. Hollow recoil rod 11. COunter recoil rod 19. Cam On valve turning rod 4. Counterrecoil buffer 12. Counterrecoil piston 20. Cam groove inside sleeve 5. Air Valve 13. Counterrecoil cylinder 21. Regulating arm 6. Recuperator cylinder 14. Port in recoil piston 22. Valve turning rod 7. Floating piston assembly 15. Recoil piston 23. Recuperator filling plug 8. Regulator valve 16. Recoil cylinder 9. Top Carriage. The top carriage is a large steel casting mounted on the bottom carriage upon which it traverses. The handwheels, driving gears, and shafting of the elevating and traversing mechanisms are mounted on the top carriage. The tipping parts of the cradle and the gun are supported and pivoted through the cradle trunnions in two bearings at the top of the top carriage. The bottom face of the top carriage is a large elliptical bearing surface which, when the gun is fired, bears full upon a corresponding surface of the bottom carriage and thus transmits the firing stresses and the shock of recoil through the bottom carriage to the wheels and the trails. To facilitate traversing the top carriage, the weight of the gun, tipping parts, and top carriage is borne on a small steel bearing and not on the bearing surfaces of the top and bottom carriage. The small bearing, or socket bearing, supports the weight through 8 Belleville springs assembled in a box suspended beneath the bottom carriage. When the gun is fired, the springs deflect, permitting the bearing surfaces of the top and bottom carriages to receive the full impact of the firing stresses. By adjusting the position of the spring-box nut, the space between the bearing surfaces of the two carriages may be changed. 10. Trails and Spades. a. Trails. The two trails are of the box-girder type. They 956 MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION prevent the carriage from moving to the rear when the gun is fired. They are attached by pivot pins to the sides of the bottom carriage. In the traveling position, the trails are coupled together and are fastened to the limber. In the firing position, they are opened out, each trail being moved about 30° from the coupled position. The rear ends have fittings for attaching the spades. The trails are also fitted with racks for retracting the gun to its traveling position and with clips and screws for holding the traveling lock which retains the gun in the traveling position. b. Spades. Two pairs of spades are provided, one for use in soft ground and one for use in hard ground. They are made of steel plate and have fittings for fastening them to the trails. In the traveling position, one pair of spades is lashed to the top of the trails, one in front and one in rear of the brakeman's seat. The other pair is carried on the supply truck. 11. Axle and Spring. a. Axle. The axle is a solid piece of forged steel, of which the central portion is of I-section (except that the top portion is cylindrical at the center). When in the traveling position, the bottom carriage is suspended on the axle by the axle spring, but upon coming into the firing position, the spring is unshackled and the bottom carriage is given direct support by the central portion of the axle bearing against two axle-centering pins mounted at the top (front) of the bottom carriage. While in this position, holes within the bottom carriage aline with one in the axle, making it possible to assemble the axle pivot pin and thus connect the bottom carriage directly to the axle. b. Spring. A multiple-leaf spring is fastened to the front of the bottom carriage at its center and extends laterally beneath the axle, to which it is shackled. It supports the bottom carriage and the parts assembled to it and relieves the carriage from road shocks during transport. Each end is bushed and fitted with a pin for unshackling the spring when changing from the traveling to the firing position. The deflection of the spring when under load may be regulated within limits by altering the distance between the axle and ends of the spring through two adjusting rods, which are pivoted to the brake brackets on the axle and screw into the shackle separators. 12. Wheels. a. Wheels. The body of the wheels are of cast steel and they are treaded with dual rubber tires. A fiber gasket and a steel washer are assembled on the arm between the gun and a shoulder on the axle to prevent the entrance of dirt and the loss of lubricant within the gun. The hub cap prevents dirt from entering the fastenings and the outer end of the hub. b. Caterpillar bands. Four caterpillar bands are provided for use on the carriage and the limber when moving over soft ground and for use on the carriage when in the firing position. Each band consists of 12 wheel-shoe plates bolted to wheel-shoe segments. c. Road brake. The carriage wheels are provided with brakes of the contracting-band type lined with commercial brake lining. Each brake is actuated through a crank and lever to which a wire rope is attached and connected with the operating lever on the lim- ber seat. All adjustment of the brake band should be made through the adjusting bolt. 13. Limber. The carriage limber is a two-wheeled vehicle which is designed to support and secure the rear ends of the trails and to provide a coupling attachment to the tractor when transporting the carriage. The princinal parts are the wheels, axle, steering mechanism, frame, spring and seat. The wheels and wheel fastenings are identical with those of the carriage. The axle is of the ordinary I-beam section steel forging. The steer- ing movement of the wheels is accomplished through a steering lever pivoted at the center of the frame. It has attached at its forward end a steel pole for connecting to the pintle hook on the tractor. The frame is an assemblage of 2 channel-shaped side rails, with spring hangers and corner bracket pieces riveted to their forward and rear ends, joined together at their middle and rear by a center plate and cross rail. It is attached to the axle by 2 semielliptic multiple-leaf springs which extend beneath the side rails. The brakeman’s seat is a single upholstered cushion and back assembled on a seat frame bolted to the limber cross beam. In the traveling position, the beam is tied laterally across the tops of the trails to the limber frame by 2 draft rods. In this position, the beam clamps and holds the trails in place on the limber frame. The brake-operating device is as- sembled on the limber cross beam. MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION 957 14. Sighting Equipment. The quadrant sight M1918 and panoramic telescope M6 form the authorized sighting combination for use by Field Artillery. a. Description of quadrant sight M1918. (1) The quadrant sight mounts on the left trunnion of the gun. The principal parts of the quadrant sight are the cross level, elevation and angle of site mechanisms, and the sight shank designed to receive the panoramic telescope. The quadrant sight with panoramic telescope mounted is shown in Plate 11. - (2) Rotation of the cross leveling worm causes tilting of the sight body, which movement is indicated by the bubble of the cross level. The cross level clamping screw clamps the sight body to prevent disturbance of the cross level position during firing. When the cross level bubble is centered, the sight is in the true vertical plane. angle of site sº - Aºi º ºr ºº - -- - M!CROMETER ANGLE OF STE LEVE sº - - -- resowout levee ELEMATION SCALE oss leveung worm Plate 11. Quadrant Sight M1918 with Panoramic Telescope M6. (3) The angle of site and elevation mechanisms introduce and add together their respective elements of data. The elevation scale is graduated in mils and contains two rows of graduations. The outer row reads elevation from 0 to 800 mils (0° to 45°); the inner row forms a continuation of the outer row and reads from 800 to 1160 mils (45° to 65°). Rapid movement in elevation is accomplished by rotating and holding the throwout lever so that the sight shank can be raised or lowered with the hand. (4) The angle of site level establishes a horizontal datum plane. The gun is laid in elevation so that the bubble of this level is centered. The angle of site scale is graduated at 100-mil intervals, numbered from 0 to 6, and the angle of site micrometer is graduated at 1-mil intervals numbered from 0 to 100. The angle of site setting is 958 MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION the sum of the values indicated on the scale and micrometer. The 300-mil setting is the normal setting corresponding to zero angle of site. (5) The quadrant sight M1918A1 incorporates an alternative construction of the angle of site level but is in all other respects the same as the M1918. Operation pro- cedure is the same with either model. b. Description of panoramic telescope M6. (1) The panoramic telescope M6 (Plate 12) is a four-power fixed-focus telescope with a rotating head and azimuth mechanism by which the line of sight may be directed to any desired azimuth, and with a movable prism which permits the line of sight to be elevated or depressed through a limited angle as required to keep the aiming point within the field of view. The reticle con- tains a vertical and a horizontal cross line and a horizontal mil scale. (2) The line of sight is elevated or depressed by means of the knob at the top, and coarse and fine index graduations are provided for the normal (zero elevation) position. There is no provision for reading other angles of elevation. ELEVATING KNOB ELEVATION INDEX (FINE) ELEVATION INDEX (COARSE) THROWOUT L EVER AZIMUTH WORM KNOB AZIMUTH MICROMETER INDEX OEFLECTION KNOB OEFLECTION INDEX AZINAUTH SCALE º —ſſ Plate 12. Panoramic Telescope M6. EL30W SH: fºr rr R (3) The azimuth scale is graduated at 100-mil intervals, numbered progressively from 0 to 32 in two consecutive semicircles. Zero readings indicate the line of sight to be directly forward or directly backward. The telescope is moved in azimuth by means of the azimuth worm knob which has a throwout lever to permit disengagement for rapid motion when required. Indications of the azimuth micrometer index on the deflection knob, which is graduated at 1-mil intervals, supplement those on the azimuth scale. (4) The deflection knob is assembled to a detent which causes a click at each 1-mil interval as the deflection knob is rotated. Rotation of the deflection knob does not affect the actual value of deflection previously set but changes the indicated value thereof. (5) The T-lug on the telescope shank fits into the corresponding T-slot in the sight shank of the quadrant sight. c. Description of 14-inch panoramic telescope extension. The panoramic telescope ex- tension is used to raise the panoramic telescope when required for sighting over the shield. The lower end of the extension is formed with a T-lug which fits into the sight shank of the quadrant sight. The upper end is formed with a corresponding slot which receives the panoramic telescope. The extension must be removed from the quadrant sight before the gun is fired or before traveling. - MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION 959 d. Gunner's quadrant. See gunner's quadrant in 75-mm gun, Section 2, Materiel and Ammunition. 15. Permanent Emplacement. a. The 155-mm gun has a limited traverse of sixty degrees. When a greater field of fire is desired the trails must be moved. In order to permit the use of this gun against naval targets a reinforced concrete emplacement has been designed for installation in harbor defenses. b. These emplacements are designed for 180-360 degrees traverse. A 70-pound rail, on which the spade seat plates slide during large changes in azimuth, is anchored and embedded in concrete, circumferentially about the center of rotation. The rail also takes the vertical and horizontal trail loads during fire. Concentric with the center of rotation is a raised concrete circle surrounded by a steel curb band; this curb fits inside the wheels of the carriage and prevents lateral displacement during firing. c. The spades and connecting plates on the trails are removed and steel guide plates bolted to the trails in their places. These plates are grooved to fit over the curved rail- road iron which is imbedded in the circle of reinforced concrete and which is anchored by steel hooks. A steel curb band surrounds the raised concrete inner circle and serves as a guide for the wheels of the carriage preventing the trail plates from binding on the guide rail in traversing. The guide rail and curb band are kept lubricated and the trails moved by hand as necessary. The gun is traversed manually in the normal manner and the trails moved only when necessary to keep the target within the 60-degree firing sector. The mobility of the gun remains the same. breech ring Jacket Hoop A Hoop screw Clip Hoop- Hoop B Ø T [Jacke 5.Q. ºf . %3 Šºz.222 ZZZZZZZZºś _mº —f 2–3–2–zºzzºzºzz-z-z-z-z-z-z-z-z-z-z-z-z-z-z-z-z-zººl ºff: *śzzzzzzzzzzāśº - &ZZZZZZZZº Tube Clip hoop screw Nſuzzle bell Leveling plates “ of gravity (Preech ring and breech mechanism in Place) |. \ O º D | | Reor • ~ clip º 4. clip Recoil lv2 Plate 13. 155-mm Gun, M1918. 16. Characteristics, 155-mm Gun. a. The 155-mm gun materiel, M1918, is of the split- trail, hydro-pneumatic, variable-recoil type. The length of recoil varies with the angle of elevation and is automatically controlled. The carriage is fully described and illustrated in paragraph 11. b. Gun. The gun (Plate 13) is of the built-up type, consisting of a tube strengthened by the breech ring, jacket, hoop A, hoop B, clip hoop set on hoop B, and muzzle bell. A recoil lug on the under side of the breech ring provides means of attaching the recoil and recuperator rods. Bronze clips to serve as guides in the cradle are secured to the sides of the jacket. c. Weights, dimensions, and ballistic data: Length overall in traveling position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 ft. 10 in. Wheel base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 ft. 7 in. Width in traveling position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 ft. 10 in. Total weight in traveling position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29,150 lbs. Weight of gun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8,795 lbs. Caliber of gun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1042 in. 960 MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION Rifling: Number of grooves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . w 4° º ºr e º e s sº s & º e º & 48 Twist, uniform, right-handed, 1 turn in 29.89 calibers Inclination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6° Diameter of powder chamber . . . . . . . . . . . ............. 6.6929 in. Capacity of powder chamber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,329 cu. in. Travel of projectile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 in. Weight of projectile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * * * * * * s e is e e s - a • * 95 lbs. Weight of full powder charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.25 lbs. Weight of reduced powder charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... 18.9375 lbs. Firing mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Percussion Maximum powder pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31,500 lbs. per sq. in. Maximum range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17,716 yds. Muzzle velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,411 ft. per sec. Maximum recoil of gun in cradle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70.87 in. Minimum recoil of gun in cradle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43.40 in. Initial pressure in recuperator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,420 lbs. per sq. in. Maximum pressure in recuperator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,219 lbs. per sq. in. Maximum traverse in firing position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . O Questions 1. Why is the 155-mm gun valuable in seacoast defense? 2. Why is it necessary to have oil in the recuperator system? 3. Why is a split trail desirable in this type weapon? CHAPTER II THE 8-INCH HOWITZER 17. Barrel. . The 8-inch, howitzer is a combination, cold worked and built-up. The tube, proper is cold worked. The barrel with breechblock is 290 inches long and weighs about 9150 pounds. Its bore is rifled with a uniform right wrist of one turn in 25 calibers. The length in calibers is 25 so each groove makes one complete twist Or turn. . 18. Breech mechanism. Breechblock is interrupted screw type and firing mechanism is percussion hammer. 19. Sighting. This howitzer has a dependent system of sighting. It is equipped with panoramic telescope M12 or M5A5 with telescope mounting M18A1. It has also the quadrant mounting M1. It has lighting devices for night firing. 20. Recoil. The recoil system is hydro-pneumatic with floating piston. The length of recoil is variable, 36 to 60 inches. Recoil and Counterrecoil are separate systems. It uses heavy recoil oil. 21. Mounting. The trail is a slip trail with 60° spread. The equilibrators are pneu- matic. It is mounted on a two-axle bogie with four dual wheels; two single wheels on the limber. Brakes are air and hand, internal expanding. Tires are 10.50 x 20 and carry air pressure of 75 lbs. 22. Prime Movers. The prime movers are 10-ton tractors or 7%-ton trucks. With the tractors they can make 3% mph. or 30 miles per day; with the trucks 15 mph. or 100 miles per day. 23. Range and Elevation. Maximum elevation is 65°; minimum elevation minus 2°. 24. Traverse. The traverse is the pintle type with a maximum traverse of 60°. 25. Rate of fire. The rate of fire is one round per minute (short bursts), one round in two minutes (prolonged fire). 26. Ammunition. a. The ammunition is separate loading. The shell is 106, HE, Steel and weighs with fuze about 200 pounds. It carries a bursting charge of 37 pounds. b. The propelling charge is about 28 pounds of flashless non-hydroscopic powder put up in 5 or 7 increments. MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION 961 c. The fuzes are M51 or M55. The M51 fuze is point detonating, superquick or delay and includes the M21 booster assembled with it. The M55 fuze is a combination fuze, point detonating (superquick) or time (up to 25 seconds), and has the M21 booster assembled with it. Either fuze comes packed in wooden boxes, 25 fuzes to a box. For description see 155-mm howitzer Section 4, Matériel and Ammunition. d. The primer, MKIIA or MKIIAI, is a percussion with a sensitive percussion element and 21 grains of black powder. These primers come packed 50 in a box. CHAPTER III 240-MM HOWITZER 27. Description of Howitzers. a. There are four models of these howitzers, M1918, M1918A1, M1918MI, and M1918MIA1. They are of the built-up type, the principal parts being the tube, jacket, and hoop, with front and rear rollers for mounting. The M1918MI howitzer differs from the M1918 only by an increase in the exterior diameter of the tapered portion of the barrel forward of the hoop. This increased diameter necessitates the use of different front roller spindles and front roller fastening screws. In other respects the two howitzers are identical. b. (1) The breech mechanism is of the type having a breechblock with interrupted screw threads, which rotates on the pintle of the breechblock carrier in the breech recess in opening and closing, the carrier being hinged to swing on the right side of the howitzer. The mechanism is hand operated by means of an operating lever. The lever swings with the mechanism. The mechanism, designed for separate loading ammunition, forms an obturating mechanism. (2) The firing mechanism is of the screw type. The firing mechanism is common to 155-mm howitzer, M1918; 155-mm gun, M1918MI; and 8-inch howitzers, M1917, Mks. VI and VIII./. c. The howitzers, M1918 and M1918MI, briefly described above, are rifled alike. A different form of rifling, however, has been adopted, and when applied to the present howitzers, they will be known as M1918A1 and M1918MIA1, respectively. The details of rifling are as follows: All howitzers are rifled with a right-hand twist, one turn in 40 calibers at origin, increasing to one turn in 20 calibers at 24.369 inches from muzzle, and uniform thereafter. M1918A1 M1918 and and M1918MI M1918MIAI Number of grooves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 84 Width of grooves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Inch. . .2I343 .23339 Width of lands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . do. . . • I 4 •I2 Depth of grooves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . do. . . .06 .oô 28. Description of Carriage, M1918 and M1918A1. a. The 240-mm howitzer carriages, M1918 and M1918A1, are of the same design except that the M1918A1 carriage is equipped with a quick release traversing mechanism and does not utilize the platform in its firing position as the top carriage rests on a concrete emplacement where it may be traversed through 360° of azimuth. The quick release traversing mechanism is for the purpose of allowing the carriage to be moved quickly to the approximate azimuth independent of the traversing mechanism operated by the traversing handwheel. These carriages are of the hydropneumatic long recoil type. The M1918 carriage consists of the platform, top carriage, cradle, and sleigh. The length of recoil is sufficient to insure stability at low degrees of elevation. b. In firing position the howitzer interlocks with the sleigh which houses the recoil mechanism. The latter embodies both the recoil and counterrecoil systems. . A mix- ture of glycerin and water is used in the recoil and recuperator cylinders. The sleigh FA1 (1) 962 MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION has two bronze lined slide-ways which engage the clips on the cradle so that the sleigh slides upon the cradle during recoil and counterrecoil. Attached to the front of the cradle is a cast-steel beam to which the recoil and counterrecoil piston rods are fastened. The cradle also carries the elevating segments, firing rod, quick-loading mechansim, and trunnion band which supports the cradle in the trunnion bearings in the top carriage. The top carriage is composed of two steel flasks united by cross transoms and end plates and at the rear end carries the brackets which support the loading platform and crane. The top carriage is pivoted at the front by the pintle head seat supported by Belleville springs in the pintle socket in the platform. This facilitates traversing the top carriage to its limits of 10° either side of the center line. c. The howitzer is served by shot trucks which carry two projectiles each. They run on tracks to and from the ammunition supply point. The projectiles are lifted from the shot truck and placed on the rammer car by shot tongs and a cable operated by a hand crane, all of which are supported by the loading platform at the rear of the top carriage. The rammer car, operated by hand cranks, moves along a track into the cradle, registering and locking with the breech of the howitzer, after which the projectile is pushed into the breech of the howitzer by a semiflexible rammer chain. N AT MAX ELEVATION 60° 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 to NCHES ºf EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE Plate 14. 240-mm Howitzer, in Battery. d. In mounting and dismounting the carriage an erecting frame made of structural steel is used for placing the platform and top carriage in position. The cradle and howitzer are drawn into place by a cable attached to a tractor or by the windlass which is attached to the forward part of the top carriage. e. The erecting frame with ammunition attachment is also used for lifting and plac- ing projectiles on the shot trucks. f. For transporting, the complete unit is divided into four loads: Howitzer, cradle with sleigh attached, top carriage, and platform. Each load requires a limber and its re- spective transport wagon. 29. Mounting of Howitzer and Carriage. As the organizations to be equipped with the 240-mm howitzer matériel will receive the howitzer and the carriage dismounted, together with a number of the groups disassembled therefrom as required for transport MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION 963 *uusſu eq09IWI q.099.181 ºg I øqeſaſ ſ^_^ ^， C757/207///7 J/207€7 A/2 7,7&yg? * †–saaan-wu^ [-–=#F șºſe№n-La)I • A/O///SOo2/ ∞///C7%97#†= = = • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • * * * *ș-------- >on! |×××××\/\??r.aee.， º ） • • • • • → • • • • • • • • •#======le pºreas-azz—† ?!//~N 1，49sQ ， !$} Nleſsº:22 • * * * * * * * * * * * l *s- • * =~~~~ ~~~~）， fy==PT-7-Tſwaer a = |-{{！}{{#¡¡¡¡ }{ wowu-wez—ÍTĚTĘŁ ſy_r3_ji________1. j...$$$$$（A^T=\， }|� ---- |0 }}uN）^®©-d22 |} }| }|„1）\/（\ſ*G，22^—ausna-oºs |！* (Nidºſ/22 №r A3（1+w） } Z OXAA （№ºººººº 1） Mºſè， ſeº， 964 MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION purposes, the first consideration should be the mounting in order that the personnel may become familiar with the operation. They are mounted in the following order: First, the platform, after the pit is dug; then the top carriage; next the cradle with sleigh attached; and lastly the howitzer. Then follows the attachment of the loading platform, the crane, and the rammer car in order. The details are as follows: 30. Barrel Assembly. The barrel is of the built-up type, consisting of the tube, hoop, and jacket. The hoop and jacket are expanded by heat and then screwed upon the tube and are held rigid by shrinkage. The tube extends the entire length of the barrel. The interior of the breech end forms the threaded and plain sectors. This gives half of the circumference as bearing surfaces for the threads of the breechblock. Suitable clearance cuts on the breechblock, which with the breechblock carrier swings from the hinge lugs of the jacket, permit the block to swing into the breech recess without interference. $ 31. Breech Mechanism. a. Breechblock carrier. The breechblock carrier which carries the breech mechanism swings on the hinge lug of the jacket, and is secured thereto by means of the hinge pin passing through the lug and the two lugs of the carrier. The operating lever shaft passes through the hole to the rear of that for the hinge pin and is secured by the operating lever shaft nut and cotter pin. b. Breechblock. The breechblock is of the interrupted screw type, having four threaded and four plain sectors located 90° apart. Suitable clearance cuts are made on the block as well as in the breech recess to permit the block to enter the recess without interferences. c. Obturator. (1) Obturator spindle. The obturator spindle passes through the breech- block, breechblock carrier, and interior parts thereof. The spindle is retained by screwing it into the firing mechanism housing which is assembled in the breechblock carrier. Slots are cut in the head of the spindle for use of a wrench in assembling and disassembling. (2) The breech end of the spindle contains the obturator spindle plug gasket and obturator spindle plug. The latter is screwed in against the gasket. The front end, or head of the spindle, contains the obturator spindle vent bushing which is screwed in very tightly. The vent hole which conducts the flame from the primer passes through the center of the bushing and the spindle, and connects with the chamber in the ob- turator spindle plug. The exterior of the breech end of the spindle is threaded and screws into the firing mechanism housing. It has a short keyway in which the firing mechanism housing key engages to prevent unscrewing. (3) Gas check pad. The gas check pad is composed of three parts asbestos and one part nonfluid oil, inclosed in canvas or wire screen. It is subjected to great pressure in forming. The pad is protected by the front split ring, rear split ring, inner ring, and filling-in disk. The pad is assembled on the obturator spindle between the mush- room-shaped head of the spindle and the filling-in disk, against the muzzle face of the breechblock. d. Firing mechanism. (1) The firing mechanism is composed of the firing mechanism block assembly, which is made up of the block, handle and collar; firing mechanism shoe; firing pin; firing pin guide; firing pin housing; firing pin spring; primer holder; and two safety set screws which lock the primer holder and the firing pin housing. (2) The firing mechanism block is threaded and screws into the firing mechanism housing to a point where its handle passes the firing mechanism block latch. It houses the firing pin guide which is retained by the primer seat plug screwed in from the front end, and the firing pin and firing pin spring which are secured by the firing pin housing screwed in the rear end. The latter is secured by the firing mechanism housing screw inserted from the exterior. (3) The primer holder is provided with an opening through which the rim of the primer is inserted. The firing pin guide, forced by the firing pin spring, provides sufficient friction against the head of the primer to retain it in position. This spring also forces the firing pin to the rear and prevents protrusion of the pin except by action of the percussion hammer. (4) On the rear face of the firing mechanism block a projecting rim is formed with MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION 965 B3OTO!-! -O3ț7 HO_L\/Tºyºſº 3-ndNVH-39? HOL\/"]+/9ţ» ©NI\}dS - O99 'usqu'eq0øJAI âu!…IIJ ‘9I 9ņeIJ 15S-AAE№/OS - O9，22|\? 1-A1}}-\! tº 2 ©N}\! dS - Oſn_1S-Tl№v 2 13S ‘NARHOS-o922 i w•ſtº 20 =ôºs-egºziv1：)\S\/0-9{29}\！^ ！ Cliſſº)-992，2{\/ 83QTOH- YAOCſº-ț’S SS-O ©N \\BdS-H ? 9 NHSOOH-ſt? 2 JL\/3S- ©N]}{dS-3? 966 MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION ºqºqois qņțAA JēzņļAoH go ÁIquiasSV ‘AI 94 eldſ S�A83S384 801\/B3d^OB'^） º HO NO1103S w No.103$TI NO|105||SB3ONĀTAO 801 VH3df1038F=-1 *B3ONITAO T1003}}№–!-->22 ſ|| {{{@}}• …”QNivº-vOllº)，Ķſ@Ý{{{@}}}} ∞'，2，4& sºº，№§jſ$)šº/A} |ºgºw∞ſae}N`SYN?/§§%} #№∞（§§$t. ！}3，422>>ºzº�#Ø} }r.N |Nſi uſlººſ/OO/ºX!}،� -!<ſ\\HÆ， TY \!\,ſaeí✉∞ ſ!ĢĒĢĒĻYWU |2â_% №ſae• ſºfºni ? |? Erica ſi: § || ||į 8 | || 1：2 ſi " ， |ſ_n ， º， ， ）}; yIOAMJESEAJ MJIW ON? ¿ECINITIAO TIOOPYJ HJT10（jſH1 NOI103S TWNICT\1İONOTſaen） •\/] H -ı rº !2 ~~~~~ #∞·Ø]© Ś)\\[2) r,^^,• ：DØzº， -jitº. Kºłę4A-BRACKET * * ! {Bleºf-hºº” ºlºSC-EMEARING !!!, KēlēeA-SPRockfºr * -l-l-le KBlºº H-STUD -- - : KB1257R-EOI ºr *BiºPD-CAP O iſ oil on Oil C. • * * * :* -->SR KBlºº-BEARINGº O |Q. 9)|o 3. O O O||--------- tºº * O O tr; z. O O trl O O O t t- O O t # H --~$: * *-es- - cº- Z ! {Blegº-ARC d * * * * * * * * * * * * * * fºr-2^ U | \{BIGBC-BOLT | !CBlø98-LEVER 3. KBloºc-PIN {B}659E - EYE 3. KSIGºº-WASHER. 5 |- H }={ rºtºtººgeºLUG) 9 lººkºa-BEARNG > $. -č i \ Keless-erecker– —KelsºA-ARC KB1558-PLATE Plate 18. Top Carriage, Cradle and Quick Elevating Mechanism. § 968 MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION a portion removed. This slot allows the spur on the percussion hammer to pass beyond the projecting rim and the percussion hammer to come in contact with the firing pin, when the firing mechanism is screwed fully into the housing. At all other positions of the firing mechanism the full travel of the percussion hammer is prevented by the spur on the hammer striking the rim on the block. Therefore, firing can not take place until the handle of the firing mechanism has been turned past the block latch. 32. Percussion Mechanism. The percussion mechanism consists of the percussion hammer, percussion-hammer operating shaft, percussion-hammer operating shaft hous- ing, and the percussion-hammer lock bolt. The precussion hammer swings through an angle of 66° on the percussion-hammer operating shaft. A hole is formed through its hub with 3 squared sides and 1 rounded side to insure the assembly of the shaft in 1 position only. The hapmmer portion is formed on the outer end of its swinging arm. A projection or spur on the inner face of the arm provides a safety feature in connection with the rim on the rear face of the firing mechanism block. The round hole through the side is engaged by the end of the percussion-hammer lock bolt, which locks the hammer in the traveling position. 33. Sleigh. The sleigh (Plate 17) is made from a forged steel block and serves as a support for the howitzer. Grooves are cut underneath the top edges of the sleigh, which are lined with bronze liners known as the sleigh liners. These liners slide on the recoil slide guides, fastened to the cradle, and guide the sleigh during recoil. There are five longitudinal cylinders bored in the sleigh. The two upper cylinders, running about one-half the length of the sleigh, form gas reservoirs and are closed at the front end by the reservoir caps. The left reservoir cap is provided with an opening in which the valve used in connection with the pressure gauge and adapter for taking pressures is assembled. The three lower cylinders, extending the full length of the sleigh, form a housing for the recoil and the recuperator mechanisms, the two outside cylinders being the recoil cylinders and the center the recuperator cylinder. The recoil cylinders are closed at the rear with the recoil cylinder rear plugs, and at the front end with the recoil packing boxes, through which the recoil piston rods operate. The recuperator cylinder is closed at the rear end with the recuperator rear cylinder head and at the front with the recuperator rod packing box through which the recuperator piston rod II) OVCS. 34. Recoil Mechanism. The recoil system is for the purpose of controlling the force created by firing and to check the movement of the recoiling mass in a gradual manner so as not to cause displacement of the carriage. The counterrecoil mechanism is for the purpose of returning the recoiling mass into battery in order that the howitzer may be fired again. a. Plate 19 shows by diagram the action of the recoil mechanism, but does not show actual details of the various parts. b. When fired, the howitzer and sleigh recoil, carrying with them the throttling rods which are attached to the cylinder rear plugs, while the piston rods which are attached to the front of the cradle do not move. The liquid which is in front of the recoil pistons is then forced through six diagonal holes drilled in each piston, two of which are shown in Plate 19, into the interior of the piston and then out through the variable aperture formed by the trottling rod and the hole in the rear of the recoil piston rod throttling ring, to the rear of the piston. c. The liquid is also forced through the return valve, which is forced from its seat by the pressure of the liquid, thereby allowing the interior of the recoil piston rod to fill as the recoil throttling rod and return valve move to the rear. d. The resistance of the flow of liquid through the rear of the recoil piston rod throttling ring, is regulated by the variable diameter of the trottling rod which passes through it at recoil, continually changing the area of the aperture through the throttling ring through which the liquid is forced. This resistance is such as to control and limit the recoil to its normal amount. e. At counterrecoil or return of the howitzer and sleigh (Plate 19) to the firing posi- MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION 969 ”uusſuleuſ03IWI Iſo09? I go uſoņe-19ďO ’6I 9ņeI-I **************|×4*&-*---- 4:4·4. -_____ ~~~~~ ~~~~！====- :*** ！_！------*T --№-z （）----- == --E！” _ZAVZAŤ №ſſº，№ž*----·№zzzzzzzzz--(øytwº) z^7+21 avevºzzº �999 'Q8O AAZZ/Z/，72^ A^， ////-7）/ 424/2/7/72/72 //%2F/ ∞∞∞∞∞∞∞∞ SN --~~~ſe ººk ſae ſ į LT- - - ~~~~ ——... ~~~. :_ - - ---- .T ：-）· · - ∞ſi ：==№saeeae №Èzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzż N ĒĻĶēſ4=5， --~~~~ ~=== TEJZě，ZZ* № .------T –-y Ź22：/ º /a/%7 8/72 ////////•— --~~~~）ī~~{{}}}_ —E} F O’Cº’ WO A5/cº_(8，79 374?!~）/t(wyroſ) „~~^7，2% avº/?_(?&y *~~~~- - - - ±}_-oc） º 747ra ;:ar~~~~~~---- • → • • • • •∞∞∞， ∞& « (?)$&y=70/v/743 7°027&-- -− → ------- ----æ：4 ！~&&2，-，-，-，zrae（~~~~ º trºº erozy wax sº^oy zow>^ ∞y PC/A//.7，43 &^2_{ſºlvo^^?，27?， Z 9，7€207744 32A//w/2O7 _%2/73， ºcz/7$ 7/0,27）/ ·łºſzczyłº w eºz azºno， QD 970 MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION ion, the recoiling mass is forced to the front by the energy stored up by action of recoil which has compressed the nitrogen stored in the reservoir of the sleigh. The energy thus stored is sufficient to return the howitzer and sleigh to the firing position when the howitzer is elevated to the maximum elevation. At the end of counterrecoil the clearance between the outside diameter of the return valve and the interior diameter of the piston rod is diminished to such an extent that the return valve functions as a hydraulic buffer, thereby preventing shock. 35. Cradle. The cradle is a U-shaped plate, along the edges of which the recoil slide guides are riveted. The sleigh slides on these guides during recoil and counterrecoil. 36. Top Carriage. a. The top carriage is a unit composed of two top carriage flasks, and top plate, bottom plate, and front plate, with necessary connecting and stiffening angles and plates. b. Elevating mechanism. The elevating mechanism is located on the left side of the top carriage. It permits of 1° depression and 60° elevation, this movement being limited by stops on the cradle and corresponding stops on the top carriage and plat- form. Approximately one and one-half turns of the handwheel elevate or depress the howitzer, including the other tipping parts, 1°. c. Traversing mechanism. The traversing mechanism is located on the left side of the carriage. It permits of 10° traverse, either side of the center line of the platform. Approximately 13% turns of the handwheel traverse the carriage through 1° in azimuth. d. Quick-loading mechanism. The quick-loading mechanism (Plate 18) is provided for rapid elevation and depression. Four and two-tenths turns of the handwheel elevate or depress the howitzer 45°. 37. Platform. a. The platform (Plate 20) is made up of a top and bottom plate, each of which is provided with an opening for the cradle to tip into at high elevations. A pintle socket which contains the pintle parts about which the top carriage pivots, is riveted to the platform near the front. At the rear end of the platform the traversing rack, the rear holdingdown sector, and the locking bracket are attached. b. The trunk section (Plate 20) made up of structural steel plates and angles is riveted to the base of the platform. It is so provided in order that the cradle and howitzer, when elevated and recoiling, may tip into it. Being embedded in the ground it serves as a spade and thus prevents movement of the platform during firing. The cradle elevating stop, Plate 20, limiting elevation to 60°, is attached to the inside of the front plate of the trunk. 38. Loading Platform. The loading platform is made up of structural steel and is attached to the upper and lower rammer car lock support brackets of the top carriage. It is locked in position by means of the loading platform locking shaft. Two handles are provided on each side. Also the shot hoist bracket locking shaft at the rear is used for lifting the loading platform in place. This platform is detachable to facilitate transportation. 39. Transport Vehicles. To transport the howitzer and carriage four transport wagons and four limbers are provided. They are known as the howitzer carriage limber, the howitzer transport wagon, cradle transport wagon, top carriage transport wagon, and platform transport wagon. 40. Car, Rammer. a. The rammer car is made of structural steel. It is supported on four car wheels running on left and right hand loading platform tracks and left and right hand swinging tracks, and in the rear end of the cradle on left and right hand loading apparatus lower rails. It is used to transport projectiles from the loading crane to the breech and to ram them into the howitzer. b. The rammer car when in position to receive the projectile from the loading crane is securely locked to the loading platform by the buffers and swinging track mechan- ism, and can not be moved until the loading platform lock treadle is operated. The car may then be run into the cradle and locked to the howitzer. The operating shaft cranks, one on each side of the car, are then turned, forcing the rammer chain to push the projectile forward into the bore. The powder bags are next pushed in. The MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION 971 *uſoņļSOGI 5 uſp?O'I uſ “JºzņļAAOH uuuu-0ſ， “Oz 94 elaſ =（\w*）'）; WAY （A * štý% »^ ^ øº -çºżºx. .lvØya º º |, , ，è\%）. Z · · · · · · · · -، ، ſºzzººººººººººººgººººººººº\;\&&&！-！^%$%%%%%% …*] | | /º/ ºy’^'^^** .**^ < > • 2）ºes， º 2, ^^z.o CDſ-3& & * ， ， º* r^ <>，2，2，224，2%% º gº.“4|??， ??！！！ （！！！！！！á º！！！|-，-，-，-，-，-，-，-×4×ZZ U→€œAG<\/t2O$$（） } A pozy~<_ „V2/?）// ./02/&ºŠĘ Tjº！ ZIJ \!|----、。•■ №ſTQI(） ： ∞Ş»[[]] $ $ $ 3 ：ſk ∞ ſ@ ſì)‚ „scrow， ©9AVOZ№ſ，！? 777A/£”ºſſe，TŌ 7J/2ººº/Z 5%//%//// ~agozzºzy swowy 2/ſ^2 2y-7/WW!！!///ſºſ/ (7^^^ ^W^2/$%&&/ $\，}5770!！! !！}}Z_1/MO}/ 972 MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION car is released by operating the locking handle and rolls down the inclined guide cover rail off the cradle and onto the loading platform, raising the swinging track on its way and automatically locking itself on the platform. 41. Frame, Erecting, With Ammunition Attachment. The erecting frame is a struc- tural steel unit composed of four columns resting on two base plates. The columns are held together at the top by crossbeams and are braced on the sides by brace rods. It is operated by hydraulic jacks, four to each erecting frame, and is used for mounting and dismounting the platform and top carriage. 42. Weights, Dimensions, and Ballistics of the 240-mm Howitzer, M1918. Weight of 240-mm howitzer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,790 pounds Length of bore (calibers) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.75 Total length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199.6 inches Powder chamber: Diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.82 inches Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.55 inches Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1740 cubic inches Powder charge, kind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nitrocellulose Weight of charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 pounds 7 ounces Density of loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.58 Projectiles: Weight of projectiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 pounds Travel of projectile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165.06 inches Muzzle velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1700 feet per second Muzzle energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6920 foot-tons Maximum pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33,000 pounds to the square inch Maximum range (approximate) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16,400 yards Rifling: For details of rifling of the four models of howitzers see ordnance drawing 53-20-2, revised November 27, 1929. 43. General Data Pertaining to the 240-mm Howitzer, Carriage, Howitzer Carriage Limber, and Transport Wagons. Pounds Cradle (with elevating arms) sleigh and transport wagon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14,605 Weight of front wheels and axle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,185 Weight of rear wheels, axle, and brake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,700 Weight on front wheels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,530 Weight on rear wheels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,075 Howitzer and transport vehicle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15,220 Weight of front wheels and axle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,185 Weight of rear wheels, axle, and brake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,750 Weight on front wheels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4,864 Weight on rear wheels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10,356 Platform (complete, with pintle springs, swinging arms, and floats) . . . . . . . . . . 11,895 Sleigh (complete, filled with liquid and all pistons, packings, caps, etc.) . . . . 5,747 Top carriage (with rammer car, loading platform, loading crane) and transport vehicle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12,545 Total weight in firing position (complete, with loading platform, rammer car, loading crane, floats and sights) . . . . . . . . . . . . . • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * . . . . . 41,296 44. Ammunition. a. Ammunition for the 240-mm howitzer is separate loading. The shell is Mk III or Mk IIIA1, HE, steel, and weighs with fuze about 345 pounds. It carries a bursting charge of 49.2 pounds. b. The propelling charge is 36.44 pounds of non-hydroscopic powder put up in 5 equal sections or 4 equal sections and 2 half sections. MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION •. 973 c. The fuzes are M51 or M55. For description see 155-mm howitzer Section 4, Ma- tériel and Ammunition. d. The primers are Mk IIA1. They are percussion primers and are made up of a sensitive percussion element and 21 grains of black power. - Questions 1. Why is the 155-mm gun especially useful in harbor defense? 2. Why is a small oil reserve desirable between the diaphragm and the mushroom valve? * 3. What is the utility of trails? * MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION SECTION 6 THE 105-MM HOWITZER CONTENTJ Paragraphs Chapter I. Description of Materiél . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-4 Chapter II. Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-13 Chapter III. Description of Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-16 Chapter IV. Sighting Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-21 Chapter V. Ammunition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22–29 Chapter VI. 105-mm Howitzer Carriage M1A1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-37 Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-40 CHAPTER I DESCRIPTION AND MATÉRIEL 1. 105-mm Howitzers M2 and M2A1. a. Two models of howitzers are in service and are designated as 105-mm howitzer M2 and M2A1. These howitzers are interchange- able on the 105-mm howitzer carriage M2. b. The 105-mm howitzers M2 and M2A1 consist of a tube, breech ring assembly, breech mechanism, breech ring lock screw, recoil mechanism bracket seat ring, and a straight steel pin, which retains the recoil mechanism bracket seat ring in place on the tube. - c. The breech rings of the howitzers are not identical, their differences being that the breech ring of the M2A1 howitzer is equipped with two bronze bearing strips which fit into dovetail slots cut in the bottom of the breech ring and retained in position by four flat head screws. d. The name of the manufacturer, year of manufacture, model, and serial number are stamped on the breech ring. Witness lines are cut into the muzzle face of the tube for use when using the bore sighting equipment. 2. Breech Mechanism (Plate 1.) The breech mechanisms of the M2 and M2A1 how- itzers are of the horizontal sliding breechblock type. The breechblock is moved to the right as the operating lever located at the top of the breech ring assembly is pulled to the right. Firing of the howitzer is accomplished by the firing lock M13 which is housed within the firing lock recess of the breechblock. 3. 105-mm Howitzer Carriage M2 (Plates 2 and 3.) a. This carriage is the present standard for manufacture, and is of the split trail, hydropneumatic constant recoil type. The carriage is equipped with electric brakes and is capable of being towed by a prime mover at speeds up to 35 mph on improved roads. b. The braking mechanism is controlled from the driver's seat of the prime mover. A hand brake is provided for parking the carriage and for use in the event of failure of the power brakes. An emergency brake application is provided in the event of a break-in-two between carriage and prime mover. 4. Data. a. 105-mm howitzer M2. Caliber of howitzer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . millimeters 105 Weight of howitzer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pounds 1064 Weight of projectile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pounds 1064 Weight of charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OUIn CeS 44.8 Muzzle velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . feet per second 1550 Twist of rifling, uniform, right hand, 1 turn in 20 calibers. 975 976 MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION OPERATING LEVER- \ \ OPERATING LEVER PIVOT FIRING LOCK DETENT HANDLE - Plate 1. Breech Mechanism. LOCKING RING LOCK SCREW RECQL MECHANISM BRACKET. LOCKING RING - - RECQL MECHANISM BRACKET SEAT Ring / R A PD 3060 STAFF Supporº T LEVER Plate 2. 105-MM Howitzer and Carriage, M2–Left Side. MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION 977 Panos AMC TELEscope CASE, ASSEMBLY |Left sºlelo Brace is ºn assemely LEFT sºlelo Brace RIGHT SHIELD BRACE 27.87 N., Assembly ASSEMBLY WELDED eveung plate - - TRAL HINGE PIN cRADLE, welped R A PD 3056 Plate 3. 105-MM Howitzer and Carriage, M2–Top View. 978 MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION Length of bore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . calibers 22.5 Maximum range 45° . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . yards 12,150 b. 105-mm howitzer carriage M2. Weight of howitzer and carriage without accessories . . . . . . . . . . . . . pounds 4235 Length over-all (traveling position) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . inches 238 Width over hub caps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . inches 82 Width C-C of tires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . inches 70 Height over-all . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . inches 60 Height to center of bore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . inches 51.50 Height of lunette (limbered position) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . inches 29 Elevation (degrees) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 650 Depression (degrees) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . –5° Turns of handwheel to elevate 20° . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35% Traverse right or left from center line (degrees) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22°30' Turns of handwheel to traverse 20° . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Size of tires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 750 by 24 Tire pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pounds 45 Weight required to lift trails off ground to limber position . . . . . . . . pounds 235 Type of recoil mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . hydropneumatic Normal recoil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . inches 42 Equilibrator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . spring Handwheel load: Lbs. at Lbs. at Lbs. at Lbs. at Elevate . . . . . . . * * * * * * * * * * * 12 0° 13 20° 19 40° 22 60° Depress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 0° 9 50 - Traverse right . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 09 15 100 16 20° Traverse left . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 0° 13 10° 11 20° Weight of recoil mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pounds 463 Weight at end of trails firing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pounds 155 Weight at end of trails closed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pounds 230 Weight at end of trails limbered . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pounds 165 Cradle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pounds 333 Top carriage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pounds 172 Wheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pounds 269 Axle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pounds 351 Trail, right . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pounds 280 Trail, left . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pounds 255 Equilibrator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pounds 72 Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pounds 206 Weight at lunette is 0 with lunette 72 inches from ground. Questions 1. What is the purpose of the witness lines cut into the muzzle face of the tube? 2. What is the maximum speed at which the carriage may be towed on good roads? 3. In case of a break-in-two between carriage and prime mover, what mechanism is provided to cope with the situation? 4. What is the weight of the piece? 5. What pneumatic tire pressure is used? Chapter II OPERATION 5. Breech Mechanism. a. To open. Grasp the operating handle, press down on it, and then pull the handle to the right and rear until the lever strikes its stop. b. To close. Perform the operation of opening the breech in the reverse order. 6. Firing Mechanism (Plate 4.) The howitzer is fired through the medium of the firing mechanism, attached to the cradle. The construction of the mechanism permits firing with the howitzer 4 inch out of battery. The firing mechanism is operated by pulling the lanyard handle to the rear. 7. Howitzer Carriage M2. a. To elevate. The elevating mechanism for this car- riage is assembled to the cradle and may be operated from either side of the carriage. One complete revolution of the handwheel elevates the cradle 11% mils. b. To traverse. The traversing handwheel is located on the left side of the carriage. The traversing arc is graduated on its face in mils. A pointer assembled to the travers- ing shaft bracket indicates the angle of traverse of the tube from the center line of the carriage. OPERATING HANDLE SLEEVE OPERATING HANDLE OPERATING HANDLE PIVOT OPERATING LEVER CR OSS HEAD FIRING * N - LANYARD HANDLE Plate 4. Breechblock and Firing Mechanism. 8. Traveling Lock of Howitzer Carriage M2. To engage the traveling lock, place the traveling lock lever assembly on the right trail in the released position. Elevate the howitzer until it is possible to close the left trail to seat the traveling lock shaft piece into the socket welded to the trail. Close the right trail and secure the trails together by means of the trail traveling lock. Turn the traveling lock lever 180° thereby locking the cradle to the trails. 9. Strut Mechanism of Howitzer Carriage M2. The strut mechanism is an auxiliary traveling lock to take care of the overhung weight of the cradle. During traveling it 979 980 MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION must be swung down and latched so as to act as a support. It must be released, swung up, and latched when the howitzer is in firing position. 10. Trail Traveling Lock. Close the trails and seat the ball of the right trail into the socket of the left trail. Lift up on the trail traveling lock handle, catch the loop attached to the right trail over the hook on the left trail, and press down on the trail lock handle. -- * 11. Drawbar. The drawbar can be placed in the “down” position for travel and in the "up" position for firing. It is locked in either position by means of the drawbar lock which is assembled to the spade end of the right trail. Rotate the drawbar lock 180°. This will disengage the shaft from the drawbar and allow the drawbar to be rotated to the desired position where it can be secured by rotating the drawbar lock to its locked position. 12. Brakes. a. When applying the brakes for an ordinary stop, the handle of the controller on the prime mover should be advanced gradually for a light application. Heavy brake application should be reserved for emergency stops and should not be employed in ordinary brake service. The load control on the controller is provided to permit the driver to regulate the braking power and prevent “skidding” regardless of load and road conditions. For slippery roads the control should be set on “light.” b. Every precaution should be taken to make certain that the battery used to operate the electric brakes when the carriage breaks away from the prime mover is in place and in good condition, and that all wiring and switches are functioning correctly. The emergency switch is always to be left in the “off” position except when the brakes are being tested. The brakes should be tested for proper functioning before each trip. c. To avoid injury to personnel, insure safe road transportation, and prevent “jack- knifing” of the load, the driver should at all times have the load under control by avoiding any slack between the load and prime mover. On down grades, curves, rough or slippery roads the speed should be heki to approximately 10 mph, or at the discretion of the command. When applying the brakes for a slow down or a stop, always apply the brakes on the load before applying the brakes on the prime mover. d. When placing the gun in firing position or when shifting trails, the hand brakes should not be set finally until after the trails have been spread and lowered to the ground. Otherwise a torque is set up in the axle, the spades do not seat firmly when the gun is fired, and the howitzer may tip forward on its muzzle during counterrecoil. 13. Electric Connection Between Carriage and Prime Mover. Plug in one end of the jumper cable attached to the right trail into the socket in the battery box and the other end into a receptacle on the prime mover. Attach the chain leading from the break- away switch to the prime mover allowing sufficient slack to insure that the switch will not operate except in case of break-away. Questions 1. To open breech mechanism is the operating handle pulled to the left or the right? 2. What is the final operation in engaging the traveling lock of the carriage? 3. When the piece is in firing position what must be done to the strut mechanism of the carriage? 4. For what is heavy brake application reserved? 5. In slowing down or stopping should brakes be applied first to the prime mover or to the load? CHAPTER III DESCRIPTION OF GROUPS 14. Howitzers. The barrel assembly includes the tube, breech ring assembly, breech ring lock screw, recoil mechanism bracket seat ring, and tangential pin. a. The breech ring assembly is screwed on the tube and locked in place by the point of the breech ring lock screw extending a short distance into the tube. Two lugs project from its front face to engage the sleigh thus locking the howitzer against rota- tion in the sleigh. The breech ring assembly includes two leveling plates inlaid in the top of the breech ring. The tops of the leveling plates are finished in a plane parallel to the axis of the howitzer. b. The breech ring assembly of the howitzer M2A1 is slightly different from the breech ring assembly described in a above, that is, it has two bronze bearing strips as- sembled in dovetailed slots in the bottom face of the ring. 15. Breech Mechanism. a. This group (Plate 1) includes the breechblock assembly; breechblock operating lever assembly; operating lever pivot; firing block M13; trigger shaft; (trigger shaft) detent; detent handle; detent spring retaining screw; and extractor. (1) The breechblock is rectangular in form and is pierced from the front to the rear by three openings. One opening at the left end is in axial alinement with the tube when the breech is open and provides a guide for the ammunition. The second opening is in axial alinement with the tube when the breechblock is in the closed posi- tion and houses the firing lock M13. The third opening is a rectangular lightening cut. (2) The firing lock hole is threaded at the front end for the breechblock bushing. (3) In the bottom face of the breechblock a cam groove is cut in which the upper trunnions of the extractor seat; in the upper face is another cam groove for the operating lever crosshead. b. The trigger shaft lies transversely in the breechblock. It has a squared section near its left end which fits a square hole in the trigger fork of the firing lock. The right end is formed into a lever arm, with the outer end suitably formed for contact with the firing mechanism. The trigger shaft arm swings in a recess in the left end of the breechblock and the sides of the recess act to limit the movement. The (trigger shaft) detent rests in a vertical hole in the right end of the breechblock. It engages an annular groove in the trigger shaft and holds the shaft in the breechblock. The detent is pushed down by a colled spring, the spring being backed by the detent spring retaining screw. The detent handle functions to raise the detent out of engagement with the trigger shaft. c. Breechblock operating lever assembly. (1) The assembly includes the operating lever, crosshead, crosshead screw operating handle, operating handle pivot, operating pivot pin, operating handle pivot key, spring, and operating handle sleeve. (2) The L-shaped breechblock operating lever (Plate 1) is pivoted in the upper right rear corner of the breech ring cut for the breechblock. When closed, the whole lever except for the upstanding handle is buried in the breech ring. (3) The shorter arm of the L swings further into the breech recess and carries a stud extending downward on which the crosshead is mounted. The point of a screw in the crosshead enters an annular groove in the stud and retains the crosshead while allowing it to rotate freely on the stud. The crosshead slides in a channel cut in the breechblock and operates the breechblock. Assembled on the long arm of the breech- block operating lever is the operating handle sleeve and its allied part. (4) The operating lever pivot (Plate 1) is a round pin with a knob head projecting above the breech ring. There is a key lug on its lower end which passes through mating keyways in the breech ring and breechblock operating lever hub when the lever is in a certain angular relation to the breech ring. d. Extractor. The extractor (Plate 1) is in the form of a flat plate, having two opposed trunnions at one end and a toe on the other. It lies on the floor of the breech recess, with one trunnion extending downward into a groove which allows it to move to 981 982 MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION the front and rear, and the other trunnion engaging the extractor groove in the under face of the breechblock. When the breech is closed, the toe lies in a recess in the breech face of the tube in front of the rim of the cartridge case. The front edge of the extractor is curved and rolls against the front wall of the breech recess when the breech is opened. The toe then pries the cartridge case out of the chamber. e. Firing lock M13. (1) The firing lock (Plate 1) is assembled in the axial hole in the breechblock and is retained in its seat by rotating it slightly. This causes projections on the firing case to engage mating surfaces in the breechblock. (a) The firing lock M13 consists of a firing pin bushing, firing pin holder, firing pin holder sleeve, sear, two compression springs, trigger fork, and a split cotter 1Il. (b) When the firing lock is assembled in its housing in the breechblock the trigger shaft is assembled passing through the wall of the breechblock and the squared end of the trigger shaft entering the square hole in the trigger fork. A pull to the rear on the trigger shaft forces the trigger fork forward and with it the firing pin holder sleeve, thereby further increasing the initial pressure of the spring until the sleeve contacts the cam of the sear, forcing it downward against the pressure of the sear spring. This permits the firing pin holder, assembled with the firing pin bushing and firing pin, to snap forward and fire the piece. (2) On release of the firing mechanism, the firing pin automatically returns to the “cocked” position. The spring around the firing pin holder is still under its initial compression, and forces the firing pin holder sleeve backward and with it the trigger fork. The latter in turn retracts the firing pin holder. This movement is accomplished by the greater length of the lever arm at the point of contact between the firing pin holder sleeve and the trigger fork, than there is at the point of contact between the lug on the end of the firing pin holder and trigger fork. The backward movement of the firing pin holder sleeve causes the sear to rise and engage its seat on the firing pin holder, and cocks the firing lock ready to fire. 16. Howitzer Carriages. a. Recoil sleigh assembly. Three yokes are assembled by means of screws to the right and left rails which slide Qn the cradle and guide the howitzer during recoil. b. Cradle. The cradle for this carriage can be maneuvered from either side of the carriage. ! c. Top carriage. The top carriage forms the connection between the cradle and the axle. The elevating arc of the carriage is also designed to form the seat for the cradle trunnions. d. Axle and support of howitzer carriage M2. The axle is constructed to provide an equalizing movement of the axle with the plane of the trails up to 10° to compensate for irregularities of the terrain with the carriage in firing position. e. Equilibrator. The carriage is equipped with a single unit, spring type equilibrator, centrally located and connecting top carriage and cradle. Equilibrators are provided to neutralize unbalanced weight and reduce the manual effort required to elevate and depress the weapon. f. Recoil mechanism group. (1) Cylinders. The recoil and recuperator cylinders (Plate 5) contain the mechanisms for control of recoil and for the return of the howitzer to battery. The cylinders are screwed at their forward ends into the yoke of the sleigh assembly. (a) The lower or recoil cylinder contains the piston rod, with the piston pack- ings at its rear end and the stuffing box at the front end. The upper or recuperator cylinder contains the regulator in the front end and the floating piston immediately in rear of the regulator. That part of the upper cylinder in rear of the floating piston contains compressed nitrogen gas. (b) There are two passageways in the yoke of the sleigh by which oil passes from one cylinder to the other. (2) Action of recoil mechanism in recoil. (a) The sleigh is fastened to the MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION 983 howitzer and recoils with it, carrying both recoil and recuperator cylinder. The piston rod, being attached to the cradle, remains stationary. (b) As the sleigh moves back, the stationary piston forces oil through the com- municating passages in the yoke of the sleigh and into the recuperator cylinder. The pressure of this oil opens the regulator valves and the oil passes on through the throttling orifice and thence acts against the floating piston and moves it, compressing further the compressed nitrogen gas behind the floating piston. º Cºl NDER FRONT HE ºn ºf - ºut ºn nº -CONTROL Roº -------Tºn ºn tº ºn. * | rººo-ººp Dººººººººººººº. Cº. ººº-ººººººº Y -NITROGEN tº STU-Flº BOX Gºup ASSEMBLY on pºston not ºnes ºut ºn sº assº pºston Rop outer ºut - ºn ºn Gºº ºf Mºlº ºol cºlºptº REAR HEAD, ASSEMBLY: Plate 5. Recoil Mechanism. (c) As the floating piston moves, the control rod diaphragm assembly (Plate 5) travels with it, drawing the control rod through the throttling orifice. The clearance between the control rod and the orifice is so small that a considerable part of the energy of recoil is absorbed in forcing the oil through. The diameter of the control rod is varied to adjust the throttling effort at various points in recoil. - (d) The energy of the recoiling parts is exhausted in the throttling of the oil, in the work of compressing the gas, and in overcoming the friction of the cradle guides and packing, and the howitzer comes to rest. - (3) Action of recoil mechanism in counterrecoil. When the recoiling parts are stopped at the end of recoil, the nitrogen pressure immediately acts to move the floating piston forward and presses the oil back into the recoil cylinder, where it pushes against the recoil piston and forces the howitzer again to firing position. However, the oil does not return through the channels in the regulator by which it entered, for the regulator valves are closed under pressure of the regulator valve springs and the oil is diverted to the central bore of the regulator, where another throttling action takes place as the oil passes by the control rod piston through grooves of varying depths cut in the walls of the regulator bore. The reason for this division lies in the fact that the energy absorbed in throttling is expended in accelerating small amounts of oil to a very high speed, and since counterrecoil is slow compared with the recoil, there would be little resistance at the recoil throttling orifice and the howitzer would be slammed into battery with great force. By the return of oil through the groove clearances, the speed of counterrecoil is controlled and the piece returns to battery without shock. g. Wheels. The wheels (Plate 2) are the commercial disk and rim type and are mounted on the wheel spindles by roller bearings. h. Electric brake. The electric brake sytsem contains, in addition to the conventional brake drum and expanding brake band, an armature and a circular electric magnet for each wheel. The armature revolves with the wheel and the magnet remains sta- tionary until the brakes are applied. The armature is kept in constant contact with 984 MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION the magnet by means of flat springs which exert a slight pressure. When the carriage is limbered to the prime mover for travel and the driver of the prime mover depresses the foot pedal or moves the hand lever of the controller, the latter, acting like a rheostat switch, allows electric current to flow from the battery of the prime mover to the circular electric magnet. As this magnet is energized it is attracted to the armature and consequently has a tendency to rotate with the armature. This magnet has a limited rotation in either direction and the limit of its arc of rotation is dependent on the amount of wear of the brake lining. As the brake lining wears, the limit of travel of the magnet increases. Fastened to the magnet is a lug, which as the magnet moves, expands the brake band evenly against the brake drum in the conventional way, thus causing the wheel to stop. The farther the foot pedal is depressed, the tighter the armature clings to the magnet and the greater is the pressure exerted on the brake band by the magnet lug. “Grabbing” and “locking” are eliminated in the brake sys- tem because there is always a slight slipping action between the armature and the magnet. Questions 1. What is the function of the detent handle? 2. Explain the operation of the firing lock. 3. What is peculiar to the axle of the howitzer carriage? 4. What is the function of carriage equilibrators? 5. What controls the speed of counterrecoil? CHAPTER IV SIGHTING EQUIPMENT 17. Light, Aiming Post, M14. The aiming post light M14 is a device for illuminating ranging poles for night survey. It is a replacement for aiming lanterns M1 and M2. (Plate 6.) 18. Mount, Telescope, M21, and Panoramic Telescope M5A3 or M12A2. This tele- scope and mount (Plate 7) are mounted on the left side of the carriage. They form the sighting element for laying the howitzer in direction. The panoramic telescope M5A3 will be replaced with the panoramic telescope M12A2 when the latter becomes available. The telescope and the mount are equipped with instrument light M5 which is provided to illuminate the reticle micrometers and indexes of the panoramic telescope, and the levels on the mount, for night operation. a. Description of mount. The mount (Plates 8 and 9) is bracketed to the left side of the howitzer cradle and is centered about a prolongation of the cradle trunnion through the centering hole in the bracket. It is of the azimuth compensating type which automatically, upon crossleveling, applies azimuth correction when the howitzer is elevated with the trunnions out of level. Provision is made for cross and longitudinal leveling with a leveling mechanism provided for each motion. Leveling the telescope mount in both directions insures that deflections indicated on the telescope scale are measured in a true horizontal plane. The panoramic telescope fits into the telescope socket and is secured by means of the wing knob. Elevation indexes are provided on the sight mount to be matched in direct laying in order to put the zero range line of the telescope in agreement with the horizontal axis of the tube. b. Description of telescope. (1) Panoramic telescope M5A3 (Plate 10) (to be issued until the panoramic telescope M12A2 becomes available). This instrument is a 4-power telescope with a rotating head and azimuth mechanism by which the line of sight may be directed to any desired azimuth; and with a movable prism permitting the line of sight to be elevated or depressed through a limited angle as required to keep the aiming point within the field of view. The line of sight is elevated or depressed by means of the elevation knob at the top of the telescope, and coarse and fine index graduations are provided for the zero elevation position. Both objective and eyepiece MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION 985 (offset 45°) are the fixed focus type designed for normal eyesight and for ranges normally encountered. The reticle (Plate 12) is gridded with horizontal range lines indicating ranges from 0 to 1200 yards in steps of 200 yards, and with vertical lead lines indicating deflection leads from 0 to 40 mils either right or left of the center (zero) line in 10-mil steps. This type of reticle permits use of the telescope and its mount as a one-sight, one-man system of direct laying. The reticle is graduated for ranges cor- responding to zone V. At short ranges (under 2400 yards) the elevations for zone VII Nº. , B.A - 30 C TOGGLE switch-1 |- BATTERY, BA-30 - Plate 6. Aiming Post Light M14. CLAMP METAL HooD * BATTERY CASE are almost exactly half those for zone V. Hence, the reticle can be used for zone VII by laying with half the true range. The azimuth scale is graduated at 100-mil intervals, numbered progressively from 0 to 30 in two consecutive semicircles in steps of 2 (200 mils). The telescope is moved in azimuth by means of the azimuth worm (setting) knob which has a worm release lever to permit disengagement for rapid motion when required. Indications by the azimuth micrometer index opposite the graduations of the micrometer scale, which is graduated in 1-mil intervals supplement those on the azimuth scale. The micrometer scale also indicates deflections, white graduations for deflections to the left, and red graduations for deflections to the right. The micrometer scale is arranged to be offset for insertions of corrections by means of the azimuth worm deflection knob. A detent on this motion gives a distinct click for each 1-mil move- ment and the total correction is indicated by the fixed deflection index. The telescope has a cylindrical locating surface, two lugs and a collar for positioning the telescope in its socket. (2) Panoramic telescope M12A2 (Plate 11). This telescope is similar to the M5A3 except in the following respects: (a) There is an exposed azimuth scale graduated at 100-mil intervals, numbered progressively from 0 to 28 in steps of 4 (400 mils). (b) An azimuth worm knob, with a worm release lever, moves the telescope in azimuth, moves the azimuth micrometer and the micrometer knob. 986 MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION (c) A movable index is provided which permits a movement of 20 mils in either direction. A scale graduated in 1-mil steps to 20-mils right (R) or left (L) is opposite the movable index. This movable index: 1. Enables the gunner to move the index to a multiple of 5 from which he can make shifts of any amount, although the howitzer may be laid or referred with some odd setting. * -elescope LONGITUDINAL LEVEL –ELEVATION INDEXES CROSS LEVELING KNOE Plate 7. Telescope Mount M21 and Panoramic Telescope M5A3. 2. Facilitates bore sighting when speed is essential. (No screws need to be loosened). 3. Enables leads to be set in firing on moving targets. c. Operation. (1) Preparation. To place the telescope in its socket, remove the telescope from the carrying case, turn the wing knob on the mount to its extreme counterclockwise position and place the telescope gently in the socket. Exert slight MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION 987 downward pressure to insure that the telescope is properly seated. Tighten the wing knob. Uncover both levels. (2) Procedure. Operating procedure depends upon whether direct or indirect laying is to be employed, instructions for which are given separately. It is essential that the mount be kept cross-leveled at all times during the operation of both direct and indirect laying. If the mount is not level, the reticle lines will move off the target erroneously as the howitzer is elevated and an incorrect setting will be applied to the howitzer. (3) Direct laying. (a) One-man, one-sight system. 1. Set the fine and coarse elevation indexes on the panoramic telescope rotating head at zero and leave them in this position. Match the indexes on the actuating arm and rocker of the telescope mount by means of the longitudinal leveling knob, and leave them in this position. 2. Set the azimuth micrometer scale to zero opposite the fixed index. Lateral deflections up to 40 mils either right or left may be read directly from the reticle thus eliminating the necessity for using the azimuth mechanism. 3. Bring the intersection of the appropriate vertical horizontal lines in the reticle to bear on the target by rotating the traversing handwheel and the elevating handwheel on the left of the gun carriage. SOCKET WiNG KNOB LONGITUD!NAſ. U.EVEL ELEVATION INDEXES ~ *- U.C. N.G.) TU D1 NAL L. Ev E Lí NG KN 08 CROSS L EVEL | N G KN OB Plate 8. Telescope Mount M21. (b) Two-man, two-sight system. The gunner tracks the target with the ap- propriate vertical line in the reticle of the panoramic telescope by means of the travers- ing handwheel on the howitzer carriage. No. 1 tracks the target with the appropriate horizontal reticle line in the elbow telescope M16, by rotating the elevating handwheel on the right of the howitzer carriage. - (4) Indirect laying. (a) Set the azimuth scale to zero and the azimuth micrometer scale to zero opposite the fixed index. (b) Set the deflection (firing angle) on the azimuth scale and on the azimuth micrometer scale. Disregard the red markings on the scale since the firing angle is always a clockwise angle. (c) Center the bubbles in the cross and longitudinal levels, and keep them con- 988 MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION tinuously centered during fire by means of the cross leveling knob and the longitudinal leveling knob. - (d) Operate the traversing handwheel on the howitzer carriage so that the zero vertical line of the telescope reticle remains continuously on the aiming point. It is not necessary to bring the aiming point exactly on the zero horizontal line, but if the aim- ing point does not fall within the field of view, rotate the elevation knob until it does. This procedure is permissible in indirect fire only. (e) Changes in deflection may be introduced by using either of the two methods described below: Plate 9. Telescope Mount M21. 1. With the deflection set on the telescope and the micrometer scale set to zero opposite the fixed index, rotate the azimuth micrometer index (by means of the azimuth worm knob) in the proper direction the required number of 1-mil divisions. 2. Each time the deflection is set or changed, rotate the micrometer knob so that the azimuth micrometer index indicates zero. Corrections are introduced as in making an original deflection timing, referred to zero on the scale in its new position. Before making such a setting, the indication should be checked to insure that a true zero indication is used as the starting point. MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION 989 (5) For travel. Turn the wing knob counterclockwise and lift out the telescope. Place the telescope in the carrying case. Protect both levels by closing their covers. 19. Quadrant, Range, M4. a. General. The range quadrant M4 (Plate 13) is mounted on the right side of the howitzer cradle and provides the means for laying the howitzer in elevation. b. Description. (1) The range quadrant includes— (a) A longitudinal (angle of site) level and leveling mechanism. (b) A cross level and leveling mechanism for establishing a horizontal datum plane. (c) Angle of site and angle of elevation mechanisms which introduce and add together their respective elements of data. Plate 10. Panoramic Telescope M5A3. (d) A range drum whereby range settings may be made in lieu of angle of elevation settings. The upper portion of the range quadrant bracket is designed to mount the elbow telescope M16 for use in direct fire against moving targets. The range quadrant is issued with three range drums to provide for firing in zones III, V, and VII. (2) The range quadrant is lighted by a separate built-in system applied by four flashlight batteries BA-30, which are mounted in a compartment of the quadrant. c. Operation. (1) To change range drums, first rotate the elevation worm knob (Plate 13) or the range drum knob until the elevation scale index registers 100-mils 990 MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION depression. In this position the shoe on the range pointer support will be in the open part of the slot at the end of the range drum so that the drum can be removed easily and the new one inserted in the proper position without the necessity of threading them past the index. To remove the drum, unscrew the wing nut from the end of the range drum knob and then withdraw the knob and drum. Slide the new drum over the adapters on the worm shaft and engage the notch on the inner adapter with the Plate 11. Panoramic Telescope M12A2. lug on the drum, thus accurately positioning the drum. The shoe on the range pointer support should slip into position at the beginning of the range drum slot. In replacing the knob, aline the holes in the knob with the pins on the outer adapter and slide it into place. Tighten securely by means of the wing nut. (2) To operate the range quadrant, any one of the three following combinations of data may be employed: (a) Angle of site in mils; angle of elevation in mils. MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION * 991 Plate 12. Reticle, Panoramic Telescopes, M12A2 and M5A3. E L E V AT N G KNO B R A N G E DR UM EL EVAT | ON SCALE LONG | T UD | N A L LE V E L - ANGLE OF SlTE SCALE A N G LE OF SITE M C ROM ET E-R ANGLE OF SITE KN OB ROSS LEVEL WOR M K N OB Plate 13. Range Quadrant, M4. 992 - MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION (b) Angle of site in mils; range in yards (using only the ammunition specified on the range drum). (c) Quadrant elevation in mils (set as angle of elevation with the angle of site set at normal (300) since the quadrant elevation already includes any necessary angle of site). - (3) Having made the necessary settings in accordance with the combination selected from the above listing, cross-level the range quadrant by means of the cross leveling knob, then elevate or depress the howitzer until the longitudinal level bubble is centered. The howitzer is then properly laid in elevation. Maintain the cross level bubble in its centered position as long as firing is continued. - (4) For travel, close the covers on the level vials. KNOB (FOR Erecting relescope Reticle, CLAMPING BOLT (FOR WORM) - " TELESCOPE, MI6 - ELEVATING ADJUSTING WORM RA PD. 5037. Plate 14. Telescope Mount M23 with Elbow Telescope M16. 20. Mount, Telescope, M23, and Elbow Telescope M16. This telescope and mount (Plate 14) are used in laying for elevation for direct fire on moving targets when the two-sight, two-man system is employed. This system permits more rapid fire than the one-sight, one-man system since it divides the duties of laying between the gunner who lays for direction, and No. 1 of the howitzer squad, who lays for elevation. a. Description of mount. The telescope mount M23 forms the support for the elbow telescope M16 and is mounted on the bracket of the range quadrant M4 by turning the threaded support on the mount into the threaded hole in the upper part of the bracket. Provision is made for adjustment in elevation and for leveling the reticle lines. b. Description of telescope. The elbow telescope M16 is a 3-power, fixed-focus in- strument provided with a reticle (Plate 15), having range lines only, representing eleva- tions for ranges from 0 to 1600 yards in steps of 200 yards, with the 0-range (N) line passing through the optical axis. c. Operation. To place the elbow telescope and mount in operation clamp the tele- scope in the bracket of the telescope mount, having first removed all dust and dirt from the bearing surfaces. Insure that the telescope is fully inserted, that the projecting lug fits the mating opening in the telescope mount, and that the wing nut is securely tightened. Level the reticle lines with respect to the field by means of the bracket rotating knob on the upper portion of the telescope mount. This setting must be done by observation as there is no mechanical means provided for determining the setting. MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION 993 . (1) Direct laying. The howitzer is elevated or depressed until the base of the target appears on the reticle graduation corresponding to the target range. The how- itzer is then laid for range and angle of site automatically. (2) For travel. Remove the telescope and place it in its carrying case. In doing so always slide the adapter and eyeshield along the telescope tube until the end of the eyeshield is flush with the end of the tube to prevent flattening the shield. N N 2 2 4. 4 6 6 8 8 |O—IO 2—2 ta 1A !-r I-7 16—16 Plate 15. Reticle, Elbow Telescope M16. 21. Quadrant, Gunner's, M1 and M1918. See 75-mm gun, Section 2, Materiél and Ammunition. Questions 1. What type of telescope mount is used on the howitzer? 2. What are the advantages of the reticle shown in Plate 12? 3. Name two advantages of the moveable index on the panoramic telescope. 4. Upon what does operating procedure of the telescope depend? 5. How many flashlight batteries, BA-30, are used in lighting the range quadrant? FA1 (1) CHAPTER V AMMUNITION 22. General. Ammunition for the 105-mm howitzer M2 and M2A1 is issued fuzed in the form of semifixed complete rounds. A round of semifixed ammunition in- cludes all of the components used to fire once, and is characterized by the free fit of the projectile in the cartridge case. This is necessary so that the propelling charge, which is divided into increments for zone firing, may be adjusted in the field just prior to firing. The complete round is loaded into the gun as a unit. 23. Classification. Dependent upon the type of projectile, ammunition for the 105-mm howitzer M2 and M2A1 is classified as high cxplosive, chemical, target practice, or drill. a. High-explosive projectiles are filled with a high-explosive bursting charge. b. Chemical shells contain a chemical filler which produces either a toxic or an irritating physiological effect, a screening smoke, an incendiary action, or a combination of these.' c. Target-practice projectiles, which are cast-iron shot and sandloaded shells of the same size, shape, and weight as service shells; are provided for target practice. Some models contain a smoke puſſ charge, others are completely inert. d. Drill ammunition, which is complctely inert, is provided for practice in loading and handling. 24. Identification and Marking. Ammunition, including components, is completely identified by means of painting, marking, and accompanying annmunition data cards. Other essential information such as weight, zone, and muzzle velocity may also be obtained from the marking and data cards. (Sce Plate 16.) 25. Fuzes. a. General. (1) A fuze is a mechanical device used with a projectile to explode it at the time and under the circumstances desired. (2) Fuzes are classified according to their manner of action as “time” or “impact.” Time fuzes contain a graduated time element in the form of a compressed black powder train or a mechanism similar to clockwork which is preset to explode the shell a certain number of seconds after firing. Impact fuzes function when the projectile strikes a resistant object. (3) Further subdivision of the impact types is dependent upon rapidity of action. The classifications are superquick, nondelay, and short delay. b. Point detonating. (1) PD M48. (a) Description. This fuze, shown as issued assembled to the projectile in Plate 16, is a combination superguick and delay type. The fuze contains two actions, superquick and delay. On the side of the fuze, near the base, is a slotted “setting sleeve” and two registration lines, one parallel to the axis of the fuze, the other at right angles thereto. The line parallel to the axis is marked “SQ” and the other “dclay”. To set the ſuze, the setting sleeve is turned so that the slot is alined with SQ or delay whichever is required. The setting may be made or changed with a screw driver or other similar instrument any time before firing, even in the dark, by noting the position of the slot parallel to the fuze axis for SQ, at right angles thereto for delay. It should be noted that, even though set superquick, this fuze will function with delay action should the superquick action fail to function. (b) Preparation for firing. Prior to firing, it is only necessary to set the fuze as described above, and this only when delay action is required; when shipped, the fuze is set superquick. * (2) PD M54. (a) Description. This fuze is a combination time and superquick type. A safety pin extends through the fuze to secure the time plunger during ship- ment. The fuze contains two actions, time and superquick. The superquick action is always operative and will function on impact unless prior functioning has been caused by time action. Therefore, to set the fuze for superquick action, it is required that the time action be set either at safe (S) or for a time longer than the expected time of flight. The time-train ring graduated for 25 seconds is similar to that of other powder time train fuzes. To prevent extremely short time action, an internal safety feature prevents the time action from functioning should the fuze be set for less than 994 ‘....' ... . . MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION 995 04 second. Therefore, when setting for time action, the setting should always be greater than this minimum of 0.4 second. The fuze is set for time by means of a fuze setter. (b) Preparation for firing. Prior to firing, with either superquick or time setting, the safety pin must be withdrawn from the fuze. If superquick action is re- quired, the graduated time ring is set safe (S) or for a time greater than the expected time of flight. Nore. The fuze as shipped is set safe. If time action is required, the graduated time-train ring is set for the required time of burning by means of a fuze setter. (c) If the fuze is prepared for firing and is not used, the safety pin should be placed in the fuze before returning it to its container. (3) PD M57. (a) Type. This fuze is a single action, superquick type having the same contour as the fuze, PD M48. Allº ºr cº-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º: wºn ºne wº Aº Lº Nuº º Lºs ºlº ºn tº ºn º ºn ºn tº ºvº - º º Mºdel ºil º *Mºſuºsºsº ºn of Manufacture FIGURE * - SHELL, Sºtº, H.E., M., 105-mm Hº. Nº ºn Mººl (FITTED WITH FUZE, P.D., Mºg of Mºose) ºn ºf Aº Aº Aºtº ºr ºtºr º ºlº ºn tº Mºns ºn ºn tº ſº Cºlº wººl ºf ººl ºn tº Lº Lº NuMº - - º -Mººsººn ºf Plate 16. 105-MM Ammunition. (b) Preparation for firing. This fuze being a single action type requires no setting or other special preparation for firing. c. Boresafe and nonboresafe. A boresafe (detonatorsafe) fuze is one in which the explosive train is so interrupted that prior to firing and subsequent to firing, while the projectile is still in the bore of the cannon, premature action of the bursting charge is prevented should any of the more sensitive clements, primer and/or detonator, mal- function. The fuzes are classified as ſollows: Boresafe Nonboresafe PD M48 - PD M57 PD M54 These fuzes are assembled to rounds as issued; not issued separately for use in the field. 26. Preparation for Firing. This ammunition, issued as semi-fixed complete rounds, is prepared for firing as follows: - a. After removing the round from its fiber container, withdraw the U-shaped packing stop from the fuze wrench slots in the fuze. This stop is used when packed to prevent the fuze from touching the end of the fiber container. age may result if this stop is not removed before firing. b. Adjust the propelling charge for the zone to be fired as described in Nore. If the full (outer zone) charge is to be fired, no adjustment is necessary. the round is Serious dam- paragraph 27. 996 MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION c. Set the fuze as described in paragraph 25. NoTE. If for any reason the round is not fired, reset the fuze “safe” or replace the safety device aS º º may be, and restore the round to its original condition and packing as provided in para- graph 28. 27. Propelling Charge. a. Description. The propelling charge for the ammunition described herein is divided into parts to provide for zone firing. The full (outer zone) charge consists of 7 increments, thereby providing for 7 zones of firing. The powder for each increment is assembled in a cloth bag on which is marked the number of the increment. The base increment, zone 1, is tied to hooks in the bottom of the cartridge case. The second increment, zone 2, is tied to the base increment, zone 1, with a long twine. The other increments, in numerical order, are tied to each other with a short twine. This permits withdrawal of the increments, except the base increment, to the mouth of the carriage case whence those increments not required for the particular inner zone to be fired may be removed by cutting or breaking the twine. The incre- ments to be used are then readily reassembled in the cartridge case in numerical order, the increment whose number corresponds to the zone to be fired, uppermost. NoTE. The increments are of unequal weight, hence not interchangeable. Also, all of the incre- ments from 1 up to and including the number of the zone to be fired are required for firing that zone. b. Preparation for firing. The charge is adjusted for firing inner zones in the follow- ing manner: When firing the full (outer zone) charge, zone 7, no adjustment is re- quired—the full charge as issued is used. For firing any inner zone, remove the projectile from the cartridge case, then withdraw the increments from the cartridge case and re- move those increments numbered higher than the zone to be fired. Reassemble the remaining increments in the cartridge case in their original numerical order—the num- ber on each increment, uppermost. For example, when adjusting the propelling charge for zone 4, increments 5, 6, and 7 will be removed and the remaining increments, 1, 2, 3, and 4 will be reassembled in the cartridge case, increment 4 on top. Reassemble the projectile to the cartridge case. The round, insofar as the propelling charge is con- cerned, is now ready for firing. c. Precaution. When removing the projectile from and replacing it in the cartridge case, care must be exercised to prevent damage to the lip of the case. If the lip is damaged the round is likely to jam in the chamber of the howitzer. 28. Care, Handling, and Preservation. a. Complete rounds and ammunition com- ponents are packed to withstand conditions usually found in the field. (Complete rounds are shipped in individual moisture-resistant fiber containers inclosed in a wooden packing box or in round bundles.) (Ammunition is shipped in sealed metal containers inclosed in wooden packing boxes.) Nevertheless, since explosives are adversely affected by moisture and high temperature, due consideration should be given to the following: (1) Do not break the moisture-resistant seal until the ammunition is to be used. (2) Protect ammunition, particularly fuzes, from high temperature, including direct rays of the sun. More uniform firing is obtained if the rounds are at the same temperature. b. Do not attempt to disassemble any fuze. c. Before loading (the complete round), each of the separate loading components should be free of foreign matter, sand, mud, moisture, grease, etc. d. Do not remove protection or safety devices from fuzes until just before use. e. Explosive ammunition or components containing explosive must be handled with appropriate care at all times. The explosive elements in primers and fuzes are par- ticularly sensitive to undue shock and high temperature. f. Components of rounds prepared for firing but not fired will be returned to their original condition and packings and appropriately marked. Such components will be used first in subsequent firings in order that stocks of opened packings may be kept at a minimum. 29. Packing. Rounds of 105-mm howitzer ammunition are packed in individual fiber containers, and these containers packed in three-round bundles. While the in- dividual rounds vary somewhat, depending upon type and model, the following data are considered representative for estimating weight and volume requirements: MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION 997 Weight Volume, s pounds cubic feet Complete round without packing material . . . . . . 44 * * g. Three-round bundle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 2.00 (over-all dimensions of the bundle 333%4 by 1048 by 9.78 inches) Questions . What does a round of semifixed ammunition include and what characterizes it? . How are fuzes classified? . What is found in combination in the point detonating fuze? . Of how many increments does the full (counter zone) propelling charge consist? . Name four points to which consideration should be given in care, handling and preservation of ammunition and its components? : CHAPTER VI 105-MM HOWITZER CARRIAGE M1A1 30. Description cf Howitzer Carriage M1A1. The carriage M1A1 is a modification of the 105-mm howitzer carriage M1. This modification consisted of the elimination of the 56-inch wheel brake mechanism, and other parts pertaining to horse draft artillery. Of the 13 carriages thus modified seven are equipped with 36 by 6 cushion tired wheels and the remaining six carriages are equipped with 7.50 by 24 pneumatic tires mounted on disk and rim wheels. These carriages are similar to the 105-mm carriage M2. The paragraphs following contain information which is applicable only to the M1A1 carriage. 31. General Data Pertaining to 105-mm Howitzer Carriage M1A1. Weight of howitzer and carriage without accessories . . . . . . . . . . . pounds 3964 Length over-all (traveling position) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . inches 244 Width over hub caps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . inches 77.25 Width C-C of tires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . inches 88 Height over-all . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . inches 69.75 Height to center of bore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . inches 44.75 Elevation (degrees) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 650 Depression (degrees) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . —5° Turns of handwheel to elevate 65° . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1155% Traverse right or left from center line (degrees) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * * * * 22°30' Turns of handwheel to traverse 20° . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17% Size of tires . . . . . . '• * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * . . . . . . 750 by 24 Tire pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . pounds 40 Type of recoil mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . hydropneumatic Normal recoil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . inches 43 Equilibrator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . spring 32. Operation of Howitzer Carriage M1A1. a. To elevate. Turn the elevating hand- wheel mounted on the cradle on the right side of the carriage in a clockwise direction. One complete revolution of the handwheel elevates or depresses the cradle 10 mils. b. To traverse. Turn the traversing handwheel located on the left side of the carriage in a clockwise, direction. One complete revolution of the handwheel traverses the top carriage 20 mils. 33. Operation of Cradle Lock of Howitzer Carriage M1A1. The cradle lock protects the maneuvering mechanism from road stresses and should always be engaged when the carriage is moving. To release the traveling lock from the cradle turn the cradle lock pin 90° and allow the cradle lock to swing down. 998 MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION 34. Description of Carriage. a. Recoil sleigh assembly. The assembly is a built-up unit composed of a sleigh band, sleigh body, and slides, and a yoke assembly. The howitzer is secured to the front yoke by means of a locking ring on the howitzer. b. Cradle. The cradle of the 105-mm howitzer carriage M1A1 differs from that of the M2 in construction and in the manner of being maneuvered. The cradle of the M1A1 carriage is equipped with an elevating mechanism assembled on the right side of the cradle and can be operated from the right side of the carriage only. c. Axle and equalizer. (1) The axle consists of a tubular body with stubs pressed in; brackets for high speed adapter are attached. (a) At the center the bottom carriage is pinned to the axle body and by its in- direct connection with the trails controls the direction of set of the axle arm spindles and position of the top carriage. (b) At proper spacing from the center are bearings for the equalizer arms; out- side these are the wheel spindle brackets, and on the left the traversing bracket, as- sembly. • 4 (2) The equalizer has a slight sliding movement on the projection horn of the bottom carriage and also a swinging or partial rotation on the equalizer bushing when either of the equalizer arms is rotated on the axle by raising one of the trails. (a) The equalizer arms are attached to the trail by trail hinge pins. (b) The equalizer arms project forward and terminate in eyes pinned in bush- ings which may rotate in the end bearing of the equalizer. Because of the change in center-distance as the equalizer turns on the bottom carriage, these eyes are allowed a side clearance in the bushings which permits the bushings to slide on the pins. (c) When one trail is raised, that equalizer arm revolves on the axle, its eye moves downward and carries with it that end of the equalizer. The other end of the equalizer being fixed by the other trail and equalizer arm; the horn of the bottom carriage is forced downward by one-half the movement of the moving end of the equalizer, and thereby the pintle pin is moved out of true vertical axis. This unavoid- able displacement of the planes of traverse and elevation is seldom sufficient to affect appreciably the accuracy of the ranging mechanism; or if it introduces error, correction is easily made by the usual means of adjustment of fire. 35. Dismounting Equilibrator from Carriage. a. Set the cradle at zero elevation and place a wood block 3 by 3 by 12 inches long between the front spring seat and the equilibrator fulcrum. Elevate the cradle until the block has assumed the load of the equilibrator springs and release the bearings of all stresses except those due to the weight of the equilibrator. b. Take out the cotter pins and the headless pins attaching the equilibrator to the cradle and lower that end to the ground, after wrapping it in cloth to exclude dirt from the roller bearings. c. Remove the cotter pins and headless pins from the forward end. Examine all bearings for wear or broken rollers. 36. Mounting Equilibrator to M1A1 Howitzer Carriage. Reverse the oneration of dismounting and pack the bearings with fresh grease. The load on the 3-by 3-by 12-inch block is about 3800 pounds. 37. Mount, Telescope, M7, and Telescope, Panoramic, M5A2. a. Description. (1) The telescope mount M7 105-mm howitzer carriage M1A1 is used with panoramic telescope M5A2 (Plate 17) for laying the howitzer in azimuth and elevation. (2) The telescope mount is of the azimuth compensating twpe which automatically applies azimuth correction when the howitzer is elevated with the trunnions out of level. The telescope mount bracket fits over the projecting end of the left cradle trun- nion and is secured to the trunnion bracket. Elevation settings of the telescope mount are transferred to the howitzer cradle by a pair of matching indexes, visible from the right side of the carriage. One index (inner) is positioned according to the range and angle of site settings of the telescore mount, and the other index (outer) is actuated by a link attached to the cradle. When the indexes are matched, the howitzer elevation corresponds to that determined by the telescope mount. Motions are provided for MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION 999 leveling the telescope mount laterally and longitudinally, and for setting elevation for range and angle of site. Normal angle of site indication, corresponding to horizontal setting, is 300 mils. The panoramic telescope fits into the socket at the top of the telescope mount and is secured by means of the wing knob. - (3) The panoramic telescope has cylindrical locating surfaces at the top and bottom for centering the telescope in its socket. The line of sight is elevated or depressed by means of the knob at the top, and coarse and fine index graduations are provided for the normal (zero elevation) position. The head is moved in azimuth by means of the azimuth worm knob which has a throw-out lever to permit disengagement for rapid motion when required. The azimuth scale is graduated in 100-mil intervals, numbered progressively from 0 to 32 in two consecutive semicircles. Indications of the azimuth micrometer index on the deflection knob, which is graduated in 1-mil intervals, supple- ment those on the azimuth scale. The deflection knob is assembled to a detent which causes a click at each 1-mil interval as the knob is rotated. Rotation of the deflection knob does not change a deflection previously set, but changes the indicated value thereof. knoe, elevating McRome TER, Elevation- index, elevanon ºf index, Elevation (coarse) º º sºlº lever masowout . index, beflection *Nº Pºlº SCALE, Azºu Tº - index, ºmurº micrometer - - - - - –ºbºx, AZMUTH SCAL scale periºnon– Elbow- RAFst ºpe Plate 17. Panoramic Telescope M5A2. (4) The telescope mount is issued with three range drums to provide for firing in zones III, V, and VII. The range drums are graduated in yards for shell M1 with fuze M48. One range drum is assembled on the telescope mount, and the two not in use are kept in a separate carrying case. An instrument light for the telescope mount M7 will be developed which will light the reticle and scales of the telescope, and will provide for illumination of the scales and level vials of the telescope mount. b. Operation. (1) Direct laying. (a) Set the elevation index on the rotating head of the panoramic telescope to zero, and the zero on the elevating knob of the panoramic telescope opposite its index. These settings should remain undisturbed during the operation of direct laying. (b) Set off the lateral deflection on the azimuth micrometer of the panoramic telescope. 1000 MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION (c) Rotate the cross level worm knob until the bubble of the cross level is central. (d) Set off the desired range by means of the elevating worm knob, reading the helical scale of the range drum at the point indicated by the range pointer. Quad- rant elevation may be set off instead of range by using the elevation scale and the micrometer graduations on the forward edge of the range drum. (e) Turn the angle of site worm kncb and traversing handwheel of the how- itzer until the telescope cross lines fall on the target. Turn the elevating handwheel of the howitzer until the matching indexes are in line with each other. (f) If the cradle trunnions are not level the telescope cross lines will move off the target as the howitzer is elevated, and it will be necessary to traverse the howitzer and possibly change the angle of site setting to bring the line of sight back on the target. Coincidence of telescope cross lines and target must be maintained and telescope mount must be kept cross leveled during the operation of direct laying. (2) Indirect laying. (a) Set off the azimuth of the target, with respect to the aiming point, on the azimuth scale and micrometer of the panoramic telescope. Traverse the howitzer until the vertical line in the telescope reticle falls on the aiming point, keeping the telescope mount cross leveled by means of the cross level worm knob. It may be necessary to rotate the elevating knob on the panoramic telescope in order to keep the aiming point within the field of view; this procedure is permissible in in- direct laying. (b) Set the angle of site on the angle of site scale and micrometer, then center the angle of site level bubble by turning the angle of site worm knob. (c) Set off the desired range by means of the elevating worm knob, reading the helical scale of the range drum at the point indicated by the range pointer. Quadrant elevation may be set off instead of range by using the elevation scale and the micrometer graduations on the forward edge of the range drum. (d) Turn the elevating handwheel of the howitzer until the matching indexes are in line with each other. The howitzer is now at the correct elevation. (e) The telescope mount must be kept cross leveled, the angle of site level bubble central, and the vertical line of the panoramic telescope coincident with the aiming point at all times during the operation of indirect laying. Questions 1. Can the cradle be operated from the left side of the carriage? 2. In removing it from the carriage why should the equilibrator be wrapped in cloth 3. Does rotation of the deflector knob of the panoramic telescope change a deflection previously set? 4. In direct laying how may quadrant elevation be set off instead of range? 5. In indirect laying when is the howitzer at the correct elevation? APPENDIx LIST OF REFERENCES 38. Standard Nomenclature Lists. Ammunition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SNL R-1 Cleaning, preserving and lubricating materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SNL K-1 Fire-control and sighting equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SNL F-1 Firing Tables . . . . . . . . . . . * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * - e - - - - - SNL F-69 Howitzer and carriage, 105-mm, M1A1 and M2 . . . . . . . . . . . . SNL C-21 Current Standard Nomenclature Lists are as tabulated here. An up-to-date list of SNL's is maintained as the “Ordnance Publications for Supply Index” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . OPSI MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION 1001 39. Explanatory Publications. t Ammunition, general . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TM 9-1900 Range regulations for firing ammunition in time of peace . . AR 750-10 Cleaning, preserving and lubricating materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TM 9-850 Ordnance field service in time of peace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AR 45-30 40. Firing Tables. Gun, howitzer, 105-mm, M2 and M2A1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FT 105-H-2 Gun, 37-mm, M1918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FT 37-0-1 Current Firing Tables are as tabulated here. An up-to-date list of Firing Tables is maintained in . . . . . . * * * * * * * * * * * * * * SNL F-69 MILITARY ORGANIZATION-FIELD ARTILLERY 1. Introduction. While we were studying the organization of the army in general we learned that the infantry was the basic ground arm. It takes the close coordination of all arms and services to win battles against such trained enemies as the Nazis and Japs. Infantry has a wider variety of weapons than any other arm. The infantry is charged with the principal mission in battle. The principal mission of Field Artillery is to assist the Infantry and the Cavalry. Field Artillery Organization is sketched here in a broad general outline. You may have to join your own outfit before exact details of its organization are available to you. When you have a battery just right, or according to T/O, a shell may knock part of it out and you must arrange what is left so that it will function. 2. Gun Squad. The smallest unit of field artillery is the gun (howitzer) squad. This is a small team of men (6 or more) who are especially trained to serve and fire one piece. All of field artillery organization is designed so that the gun squads can operate and so they can deliver the most effective fire on the enemy. The chief of section always commands the gun (howitzer) squad during firing. a. 75-mm gun. The gun squad consists of a gunner (corporal) and 5 cannoneers numbered 1 to 5. They serve the piece and prepare the ammunition. b. 75-mm howitzer. This howitzer squad is the same as 75-mm gun (above). c. 105-mm howitzer. This howitzer squad consists of a gunner (corporal) and 7 cannoneers numbered 1 to 7. This squad is larger than the ones above because it requires additional men to fix the powder charges. d. 155-mm howitzer. The howitzer squad consists of a gunner (corporal), ammuni- tion corporal, and 7 cannoneers numbered 1 to 7. As the ammunition gets larger and more complex, the squad increases. Here we have added an ammunition corporal to supervise the preparation of ammunition. e. 155-mm gun. This gun squad has a gunner (corporal), and 8 cannoneers num- bered 1 to 8. There is also an ammunition squad that goes with this team. It con- sists of an ammunition corporal and 4 cannoneers numbered 9 to 12. This team is really a gun squad grown so large it is divided into two squads (gun and ammunition). f. 240-mm howitzer. The howitzer squad consists of a gunner (corporal), gun mechanic, and 7 cannoneers numbered 1 to 7. Working with them is the ammunition squad which consists of the ammunition corporal and 9 cannoneers numbered 8 to 16. 3. Sections. a. Gun (howitzer) section. The Field Artillery gun (howitzer) section is the next larger unit after the gun squad. For the large calibers, it consists of the gun (howitzer), squad, ammunition squad, and driver squad. For the smaller calibers the ammunition squad is not separate from the gun squad but a part of it. Sometimes the term section means personnel only; but often it means one piece, and the additional matériel, animals, and personnel required to serve and move that piece, and transport ammunition for that piece. The chief of section (sergeant) usually commands the section during movement and occupation of position, and the gun (howitzer) squad during firing. b. Ammunition (fifth) section. This section varies in size with the needs of the organization. It is commanded by a chief of section (sergeant) and consists of an ammunition corporal; enough cannoneers to handle the ammunition and caissons or trucks efficiently; and the caissons or trucks. Its function is to haul ammunition. c. Maintenance section. This section is charged with the maintenance of matériel and motors, care of sick animals, the supply and feeding of the battery. It is usually commanded by the supply sergeant. (1) In motorized batteries it includes the mess sergeant, chief mechanic, and mechanics, chauffeurs, cooks, water truck, kitchen, and battery truck. • (2) In horse-drawn batteries it includes the mess sergeant, stable sergeant, chief mechanics, horseshoers, mechanics, saddler, cooks, rations and water cart, rolling kitchen, and battery and store wagon. 1003 1004 MILITARY ORGANIZATION.—FIELD ARTILLERY 4. Platoons. a. Motorized battery. The motorized battery (75-mm) is subdivided into 3 platoons. The first platoon consists of the battery headquarters; the 2d platoon, of the four gun (howitzer) sections; the 3d platoon, of the ammunition (fifth) and Iſlal Intenance Sect1OnS. * b. Horse-drawn battery. The horse-drawn battery (75-mm) is subdivided into the battery headquarters, 1st, 2d, and 3d platoons. The 1st platoon is made up of the 1st and 2d gun (howitzer) sections; the 2d platoon, of the 3d and 4th sections; and the 3d platoon, of the ammunition and maintenance sections. c. Battery headquarters. This is the command and reconnaissance group of the battery. Besides administration, it is charged with reconnaissance, preparation of correct firing data, and efficient conduct of fire. * This headquarters is commanded by the Battery Commander. The Reconnaissance Officer assists the Battery Commander especially in reconnaissance and preparation of firing data. The Battery Headquarters also includes the 1st sergeant; battery clerk; instrument sergeant; signal sergeant; 2 signal corporals; 2 scout corporals; instrument corporal; 1 agent corporal; and the necessary linemen, telephone operators, messengers, switchboard operators, auto riflemen, and chauffeurs or drivers. This is an outfit of specialists and its organization varies considerably for batteries of different calibers. It needs a great deal of technical and tactical training. It is the brain and nerve system of the battery. 5. General. For command and administrative purposes, the Field Artillery is organ- ized into batteries, battalions, regiments, and brigades, and for ammunition supply purposes into battalion combat trains and ammunition trains. The details of organiza- tion are prescribed in Tables of Organization. Each table also shows for purposes of information the principal items of equipment for the unit to which it pertains. De- tailed allowances of equipment are prescribed by Tables of Basic Allowances. 6. Classification. Field Artillery is classified as follows: a. Based on tactical employment. (1) Division artillery, corps artillery, army artillery, and GHQ Reserve artillery. (2) The terms “army artillery” and “corps artillery” do not include the organic artillery (artillery shown as part of a unit by Tables of Organization) of subordinate units. To refer to all the artillery in an army or in a corps, the expression “artillery with the Army,” or “artillery with the Corps” is used. b. Based on weight or caliber. Light artillery, medium artillery, and heavy artillery. Light artillery includes the 105-mm howitzer and all guns and howiters of smaller caliber; medium artillery, the 155-mm howitzer; heavy artillery, the 155-mm gun and all guns and howitzers of larger caliber. c. Based on means of transportation. Horse-drawn artillery, horse artillery, pack artillery, and motorized artillery. Motorized artillery is subdivided into truck-drawn and tractor-drawn artillery. d. Based on type of armament. Units may also be classified as gun and howitzer units, depending upon the type of armament. 7. Division Artillery. The organic artillery of divisions is given in Tables of Organ- ization. From a tactical point of view, all artillery placed under the command of a division commander, including the organic artillery of the division, is considered division artillery. 8. Corps Artillery. The organic artillery of the corps is given in Tables of Organiza- tion. From a tactical point of view, all artillery placed under the command of a corps commander and not reallotted by him to the several divisions is considered corps artillery. 9. Army Artillery. The organic artillery of the army is given in Tables of Organiza- tion. From a tactical point of view, all artillery placed under command of an army commander and not reallotted by him to the several corps is considered army artillery. 10. GHQ Reserve Artillery. The GHQ Reserve artillery includes all artillery which comes under the commander of the field forces and which is not an organic part of divisions, corps, and armies. It is a pool consisting of a number of brigade headquarters MILITARY ORGANIZATION-FIELD ARTILLERY 1005 and separate regiments, each to be allotted at the discretion of the commander in chief in accordance with the requirements of the contemplated operations. 11. Batteries. Batteries, the smallest administrative units in the Field Artillery, are also tactical units. They are designated, depending on their special functions, as head- quarters batteries, gun or howitzer batteries, ammunition batteries, and observation (sound-and-flash) batteries. Considered administratively, battalion combat trains are analogous to batteries. a. Headquarters and headquarters batteries. A headquarters and headquarters battery is assigned organically to each brigade, regiment, and battalion of Field Artillery. Differing in detail as to organization, depending on the functions of the unit to which assigned, a headquarters and headquarters battery is organized for purposes of com- mand, intelligence, reconnaissance, observation, signal communication, liaison, fire direction, survey, and supervision of supply. b. Gun and howitzer batteries. (1) Gun and howitzer batteries are organized pri- marily for the delivery of fire. (See chart below.) Each is equipped with pieces of like type and caliber and has personnel and equipment necessary for transport, signal communication, and the delivery of fire. Gun and howitzer batteries normally operate as part of a battalion. The principal subdivisions of the battery are as follows: (a) Battery headquarters. This consists primarily of the battery detail. It also includes the first sergeant and the battery clerk, who assist the battery commander in matters relating to administration. (b) Firing battery. This element of a battery is charged with executing the fire missions. It is organized into four gun or howitzer sections and, in certain types of batteries, an ammunition section. In general, a gun or howitzer section consists of the piece; the personnel who serve it; and the means of transportation for the piece, personnel, and a certain amount of ammunition. The ammunition section consists of caissons or trucks for ammunition transport and the necessary operating personnel. (c) Maintenance section. This section is organized to assist the battery com- mander in maintenance and supply. In gun and howitzer batteries, it consists of the kitchen and the supply and maintenance vehicles all manned and equipped. Included in the personnel of this section are the supply sergeant, stable or motor sergeant, mess sergeant, mechanics, and cooks. (2) In time of peace and when the exigencies of campaign permit, a battery com- mander may prescribe a functional organization for his battery for the better instruction of his officers and the more efficient supervision of the administrative elements of his command. In this case, duties are assigned to his lieutenants so that each will be in charge of a department as shown in the chart on page 1006. c. Ammunition batteries. An ammunition battery is organically a part of an am- munition train organized for the transport and service of ammunition. Ammunition batteries are organized and assigned as indicated in Tables of Organization. d. Battalion combat trains. Organically part of a battalion, a battalion combat train is organized to furnish a mobile reserve of ammunition for the batteries and a means of transporting ammunition to the batteries. The principal subdivisions of a battalion combat train are train headquarters, ammunition sections, and a maintenance section. e. Observation (sound-and-flash) batteries. Organized into platoons and sections as indicated in Tables of Organization, an observation battery conducts sound-ranging, flash-ranging, and high burst-ranging operations. 12. Battalions. a. Gun or howitzer battalions. The battalion is primarily a tactical unit. It consists of a headquarters and headquarters battery; a battalion combat train, except in certain GHQ Reserve artillery units; and two or more gun or howitzer batteries. b. Observation battalions. See Tables of Organization. 13. Regiments. A regiment is both an administrative and a tactical unit and consists of a regimental headquarters and headquarters battery, a band, a certain number of gun or howitzer battalions, and an attached chaplain and medical personnel. The medical personnel is that necessary to provide for guarding the health of the command and, in mounted units, for the treatment of sick and injured animals. The organization of the # ORGANIZATION OF A BATTERY FOR CAMBAT Battery Commander (BC) —Bglr Selection and occupation of position. Conduct of fire. BATTERY HEADQUARTERS ... } 1st Sgt | Reconnaissance Officer (RO) Clk | FIRING BATTERY MAINTENANCE SECTION BATTERY DETAIL { * * | Executive (Ex)—Asst Ex Supply Sgt Preparation and observation of fire. Communication. Reconnaissance. Delivery of fire. Ammunition supply. Defense against aircraft. Close defense of the position. Care of sick animals. Subsistence and forage. Supply and repair. Motor maintenance. * # * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * : * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ORGANIZATION OF A BATTERY FOR ADMINISTRATION AND TRAINING Lt “A”Ex (Dept A) º s s s e º e < * * * = e < * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Lt cho (Dept C) Care of wheeled matériel except motor vehicles. Care of animals and leather equip- ment or of motor vehicles and motor accessories. Care of stables and forage or of mctor shop, fuel, and oils. Care of fire control and signal equipment. Police of barracks. Supervision of battery mess. th # 3 Supervision of battery of. -5 #| fice. < *| Supply. Recreation. Service of the piece. Command of the firing tº battery. ‘E | Dismounted instruction. ‘E | Close defense. F| Defense against aircraft. Calisthenics. Athletics. Marches and shelter. Equitation. . Driving and draft. Motor vehicle operation. Maneuvers limbered. Manipulation and maintenance of horse equipment. Maintenance of motor vehicles. Manipulation and mainte- nance of personal equipment. Defense against chemical at- tack. Training of the detail in com- bat duties. 1008 MILITARY ORGANIZATION-FIELD ARTILLERY medical detachment is such as to permit the establishment of aid stations for each battalion and for the regiment when necessary. 14. Ammunition Trains. Ammunition trains are organized and assigned as indicated in Tables of Organization. The principal subdivisions of an ammunition train are a train headquarters and a number of ammunition batteries. Ammunition trains are organized to provide a mobile reserve of ammunition and the transportation and labor necessary for the transport and handling of artillery ammunition. - 15. Brigades. There are two types of organic field artillery brigades—the division artillery brigade and the corps artillery brigade. Detailed organization of these brigades is given in Tables of Organization. The GHQ Reserve artillery contains a number of separate brigade headquarters and headquarters batteries, available, when necessary, for command purposes with reinforcing artillery. Questions 1. What arm is equipped with the widest variety of weapons? 2. What is the minimum number of men in a gun squad” 3. Why is a larger squad needed by a 105-mm howitzer? 4. Are battalion combat trains analogous to batteries? 5. What are the two types of organic field artillery brigades? INDEX Advisory boards Appeals Austria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Axis war message of President Army of the United States Attack by Japan Battle of England Boards of appeal China incident Citizens: Duties of Rights of Citizenship, definition of Citizens' Military Training Camps Civil War Civil War in Spain Classification and selection Colonial Wars Compulsory military service Conclusion Confederacy, military policy of Delivery and induction Duties of citizens Effect of World Events States Enlisted Reserve Corps Ethiopia General Welfare Good neighbor policy Government appeal agent Hitler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Induction stations Industrial preparedness Irish Free State Japan's rejection of U. S. proposals . Justice Liberty Local boards Maginot Line Manchukuo Medical advisory boards Mexican War Military History and Policy: Civil War Civil War War Colonial Wars Mexican War National Defense Act of 1916 Philippine Insurrection . . . . . . . . . Revolution to War of 1812 Revolutionary War . . . . . . . . . . . . Spanish-American War . . . . . . . . . Spanish-American War to 1916 . . War of 1812 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . War of 1812 to Mexican War . . World War I Warld War II * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * g º e s a tº a s * * * tº gº tº tº 9 s tº º e º 'º º * e s is t w w = e a g º º º e º 'º e * * * * * * * * * g º º ºs e º e ſº * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * g e * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * s e. g. tº º gº tº tº g º 'º e º is g g e g g g g a s * * * * * * g º e º ſº s º is © tº e º 'º º on United * a s tº e < * * * * is a º & e º a º * * g º e º e º e º ºs º g * sº * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ~ is e º ſº tº § 3 & * * * * * * s m s m i s : * is s e º 'º e s g º ºi & a g is # * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * is gº & & is º e s e s is 6 s is tº g g tº $ tº s tº e dº * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * tº e to Spanish-American * e º a e s tº s is s sº e & tº ſº e = • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * s s tº ſº a ſº e º is tº tº tº dº ſº a g VOLUME I INTRODUCTION Page 5I Military policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Military policy, World War II . . . . . . 58 Military protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Militia, composition of the . . . . . . . . . 65 Munich pact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Mussolini . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 National Defense Act of 1916 . . . . . . 57 National Defense Act of 1920 . . . . . . National defense policy . . . . . . . . . . . . 3, 5 National Guard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2, 4 Neutrality Resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Officer candidate schools . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Officers, sources of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I8 Officers' Reserve Corps . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Organized Reserves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.I Orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Panay sunk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Philippine Insurrection . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Poland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Proposals of United States . . . . . . . . . 52, 53 Reception centers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3, 5 Registration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Regular Army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6o Regular Army Reserve . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Relations with Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Relationship: 3 Citizen to his government in gen- 6o eral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Citizen to his government in mili- 57 tary matters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Reserve Officers' Training Corps: 44 Basic laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , 58 Courses of instruction . . . . . . . . 62 Eligibility for membership 3 Government aided schools . . . . . . 3 Mission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Pay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Senior and Junior Divisions 57 Strength of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5I Supervision by War Department I5 Revolutionary War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rights of citizens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Rome-Berlin Axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Russo-Finnish War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Russia-German Pact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Scope of course . . . . . . * * * * * * * * * * 15 Selective Training and Service Act of 28 I940: . . . . . . . . . , • - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 27 Advisory board for registrants I 2 Amendments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Appeals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Boards of appeal . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Civil functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3 Classification and selection . . . . . . I5 Delivery and induction . . . . . . . . 28 Directory of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Elements of the system . . . . . . . 1009 . 1010 INDEX INTRODUCTION.—Continued Page Fixing quotas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - 52 . Resolution of Congress . . . . . . . . . Government appeal agent . . . . . . 50, 52 Service Extension Act-1941 Important features . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Induction stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Who may volunteer . . . . . . . . . . . Local boards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Service Extension Act of 1941 . . . . . . e & Spanish-American War . . . . . . . . . . . . Medical advisory boards . . . . . . . . 51 Strength, potential military . . . . . . . . . Operations of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Treaty of Versailles broken . . . . . . . . Provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Voluntary military service . . . . . . . . . Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 War of 1812 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Reception centers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 War Message of President on Japan . Registration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 World War I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Replacement training centers . . . . 55 World War II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MILITARY COURTESY AND DISCIPLINE Calls of courtesy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Cards, calling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Courtesies, personal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Courtesy: Calls of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Personal courtesies . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Saluting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Titles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Uncovering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Visits to war vessels . . . . . . . . . . 84 When not to salute . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Courts-martial, customs at . . . . . . . . . . 87 Customs of the service: Calls of courtesy . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Courts-martial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Display of flag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 General rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Messes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Miscellaneous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Pay table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Social functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Titles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Discipline: Attainment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Importance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Relationship, superiors and sub- ordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Flag, display of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Funerals, courtesy at . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Messes, customs at . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pay table, customs at . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Personal courtesies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Relationship, superiors and subordinates Sleeve ornamentation: Coast Guard officers . . . . . . . . . . Naval officers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Social functions, customs at . . . . . . . . Titles, use of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Uncovering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Visits to war vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MILITARY SANITATION AND FIRST AID - Abdomen, treatment for pain in . . . . I29 Army Regulations on control of vene- real diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 2 I Arterial hemorrhage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 23 Artificial respiration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 30 Asphyxiation, first aid for . . . . . . . . . ‘I 30 Bathing facilities, improvised . . . . . . . . 95 Bedbugs, control of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II 3 Biological sources of disease . . . . . . . . 99 Bites, first aid for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I34 Bleeding, control of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I33 Body, care of the . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 Burns, first aid for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I33 Capillary hemorrhage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 23 Carrier, definition of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - I OO Causes of disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 Chlorinating water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Io9 Choking, first aid for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 Communicable diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 Compound fracture: Definition of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Treatment of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Contact, definition of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1oo - Control of communicable diseases . . . . . . Cooperation, line with medical officers Corps of Engineers and health measures Electric shock, first aid for . . . . . . . . Environmental preventive measures Epidemics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Experience of a man wounded in battle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Eye, removal of foreign body from . . Fainting, first aid for . . . . . . . . . . . . . Feet, care of the . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . First aid, standard rules of . . . . . . . . First aid packet . . . . . • - - - - - - - - - - - - 99 93 92 I33 I O2 95 I37 , I34 130 Fleas, control of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Flies, control of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Food control and protection . . . . . . . Fractures, treatment of . . . . . . . . . . . . Freezing, first aid for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Frost bite, first aid for . . . . . . . . . . . . Gas poisoning, first aid for . . . . . ‘. . . . Geographical sources of disease . . . . . . Dislocations, treatment of . . . . . . . . . . Dog bite, first aid for . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 I22 I25 II4 II.4 Io9 127 I33 I33 I32 99 128 I34 INDEX 1011 MILITARY SANITATION AND FIRST AID—Continued Page Drowning, first aid for . . . . . . . . . . . . I3 I Health measures: Corps of Engineers and . . . . . . . . 92 Medical Department and . . . . . . . . 92 Quartermaster Corps and . . . . . . 92 Responsibility for . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9I Health preservation, military impor- tance of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 Health and vitality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I O I Health warnings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I O I Heat exhaustion, first aid for . . . . . . I 33 Hemorrhage, control of . . . . . . . . . . . . I 23 Historical records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 Hygiene: Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9I Personal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 Relationship to sanitation . . . . . . . 9 I Incubation period, definition of . . . . . IOO Individual interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - 93 Individual resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I OO Insect bites, first aid for . . . . . . . . . . . . I 34 Insect borne diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99, II 4 Insect control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II 4 Inspection, physical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98, 120 Intestinal diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99, IO4 Intoxication, first aid for . . . . . . . . . . I 32 Iodine, use for purification of water . 109 'Isolation, definition of . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 OO Lice, control of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II 5 Measures to improve health . . . . . . . . 94 Medical Department and health meas- uſeS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 Medical inspectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 Military hygiene, definition of . . . . . . 9 I Military objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 Military sanitation, definition of . . . . . 9I Mosquitoes, control of . . . . . . . . . . . . . II.4 Mouth, care of the . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 Personal hygiene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 Poisons, first aid for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 35 Potable water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IO4 Precautions in case of fire . . . . . . . . . . 133 Prevention of communicable diseases . . 99 Preventive measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IOo MILITARY ORGANIZATION.—GENERAL Adjutant General's Department . . . . . . I53 Aides, personal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Air corps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152, 154 Air Council . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 Air Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I52, 154 Air Force Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 50 All Elements Important . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 I Armament, effect on size of organiza- tion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 Armies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . e 157 Armies, organization of . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 "Armored Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I70, 172 Armored Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 Arms, combat, role and mission of . . 1 5 I Arms and Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 5 I Army Air Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I47, I52, 154 Army Ground Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 *Army, Units of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 * Page Prophylactic stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 21 Prophylaxis: Chemical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 20 Specific . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IOI Prostitution, control of . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 19 Protection of water supply sources . . . Ioé Purification of water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I of Quartermaster Corps and health meas- uſeS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 Resistance, individual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I OO Respiration, artificial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 30 Respiratory diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98, Ioz Responsibility: For health measures . . . . . . . . . . . 9I For personal hygiene . . . . . . . . . . 94 For venereal disease control . . . . . I 16 For water supplies . . . . . . . . . . . . IO5 Rules for avoiding disease . . . . . . . . . . 97 Sanitary code of the Army . . . . . . . . 92 Sanitation: Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9I Purpose of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9I Scalds, first aid for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I33 Sex hygiene, education in . . . . . . . . . . I2 I Shock, treatment for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 Shoes, fitting of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 Simple fracture, definition of I27 Snake bite, first aid for . . . . . I34 Socks, fitting of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 Sources of disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 Splint, definition of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 27 Sprains, treatment of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 28 Sunstroke, first aid for . . . . . . . . . . . . I 32 Suspect, definition of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I OO Thermal accidents, first aid for . . . . . . I 32 Transmission of communicable diseases 99 Transportation of sick and wounded . . I35 Unconsciousness, first aid for . . . . . . . . I 30 Venereal diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99, I 16 Venous hemorrhage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 23 Wastes, disposal of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I IO Water requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IOS Water supply and field purification IO4 Wounds, first aid treatment of . . . . . I 2.2 Assistant Chief of Staff . . . . . . . . . . . . I43 Assistant Secretary of War . . . . . . . . . I 42 Assistant Secretary of War for Air . . . I42 Basic Principals of Organization I61 Battalion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I66 Brigade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I66 Bureau of Public Relations . . . . . . . . . I42, I 44 Cavalry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I5 I Cavalry Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169, 172 Chaplains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I54 Chemical Warfare Service . . . . . . . . . . I53, I54 Chief of Staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 43 Coastal Frontiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 , Coast Artillery Corps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I52, I55 Coast Defense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 52 Combat arms, role and mission of . . . . I5 I Combat zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 Command, chain of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 1012 INDEX MILITARY ORGANIZATION-GENERAL–Continued Page 162 162 163 161 158 I66 I40 I57 156 I54 158 157 I43 I66 I54 172 I52 I54 164 I43 I43 162 172 I51 165 I53 I53 I 44 I54 I 43 172 157 165 I40 165 I44 I54 Organization: y of Army Air Forces . . . . . . . . . . . of Army Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . of Army Ground Forces . . . . . . . . Definition of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Military . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . of Services of Supply . . . . . . . . . Tactical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Territorial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Organized Reserve divisions . . . . . . . . Personnel Division (G-1) . . . . . . . . . . Platoon * * * * * * * * * * * * * * s a • * * * * * * * * * Policy, national . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Quartermaster Corps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rank, insignia and order of . . . . . . . . Regiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Relationship staff to commander Secretary Secretary Section Services: of War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . of the General Staff . . . . . . . * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * tº 8 tº a Arms and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Functions of the of • * * - - © tº - - - - - - Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Signal Corps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Special Squad Staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . e = e º e º ºs e e º e s e º ºs e º 'º e a e º e s is e e Squadron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Square division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Supply Division (G-4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tactical Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Task force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Territorial organization . . . . . . . . . . . . Theater Theater of operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . of War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Triangular division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Under Secretary of War . . . . . . . . . . . . War Council . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . War Department . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . War Department General Staff . . . . . . War Plans Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Zone of LEADERSHIP I the interior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Commanders: Assistants for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Duties of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Relationship of staff to . . . . . . . . Commissioned officers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Communications zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Congress, powers of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Corps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Corps, areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Corps of Engineers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Defense Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Departments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Deputy Chiefs of Staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . Divisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Engineers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Field Army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Field Artillery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Finance Department . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . General Function of Staff . . . . . . . . . . General of the Army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . General Staff, War Department . . . . . General Staff with troops . . . . . . . . . . . Group of armies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Infantry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Insignia of rank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Inspector General's Department . . . . . Judge Advocate General's Department Legislative and Liaison Division Medical Department . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Military Intelligence Division (G-2) . . Motorized Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . National Guard divisions . . . . . . . . . . Noncommissioned officer, grades of Obligation of citizens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Officers, grades of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Operations and Training Division (G-3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ordnance Department . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Acumen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Alertness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ambition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Augmentation of qualities of leadership Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Capacity for leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . Common sense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Control in battle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Courage, moral and physical . . . . . . . Decision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dependability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Development of qualities of leadership Diligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Discipline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Drill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Earnestness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Emulation instead of imitation . . . . . Endurance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18O 182 182 178 182 183 I74 18O I73 181 181 181 178 18o 177 178 18o 176 181 180 Enthusiasm Fairness Health Honor Humor Impartiality • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * a * * * * is e º 'º e º 'º - tº e a tº e e º e º e e º o a tº e º 'º e º 'º - e. e. g. t = • e º 'º e º e s a a e º e • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * tº e < * * * * * * * * * * * g e º 'º e º e • s s e s a s e e s a s e s - e. e s - a s s a Influence of leader . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Initiative Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Judgment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Justice Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Leadership versus dominated . . . . . . . Loyalty Manner Manual * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * tº e º 'º • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * s is e º e º a e e dexterity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Organization for leadership . . . . . . . . . Patience • * * * * s is e º a s tº e º e s tº e º e º a tº a sº º Perseverance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Presence s º ºs e s & e º & © e º e º ºs e s e º ºs e º 'º e º e 164 I39 I53 165 I66 163 I40 I43 164 I51 I53 150 I55 163 164 166 167 I44 I61 172 158 158 158 I68 I42 I42 I40 I43 I44 16o 18o 180 I 81 181 182 18o 176 180 I73 180 18o 183 176 178 181 182 I74 182 181 181 INDEX 1013 LEADERSHIP I—Continued Page. Page Presence of mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 Skill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I82 Prudence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 Qualities of leader . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176, 178 Study of leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I73, I'74 Relationship, officers and enlisted men 178 Tact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 Reliability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 81 Teamwork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 Resoluteness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I73, I 77 Responsibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I8O Truthfulness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I81 Self-control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 Uprightness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I81 Simplicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 Vision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I8o HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF ARTILLERY “Big Bertha" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2OO Smokeless powder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 Boer War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . r 20 O Spanish War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I99 Cannon U. S. Field Artillery Bombards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 Civil War, to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 Civil War, after . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 Invention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 Changes, 1916 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 Light artillery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I9 I Colonial period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 Periods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 developments, 1920-40 . . . . . . . . . 209 Carriages, semi-rapid fire . . . . . . . . . . . 198 Field and Coast separated . . . . . . 207 Civil War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 97 Field Artillery School . . . . . . . . . 207 Crimean War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 France, training in . . . . . . . . . . . 208 Franco-Prussian War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I97 Germany, War with . . . . . . . . . . 208 Frederick the Great, reforms . . . . . . . . 1 93 Mexican War, to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 French 75-mm gun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 99 Motorized regiment, first . . . . . . 208 Grifeauval's, reforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I93 Revolutionary War . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 Gustavus Adolphus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I92 reorganization, 1901 . . . . . . . . . . . 207 Napoleon and artillery . . . . . . . . . . . . I94 reorganization, I92O . . . . . . . . . . . 209 g reorganization, I 940 . . . . . . . . . . . 2 I O Motor traction * g º gº gº g & ſº º ſº e s tº tº tº gº º ºs e tº 202 Spanish-American War . . . . . . . . . 207 Pershing, Caliber Board . . . . . . . . . . . 2O I War I 81.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 Revolutionary War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I94 War of 1812 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I94 Shrapnel, invention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 Waterloo to Civil War . . . . . . . . . I 97 MAP READING Azimuth: Direction by bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 Back-azimuth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 I Distance: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 Circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228, 229 Converting march time to . . . . . . 226 Measuring a map . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 Converting to march time . . . . . 226 Measuring with a compass . . . . . . 249 Determining in the field . . . . . . . 256 Plotting on map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 Measuring by road . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 Back-azimuth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 I Measuring on map . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 Bearings, direction by . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 With map measurer . . . . . . . . . . 224 Classification, military maps . . . . . . . . 2 I I Elevation: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 Compass, magnetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 Determining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 Lensatic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248,249 Of important features . . . . . . . . . . 236 Prismatic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248, 249 Of point above top contour . . . . 237 Watch . . . . . . . .". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 Fraction, representative . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 Contouring, logical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 Geographic coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 Contour interval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 Geographic Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 Contours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 Graphic scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223, 226 Approximate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 Grid azimuth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233, 235 Conventional signs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 I 3, 2 I 5 Grid-magnetic azimuth adjustment . . 234 Coordinate card . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 I Grid square . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22O Coordinates: Grid system, national . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 On 5ooo-yard grid maps . . . . . . 222 Projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2I2 Geographic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 Mercator's . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2I3 Grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22O Polyconic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2I3 Polar ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 I 9 Protractor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229, 23 I Rectangular . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220, 258 Rectangular coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . 221, 258 Critical points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257, 258, 259 Relief . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 Declination ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 Representative fraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 1014 INDEX MAP READING—Continued Page - Page Resection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232, 255 Terrain structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 Scales: Time, march . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 Graphic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223, 226 Time-distance scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 Time-distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 Visibility: Words and figure . . . . . . . . . . . . - 226 By computation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 Signs, conventional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2I3 By hasty profile * @ 4 & 8 ſº e º e º & & © & & 243 Slopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 By inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 Symbols, special military . . . . . . . . . . 2I4, 219 By profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 Terrain feature terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 Words and figure scales . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 PHYSICAL TRAINING Advice to instructors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 Mass commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 Allotment of time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 Mass soccer football . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3I4 Aptitude of men . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 Master of the ring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3I2 Arm exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 I Medicine ball gap throw . . . . . . . . . . . 3I4 Arrangement of lesson . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 Medicine ball relay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3IO Attention, position of . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 Mount ball . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3I2 Back-to-back lift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308 Milling the man . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3I2 Back-to-back push . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308 Necessity for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 Back-to-back tug . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309 Neck exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 Balancing exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 Obstacle course . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 Breathing exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306 Obstacle race . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3IO Bull in the ring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 2 One-armed tug . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 Cage ball . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3I4 One-man pull . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309 Cane wrestling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 One-man push . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309 Caterpillar race . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 3 Overhead ball relay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 IO Centipede relay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 O Paul Revere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 I 3 Circle games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312 Pig-a-back relay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 I Circle race . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 I3 Posture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 Circle tag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3I 2 Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 Cock fight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 Combined exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294 Pursuit relay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 II Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 Relationship with military training 261 Condition of men . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 Relay games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286, 309 Conduct by instructor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 Rescue relay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3IO Contests: Rests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 Conducting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 Rifle exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 Personal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308 Roman wrestle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309 Coordinating exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 Rooster fight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309 Corrective exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 Rope tug-of-war . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3I.3 Disciplinary exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280, 291 Rules for health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 Down-and-up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 IO Schedules: Drake flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309 For recruits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27I Follow the leader . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 I 3 For trained soldiers . . . . . . . . . . . 272 Football passing relay . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 I Setting-up exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281, 291 Formations for exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 Shoulder exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 Games: Six-day bicycle race . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3II Conducting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 Size of class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 IO Sprint relay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3IO Hand wrestle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309 Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 Hints to instructors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 Starting positions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 Human tug-of-war . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 I 3 Swat to right . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3I2 In-and-out . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 II Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 Indian wrestling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308 Three deep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3I2 Instructors: Throws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3I2 Advice to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 Time, allotment of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 Conduct by . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 Trunk exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29I, 292 Hints to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 Unif f 6 Jumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312 nitorm for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 Leg exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292 Voice for giving commands . . . . . . . . . 267 Lesson, arrangement of . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 Volley ball . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 I5 Marching exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307 - Wheelbarrow race . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 Marching tag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 Wrestle royal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315 INDEX 1015 DISMOUNTED DRILL Page Page Battalion and Regiment . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 dismiss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335 Column, with battalions . . . . . . . 350 formations, more than one squad 333 commands, orders . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 march . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335 dismiss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350, 352 open and close ranks . . . . . . . . . . 336 formations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 position individuals . . . . . . . . . . . 334 form, in line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349 shelter tents, to form for . . . . . . 336 form, regiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350 to form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335 general . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 Position of soldier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326 halt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352 Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323 march . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 I Recruits, grouping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326 staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 Salute, hand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328 Battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338 Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323 aline, to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342 Squad, the . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330 columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343 change direction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333 form, to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339 close interval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332 dismiss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 I column of twos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333 drill, rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338 count off . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332 first sergeant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338 dismiss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332 Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326 form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323 march toward flank . . . . . . . . . . . 332 Eyes, right or left . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 march to flank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332 Halt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328 march to oblique . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332 Instructor, duties of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326 take interval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333 Physical training, formation . . . . . . . . . 352 normal interval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332 Platoon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333 Step, half, side, back . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329 column of twos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336 Quick time, double . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328 composition and formation . . . . . 334 Inark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329 CEREMONIES Escorts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365 battery, gun or howitzer, horse . . 372 . ...” • * * g e º 'º - tº s - e. : i.y, gun or howitzer, motorized 373 Oſlor, mOll ſited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367 attalion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375, 377 standard, of mounted . . . . . . . . . . 365 combat train . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374 standard, of dismounted . . . . . . . . 366 personal field equipment . . . . . . 376 Funerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367 P regimental . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375 * - arades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363 arrangements, preliminary . . . . . . 37 I ceremonial 363 aviation, participation . . . . . . . . . 371 ceremonial, special ... º 363 cannon, salute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371 Street 365 Ceremony, grave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369 Reviews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367 commander ............. . . . . . . : chapel. SČIV1Ce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367 decorations, presentation . . . . . . . 362 chaplain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371 elements 55 Cremation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370 formations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 6 elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367 lute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355, 35 * guns, Salute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359 escort, dismounted . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368 inspection 358 i. mounted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369 march in review . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360 owers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371 music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359 service, not chapel © tº 4 & e < * g e s - 370 presentation, honors . . . . . . . . . . . 358 shipment, remains . . . . . . . . . . . . 371 preparations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355 Inspections ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372 reviewing party . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358 battery, dismounted . . . . . . . . . . . . 375 ruffles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359 STANDARDS AND GUIDONS Definitions * * * * * * * e º 'º - º º Aº º e º e º ºr 379 Regimental standard, salutes by . . . . . 371 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379 Salutes not rendered . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381 Guidon, uses, design, color . . . . . . . . 383 Standard, dismounted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381 dismounted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384 Standard, mounted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382 mounted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384 Use and care . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38o 1016 INDEX INTERIOR GUARD DUTY Page * Page Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388 sentinels, standard . . . . . . . . . . . . 393 Details and Rosters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 I2 Sergeant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 I Fixed Post System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 II * * ~ * strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389 Guard Mount, formal, informal . . . . . 402 Miscellaneous * * * * * * * * * * * * e s e º & v e < * 40 I Main guard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389 civilian watchman . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40I buglers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393 º orders * * * * * ... . . . . . . . . . . . . 402 commander of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390 ag, raising, lowering . . . . . . . . . 40 I composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389 & gun, saluting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402 corporal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392 Prisoners and guards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389 Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387 forming . . . . . de gº & e º e a e s is e º e º e e 3. Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388 : ..." … ; special guards ..................... 397 orders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394 battery, stable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398 patrol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389 detailed when . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397 prisoners, to turn out . . . . . . . . . . 394 herd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398 privates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393 others, duties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 regulations, relating to general park, motor, tank, battery . . . . . . 399 orders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395 Pll ſpoSČ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397 reliefs, to post . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394 stable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398 TèSČIVe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389 System, general . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388 INDIVIDUAL EQUIPMENT AND TENT PITCHING Clothing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418 Leather, care of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417 Equipment, officers', warrant officers' 422 Metal parts, care of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418 enlisted mens' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425 R ibility f dismounted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 I esponsibility Ior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4I7 display for inspection . . . . . . . . . 438 Tents, shelter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44I mounted packing . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434 Web equipment, care of . . . . . . . . . . . . 418 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF BALLISTICS, DISPERSION AND GUNNERY AND EFFECT OF PROJECTILES Ammunition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445 - fork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459 Ballistics, exterior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450 range, probable error . . . . . . . . . . 458 curve of security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455 Gunnery, elementary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470 definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450 definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470 firing tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457 five . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471 to 486 fuze setter, action of . . . . . . . . . . 456 numbers, as announced . . . . . . . . 47I range, corrector, site changes, ef- origin and transmission . . . . . . . . 471 fect of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456 terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470 rigidity of trajectory . . . . . . . . . . . 457 Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471 time fire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455 Mathematics, elementary . . . . . . . . . . . 46o trajectory, form of . . . . . . . . . . . . 452 angles, defined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460 types. of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ;... . . . 453 angle, determining size of . . . . . 461 variation, from standard conditions 455 angles, kinds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461 Ballistics, interior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447 angles, measuring . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468 functioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447 general . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460 projectile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449 mil . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465, 467 propelling charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449 trigometric l relations . . . . . . . . . . 467 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445 Proi . . ar per * * * * a s a 2 a. 465 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445 *. effect Of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ; Dispersion, elementary . . . . . . . . . . . . 458 chemical shell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489 application of dispersion . . . . . . . 459 HE shell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487 errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458, 459 penetration s e e s e e s & & tº dº º ºs s tº a s e e 486 INDEX 1017 SERVICE OF THE PIECE SECTION 1 75-MM GUN, M1897 (HORSE-DRAWN) AND 75-MM GUN, M1897A4 (TRUCK-DRAWN) Page Page Accuracy in laying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502 Firing, suspend . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567 Action, preparing for; truck-drawn . . 503 Firing Jack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587 Action, preparing for; horse-drawn .. 523 Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492 Aiming Stakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565 Gunner, duties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535 Ammunition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508 Gunner, reminders for No. 1 . . . . . . . . 55I Barrel, breech, firing mechanism . . . . . 582 Gunner, reminders for No. 2 . . . . . . . . 555 Brake, mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586 Gunner, reminders for No. 3 . . . . . . . . 558 Brake, to raise and lower . . . . . . . . . . 563 Gunner, reminders for No. 4 . . . . . . . . 561 Cannoneers, posting, mounting, dis- Gunner, reminders for No. 5 . . . . . . . . 561 mounting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494, 495, 497, 507 Gun squad, posts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494 Carriage, parts of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587 Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577 Carriages, movements by hand, coupled March order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508 or limbered . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498 Materiel, care and maintenance of . . . 570 Chief of section, duties . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532 Misfires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567 Collimator sight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562 Recoil mechanism, dismounting . . . . . 578,585 Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492 Sight Lines, use of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562 Correction, lateral displacement . . . . . . 566 Sighting, Fire Control, equipment 589 Data, changes during firing . . . . . . . . 567 Slides, cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584 Definition and terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492 Trail, to shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563 Equilibrators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585 Trail logs, platform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566 Errors, reporting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567 Trunnion Bearings, care of . . . . . . . . . 585 Extension bar, use of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562 Uncoupling and Coupling . . . . . . . . . . 50I Fire, at will . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563 Unlimbering and Limbering . . . . . . . . 5I2, 519 Fire, individual sections . . . . . . . . . . . . 564 Unloading piece . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567 Firing, cease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567 Wheels, bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585 SECTION 2 75-MM HOWITZER HORSE- AND TRUCK-DRAWN Action, preparation for . . . . . . . . . . . . 604 Firing, suspend . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617 Aiming stakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617 Gunners, duties of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61o Ammunition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618 Individuals, duties of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606 Cannoneers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598, 599, 600 Laying, accuracy in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616 Carriage, parts of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623 Lateral displacement, Correction . . . . . 617 Chemicals, protection against . . . . . . . 621 Limbering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 602 Chief of Section, duties of . . . . . . . . . . '608 Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619 Cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619 Misfires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618 Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597 Movement, of pieces by hand . . . . . . . . 6oo Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604 Posts of squad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598 Crew, duties of . . . . . . . . . . . 612, 613, 614, 615 Recoil mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 621 Data, changes in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617 Sighting, fire control equipment 624 Data, section board . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618 Tube, breech, firing mechanism 622 Errors, reporting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617 Uncoupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603 Fire, at will . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616 Unlimbering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601 Firing, cease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617 Wheels and brakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603 Firing, individual sections . . . . . . . . . . 616 Wheels, firing from . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618 SECTION 3 105-MM HOWITZER M2, TRUCK-DRAWN Accuracy in laying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645 Breech and Firing Mechanism . . . . . . 652 Action, to prepare for . . . . . . . . . . . . . 632 Cannoneers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628, 629, 633 Ammunition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 646 Chemicals, protection against . . . . . . . . 648 Aiming Posts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645 Chief of section, duties . . . . . . . . . . . . 636 Barrel Assembly and Slides . . . . . . . . 650 Cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647 Brake Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655 Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627 1018 - INDEX 105-MM HOWITZER M2, TRUCK-DRAWN–Continued Page Page Data, charge during firing . . . . . . . . . 646 Inspection, materiel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647 Displacement correction . . . . . . . . . . . . 645 Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648 Elevating mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654 March, order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 634 Equilibrator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654 Materiel, care, maintenance . . . . . . . . 647 Errors, reporting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645 Misfi 646 Firing, cease, suspend . . . . . . . . . . . . .t 646 usnres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627 Pieces, coupled, uncoupled . . . . . . . . . 630, 631 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e º 'º e º 'º e º 'º -> 636 Recoil, difficulties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651 Gunner, duties of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 638 Recoil mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 650 No. 1, duties of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 641 Section data board . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 646 No. 2, duties of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 642 Sight, Fire Control Equipment . . . . . . 655 No. 3, duties of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643 Squads, posts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628 No. 4, duties of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643 Squads, to post . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628 No. 5, duties of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , 643 Trunnion, cradle bearings . . . . . . . . . . 654 No. 6, duties of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644 Unloading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 646 No. 7, duties of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644 Wheels, bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654 SECTION 4 155-MM HOWITZER M1918A1, TRUCK-DRAWN Action, rear, to execute; to prepare for 662 No. 3, duties of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 672 Aiming stakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 676 No. 4, duties of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 673 Ammunition, care of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 678 No. 5, duties of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 673 Ammunition Corporal . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663, 675 No. 6, duties of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 674 Barrel Assembly, Breech, Firing Mech- No. 7, duties of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 674 anism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 683 Lateral Displacement, Correction . . . . 677 Brakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 685 Laying, accuracy in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 676 Cannoneers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 660, 661 Lubrication, chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68o Carriage, misc. parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 686 Malfunctioning, breech, firing mechan- Chemicals, protection against . . . . . • . 681 ism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 684 Chief of Section, duties . . . . . . . . . . . . 666 March order, to execute . . . . . . . . . . . . 664 Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569 Misfires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 678 Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665 Pieces, uncoupled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 662 Data, changes in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 677 Recoil mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68I Errors, reporting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 677 Section data board . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 679 Firing, cease, suspend . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 677 Sight Extension Bar, use of . . . . . . . 676 Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569 Sighting Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 686 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 666 Squad, posts; to post . . . . . . . . . . g 4 & 660 Gunner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663 Trail logs, platforms . . . . . . . . . . tº s & 677 No. 1, duties of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671 Uncoupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 662 No. 2, duties of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 672 Unloading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 677 SECTION 5 155-MM GUN M1 AND M1918 Accessories, to load, MI . . . . . . . . . . . 704 Data Board, section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 736 Action, prepare for M1, M1918 . . . . 698, 711 Equilibrators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749 Action, rear, M1, M1918 . . . . . . . . . . 695, 705 Errors, reporting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 734 Aiming Posts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 733 Firing, cease, suspend, general data Ammunition, care of M1, M1918 . . . . 736 changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 718, 735 Ammunition Corporal . . . . . . . . . . . . . 732 Firing position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 706 Barrel, M1, M1918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 742, 757 Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 689 Brakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 705 Gun, traveling position . . . . . . . . . . . . 703, 717 Cannoneers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691, 692, 699, 713 Gun, place in firing position . . . . . . . 695 Caterpillar Bands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 693,694 Gunner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720, 721 Carriage, MI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 697, 703, 743, 758 No. 1, duties of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 724, 725 Chemicals, protection against . . . . . . 739, 753 No. 2, duties of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 725,726 Chief of Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 718 No. 3, duties of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 727 Cleaning, M1, M1918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 738, 750 No. 4, duties of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 728 Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 689 No. 5, duties of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 729 Couple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 704, 717 No. 6, duties of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 728 Cover, over-all, M1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 736 No. 7, duties of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 729, 730 INDEX 1019 155-MM GUN M1 AND M1918—Continued Page Page No. 8, duties of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 730 Position, preparation for . . . . . . . . . . . . 734 No. 9, duties of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 731 Posts of the Gun Section . . . . . . . . . . . 690 No. 10, duties of . . . . . . . . . . . . . 731 Recoil mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 739, 754 Nº. #. : º * * * s is a s s e a s s & 7sº Recoil Pit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 709, 715 Gun Cover e & © e s = e º ºr 695, ź. Sighting equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 746, 759 Lateral Displacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 733 Spades • * * * * * * * * g e º ºs e e º e e º a 696, 698, 702, 704 Laying, accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 733 Spring, to unshackle shackler . . . . . . 709, 715 Limber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 702, 716, 746 Trails, spades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 698, 708 Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 738, 750 Travel, prepare for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700, 713 Misfires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 735 Uncoupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 695 Piece, to secure M.I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 701, 714 Unlimbering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 697, 707 Platforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 734 Unloading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 735 ANTITANK WEAPONS SECTION 1 g CALIBER .50 MACHINE GUN Accessories, spare parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . 774 Gun Equipment, to examine . . . . . . . 776 Barrel Extension, assembling, disassem- Gun, to put into action and operate 777 to 783 bling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 768 History, general data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 761 Bolt, assembling, disassembling . .767, 768, 771 Link Loading Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . 774 Bolt Latch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 772 Loading, locking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 772 Brush, cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 774 Marksmanship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 783 to 787 Care, cleansing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 769 Oil Buffer Body, assembling, disassem- Case, cleaning rod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 774 bling, action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 768, 771 Cocking action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 772 Recoiling parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 771, 772 Crew, to form; change numbers, duties 776 Rod, cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 775 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 761 Stoppages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 773 Driving Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 772 Target speeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 789 Feeding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 772 Technique of fire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 790, 791 Functioning, general . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 771 Trigger action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 771, 772 Groups, removal of, replacing . . . . . . 765, 766 Wrench, combination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 774 SECTION 2 THE 37-MM ANTITANK GUN Accessories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 812 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 793 Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 817 to 831 Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 805 Ammunition . . . . . . . ; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 812 Marksmanship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 831 to 841 Assembling, disassembling . . . . . . . . . . 8oo Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 802 Breech . . . . . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 808, 809 Precautions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 807, 814 Care and cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 804 Recocki 8 Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 793 ecocking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 09 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 795 Recoil cylinder, filling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 808 Field targets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 849 Recoil mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 809 Fire, determination initial data, orders, Safety Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8Io conduct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 842, 844,845 Stoppages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8Io Firing, before, during, after . . . . . . . . 806, 807 Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 807 Firing exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 851 Subcaliber Mount . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8II Garrison use . . . . . ... • * e < * * * * * * * * * * * * * 807 Technique of Fire, general . . . . . . . . . . 841 1020 INDEX MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION SECTION 1 GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF CANNON Page Page Breech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 861 to 864 Elevating mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87o Buffer, counterrecoil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 870 Equilibrator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87o Built-up Guns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 858 Line of Sight, independent . . . . . . . . . 871 - - Mobile Mounts .". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 865 Carriage accessories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 872 - Carri 86 Obturation; DeBange Obturator . . . . . 864 arriages . fi s = • * * * s is e e s - e º e º & e º 'º - " - 8 5 Recoil mechanisms, brakes . . . . . . . . . . 866 Cannon, defined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Recuperator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 868 Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 857 Rifling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 857 Cold Worked Guns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 860 Subcaliber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 860 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 857 Traversing mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87o Cradle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 866 Wire Wound Guns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 858 SECTION 2 . THE 75-MM GUN Ammunition, general, etc. . . . . . . - - 897 Fuzes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 900 to 906 Authorized rounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 900 Lamp, aiming posts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 890, 893 Breechblock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 876 Quadrant, gunners, range 893, 894 Care, ammunition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 900 - 3. 3 * ****5 - - - - - - - - - - - - 5 Carriages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 876 to 889 Sight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 896 Data, guns, carriages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 875 Telescope, mounts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 890, 892 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 876 Weight Zone Markings . . . . . . . . . . . . . 897 SECTION 3 THE 75-MM HOWITZER Ammunition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 926 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 907 Authorized rounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 Lamp, aiming post . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 923 Axle, wheels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 915, 920 Pack Howitzer MIAI . . . . . . . . . . . . 908 to 913 Brake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 920 Propelling charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 927 Carriages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9I4, 9 I 9 Quadrants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 925 Cradle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 915, 9 I 9 Recoil mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9I4, 9 IQ Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 907 Rockers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9I5 Elevating mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 919 Sight Bore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 925 Equilibrators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9I5, 919 Sleeve, Aiming Post . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 926 Firing Base, lock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 920 Sleigh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 916 Firing Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 926 Telescope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 923 Fuzes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - 92 Trails . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 915, 916, 919 SECTION 4 THE 155-MM HOWITZER Ammunition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 943 Howitzer Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 938 Breech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 930, 933 Limber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 938 3. * * * * * * * * * * e s a • * * * * * * * * * * * 6 º: Projectile . . . . . . 945 aſſlage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 934, 930, 937, 93 - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 929, 930 Propelling charge * c e s e a s e º 4 e º 4 e º e s a 945 Elevating mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 940 Quadrant Sight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 I Firing mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 933, 934 Recoil mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 940 Fuzes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 943 Traversing mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . 940 SECTION 5 OTHER CALIBERS French 155-mm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 947 Characteristics . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 959 Axle, spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . .* * * * * * * * * 956 Counterbalancing mechanism . . . . . . . . 949 Breech mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 947 Cradle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 949 INDEX 1021 OTHER CALIBERS–Continued Page Emplacement, permanent . . . . . . . . . . . 959 Sighting Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Firing, traveling positions . . . . . . . . . 947 Top carriage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Housing, firing mechanism . . . . . . . . . 948 º 3. Trails, spades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 947 g g Limber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 956 Traversing, elevating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Recoil, recuperator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 950 Wheels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . THE 8-INCH HowITZER Ammunition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96o Prime movers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Barrel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96o Range, elevation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Breech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96o Recoil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fire, rate of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 960 Sighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mounting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 960 Traverse . . . . . . . . . . . . . THE 240-MM HOWITZER Ammunition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97I Frame, erecting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ballistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97I Loading Platform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Barrel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 964 Mounting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Breech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 964 Percussion mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Car, rammer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 970 Platform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Carriage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 961 Recoil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cradle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 970 Sleigh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Data, general . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 971 Top carriage * a s e º 'º e º e º º ºs º ºs º º s e Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 961 Transport vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 971 Weights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SECTION 6 Description and Materiel Operation Groups, description of Sighting Equipment Ammunition THE 105-MM HOWITZER e is a tº 3 & 8 as a tº M2 and M2AI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . breech mechanism carriage, M2 data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * # * * g e º s º sº e = e º & © e º & e º te e º º brakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . breech mechanism drawbar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . electrical connection firing mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . strut mechanism, carriage traveling lock, carriage traveling lock, trail * * * * * * * * e º ºs e º tº º s & e a s g g g g º 'º tº 9 * * * * * * * * * * * * breech mechanism carriages howitzers laying, direct laying, indirect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . light, aiming post mount, telescope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . panoramic telescope procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . quadrant, gunners quadrant range * Gº & © tº º & E & g º º gº & tº º as tº sº º & e º ºs e º ºs e e s e s e s tº a s g g s charge propelling classification e e º & g º sº e s : * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 975 fuzes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 975 general . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 975 identification, marking . . . . . 975 packing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 975 1 os-mm Howitzer Carriage MIAI 979 data, general . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98o description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 979 equilibrator, dismounting . . . . . . . 98o equilibrator, mounting . . . . . . . . . 98o operation, carriage . . . . . . . . . . . . . 979 operation, cradle lock . . . . . . . . . 979 telescope mount . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 979 Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98o firing tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 981 nomenclature lists, standard 981 publications, explanatory . . . . ; 982 Military Organization, Field Artillery . 981 ammunition trains . . . . . . . . . . . . 984 artillery, division, corps, army 987 GHQ reserve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 987 battalions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 984 batteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 984 brigades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 992 classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 987 general . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 993 gun squad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 989 introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 994 platoons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 996 regiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 994 sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96o 960 96o 960 960 97 I 970 962 968 970 968 968 97o 970 971 994 994 994 996 997 997 997, 998 998 997 997 998 IOOO IOO I IOOO I OO I Ioog Ioo? IOO4 Ioos Ioos Ioo3 I004 I004 ‘Ioo3 Ioo? IOO4 Ioos IOo3 VOLUME II LEADERSHIP II CONTENTS Paragraphs Chapter I, General Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . • , s = e = . . . . . a. s = * * * * * * * * * 1-10 Chapter II. Hints to the Drill Instructor . . . . . . . . . * - 4 + 11-25 CHAPTER I GENERAL PRINCIPLES 1. Introduction. The study and practice of leadership in the military service are con- tinuing and progressive activities for the individual who aspires to successful command of men in peace or war. Except for those inherent qualities of character which all of us possess to a greater or lesser degree, no one can expect to know initially or be able at once to follow the principles of leadership until he has made a study of history, an observation of others, and has finally, through his own experience developed a system of sound guides for leading men in the accomplishment of a common purpose. 2. Principles of Leadership. In any endeavor it is well to possess such guides as may be available, and to use them toward the end we seek to attain. Certain fundamental truths can be stated with regard to the subject under study which are of marked service as such guides. These truths, or principles, have usually been derived from past human experience and have heen so tested and proven as to be accepted by all. A statement of such a truth should be undeniable; it should be such as to be readily admitted without ques- tion. For example, to state that surprise in battle is essential to victory is not always un- deniable, for battles have been won wherein the loser was not surprised, but was, perhaps, hopelessly outnumbered or outclassed in fighting ability. But it cannot be denied that he who takes his adversary unawares invariably stands a greater chance of succeeding, Conversely, he who is surprised by an action of his opportent thereby suffers a diminution of his chances of success. So we have a sort of equation, or proportion, in which the chance of success in an undertaking varies directlv as to some of the factors involved and inversely as to some of the others. We can, then, examine the subject of leadership in the light of such a proportion, equating successful leadership with the various factors which influence its attainment. For example, there is an ideal number of subordinates, under a given set of circumstances, with whom the leader can best deal. So we can say that the more nearly the number whom the leader actually controls approaches that ideal. the more efficient will be his and their performance of the task to be undertaken. Likewise, it is axiomatic that the more devoted the leader is to the interests of his men, the greater will be their loyalty to him and the more effective will be their cooperative effort toward the attainment of the desired goal. In this manner all the qualities of the leader and all the characteristics of the follower may be keyed to the standard of perfection in execution, with the resulting statement that all the almost innumerable principles of leadership serve as guides in both the study and the practice of leadership. This is true in the military service as well as elsewhere. 3. Basis of Command. Tactical organization for command is based on the progressive formation of successive groups, the smallest group consisting of the maximum number of individuals which can be successively controlled by one person, each successive group containing the maximum number of the next lower groups which can be controlled by one person. The efficacy of command is fundamentally based on intimate personal contact between the commander and his troops. As the size of the command increases, the prob- lem of personal contact becomes increasingly difficult, but loses none of its importance. It is as vital to the general who commands a division, a corps, or an army, to keep in personal touch with the command on the battlefield, on the march, and in camp, as it is for the squad leader to keep in personal touch with the members of his squad. 4. Principles of Command. The exercise of command produces individual or collective ! FA2 (1) Photo by 81&nal Corps, U. S. Army GENERAL U. S. GRANT LEADERSH HIP || 3 military action or non-action on the part of the subordinates, regardless of the will of the latter. A commander of an organization or unit is its controlling head, and, subject to orders from a proper superior, he is responsible for everything the command does or fail: to do, individually and collectively. It follows, therefore, that the commander of an organization must make his authority felt and cause his will to be obeyed by each in- dividual member of his command. In the smallest unit this authority is exercised in person by the commander, who gives orders to and exercises supervision over each member of the unit. But as units increase in size, personal direction and supervision of each in- dividual are impossible, and resort is accordingly had to a system of organization, by means of which the commander, dealing directly with only a few subordinate commanders and they in turn with their subordinates, reaches every individual in the command. All orders and instructions from a higher unit for a subordinate unit are given to the com- mander thereof, and all orders and instructions for the subordinate unit emanate from its immediate commander. By this means alone authority and responsibility are definitely fixed and the channels of command definitely established. The succession of subordinate com- manders through whom a given commander exercises his authority and control is known as the chain of command. The first or basic link in that chain is the squad leader. 5. Ideal Unit Strength. Experience has shown that there are upper and lower limits to the number of individuals with whom one man can deal efficiently. These limits vary according to the capabilities of the leader and the led, and according to the myriad sets of circumstances and conditions which obtain for a given relationship. In the mili- tary organization individuals are grouped first into squads, then into sections, platoons, companies, and higher combinations. The squad leader deals directly with an average of five or more individuals, the section leader with several squad leaders, and the platoon, company, and higher commanders with a correspondingly small number of next sub- ordinate leaders. In general, it will be observed that few, if any, higher leaders deal directly with more individuals than does the squad leader himself. His task is representative of that confronting the commanders of all higher echelons, and its importance should therefore be fully recognized. In fitting himself for that task, and in every aspect of its performance, he is developing himself and his capabilities toward a better accomplishment of leader ship in the higher echelons of organization. 6. Variable Squad Strength. The squad is the normal basic unit. It is composed of from five to twelve men. However, this strength is not essential, either to the performance of movements on the drill field or to the effective conduct of operations in combat. Move- ments in the school of the soldier and the manual of arrns, and, within certain limits, movements of the squad and larger units, or gun drill in the artillery, are independent of the strength of the squad. In combat, moreover, it is the quality of the individuals and the capabilities of the leader, rather than the prescribed strength, which produce the desired results. The squad leader should, therefore, be able to exercise his control over the group of individuals normally assigned to his unit. The leader who stands helpless in the face of an inevitable variation in the numerical strength of his unit, on either the drill field or the battlefield, definitely lacks the adaptability necessary to good leadership. 7. Permanent Squads Desirable. It is desirable in military organization that men be grouped into permanent squads under permanent leaders as soon as the progress of their instruction and training allows. The leader can then be held responsible for the instruc- tion and conduct of his men. They in turn begin to develop that sense of unity and cooperation which is so essential to the smooth and efficient functioning of an organiza- tion. It is the duty of a company commander to select and appoint good men as non- commissioned officers and then to work through them. Control on the drill field is not difficult, but in battle effective control is possible only when the squad, section, and platoon leaders have been properly trained to shoulder their responsibilities and have thereby developed in the members of their units perfect confidence. The personnel of the squad should be changed as little and as seldom as possible. It is the backbone of military organization. However, each man must be trained in the duties of every other member of the squad. To this end, rotation in position and assignment within the squad should be constantly practiced. 8. The Squad Leader The squad leader is a part of, rather than apart from, his unit. 4 LEADERSHIP II His knowledge and training must become theirs. The first requisite in the leading and training of his squad is the leader's complete knowledge of the details of the task. The attainment of this knowledge requires thorough and constant study, and then careful and intelligent practice until that knowledge is an inseparable part of the leader's being. It is neither possible nor necessary for a general to know every detail of every task and every weapon of each arm of the service which goes to make up the complex organization which he commands. But the squad leader must know, and know better than any member of his squad, every detail of the duties, the equipment, and the employment of his unit and of its component parts. He should possess this knowledge so thoroughly that he can employ it on the drill field or in combat without reference to a book of regulations. Next to a proper knowledge of his duties, the squad leader must develop the ability to impart that knowledge to the members of his squad by proper methods of instruction. 9. Scope of the Squad Leader's Effort. An examination of the tables of contents of the several volumes of the Basic Field Manuals for the various arms, will indicate clearly the extensive field of technical training with which even the squad leader must ulti- mately be familiar. These include: military courtesy, salutes, honors, and discipline; personal hygiene and first aid; equipment and clothing; physical training; map reading and conven- tional signs; military and panoramic sketching; aerial photograph reading; defense against chemical attack; marksmanship with the rifle, automatic rifle, pistol, machine gun, mortar. and 37-mm gun; antiaircraft marksmanship; bayonet; hand and rifle grenades; technique of rifle fire; combat practice firing; fire control instruments; interior guard duty; dis- mounted drill; mounted drill of cavalry and field artillery; standing gun drill for seacoast artillery, antiaircraft artillery and field artillery; horsemanship; maintenance and care of motor vehicles, etc. To qualify progressively in thorough familiarity with the details of this complex militayr curriculum and in the art of successfully qualifying others, and of then controlling efficiently their performance of the capabilities thus acquired toward a desired goal, is the essence of good leadership. In the learning and practice of this art, the squad leader lays the basis for his future development as an effective leader of the section, platoon, company, and higher unit. The methods of instruction and training he learns to use and uses for the squad at drill have their equal application in all the higher echelons. It is well, then, to consider what these methods should be. 10. Disciplinary Value of Drill. Discipline in the military service is not unlike discipline in any other line of endeavor, but it is more important. It has bcen variously defined as: “A spirit which causes men to put forth their best efforts in carrying out the will of their commander;” “that mental attitude and state of training which render obedience and proper conduct instinctive under all conditions.” It has its foundation in respect for and loyalty to properly constituted authority. All military drills of precision contribute to the development of discipline. It is manifested by smartness of appearance and ac- tion; cleanliness and neatness of dress, equipment, and quarters; respect for seniors; and prompt and cheerful execution by subordinates of both the letter and the spirit of the legal orders of their lawful superiors. CHAPTER II HINTS TO THE DRILL INSTRUCTOR 11. Planning a Drill Period. The individual conducting drill instruction should have in mind a definite and progressive plan, prepared in advance. Close order drill should not be allowed to become tiresome. The period should therefore be reasonablv short, from one-half hour to an hour in length. An hour period should be interrupted by a 5 to 10 minute rest period, and all drill periods should contain frequent short rests, especially in hot weather. - Planning should be continued during the drill, and the leader should think ahead at least one movement in order to have a minimum of simple marching and a maximum number of other movements. It is a common fault of inexperienced drill leaders to march a unit for a considerable distance while trying to decide what movement to have next. Planning LEADERSHIP II 5 also involves a careful estimate of the ground to be used, especially with a view to insuring proper footing and adequate space for the completion of the movement ordered. 12. Neatness of Appearance. Cleanliness of person and neatness of dress create and sup- port a desirable feeling of self-confidence and contribute to the snap and pride which characterizes a good military organization. The leader should set the example in appearance and should require his men to maintain a high standard in this respect. He should explain the reason for this, and the relationship between cleanliness and neatness, and pride, self. respect, and efficiency. - 13. Good Manners. A drill instructor who does not exhibit good manners on the drill field cannot obtain as satisfactory results from his men as does one whose manners are pleasant, other conditions being equal. Sarcasm, vulgarity, profanity, are all to be avoided, as well as any manifestation of assumed superiority or undue familiarity. Patience is a valuable asset, and a tendency to lose one's temper, even though there appears to be justifica- tion therefor, is a handicap. Any display of annoyance at what may seem to be stupidity or slowness in learning or awkwardness in performance should be avoided. Consideration and helpfulness will produce effective results. When an individual makes a mistake, it is also a mistake for the instructor to resort to such expressions as “Where are vou going?” “What are you doing there?” “Didn't I tell you not to do that?” “Don’t go to sleep there.” Such exclamations, whether aimed at an individual or to the unit as a whole, can do no possible good, and only cause confusion, embarrassment, and resentment. Spare the men all unnec- essary annoyance and hardship. Avoid marching them through mud and water when a possible change of direction will move them over good ground. If called away from the squad, the leader should leave them at ease, unless he is turning them over to another. The leader should save his men from avoidable mistakes. Proper intimation of what is next expected of them can be given by suitable cautions, warnings, or the manner in which preliminary commands are given. Failure on the part of the leader to observe such a pro- cedure makes the mistakes chargeable to him, and divorces him in spirit from the unit of which he should be an integral part. The free and frank admission by the instructor of the mistakes which he himself makes occasionally will serve a good purpose and will expedite training. No human is infallibly correct, and any pretence at being so will detract from the leader's necessary prestige. He should, however, use every care to keep the number and seriousness of his errors at a minimum. - - 14. Position of the Instructor. While the positions and routes of movements of the leader in the performance of the drill itself are prescribed in regulations, as an instructor or to rectify mistakes and insure steadiness and promptness in the ranks, the leader moves and places himself as he considers necessary for such purposes. The position of the instructor with reference to his unit is a matter of great importance. He takes position where he can best control his men and observe such mistakes as may occur. Such position he must learn by observation, experience, and common sense. He should be far enough away and in such a position relative to his unit as to be able to see all of his men, but close enough to detect mistakes and to be heard by all when he gives commands or makes explanations without unduly raising his voice. Inexperienced instructors often have a tendency to get too close, so that they cannot see all of the men or observe what the unit as a whole is doing. On the other hand, a careless instructor often allows his unit to get too far away from him, usually because he is too lazy to keep up with it. He is thus unable to observe the details of the movements or to detect mistakes. The details of individual movements can often be detected only at close range. They should be taught where the instructor can be close by. While making explanations, the instructor should be in front of his unit and facing it. at such a distance that all the men can see and hear him. A like position is preferable and appropriate when giving commands at a halt. If the unit is marching in line, the instructor may be on one flank, either slightly in rear so that he can see and be heard, or slightly in front so that by turning his head somewhat he can also see and be heard. When the move- ment is toward a flank, he should be on that flank so that he can there best observe the most probable mistakes. - 15. Applicatory Method of Instruction. Close order drill, as well as most other subiects of military training, usually may best be taught by the applicatory method. This method 6 LEADERSHIP II consists of five steps: preparation, in which the instructor plans the work to be accom. plished in a given period and perfects his knowledge of every detail of the pertinent regu. lations; explanation, in which the instructor describes, explains, and analyses the move- ment concerned; demonstration, in which the proper movement is illustrated by actual performance by a selected and suitably trained individual or unit, if available, or, if one is not available, then, under the instructor's supervision, by such personnel as is available; application, in which the individual or unit under instruction executes the movement; and examination, in which the ability of the instructed individual or unit is tested. During the next to the last and last steps, any mistakes are corrected, with appropriate explanation. An essential part of any explanation is the giving of the reasons for the movement and for any restrictions or special precautions to be observed. The American, especially, likes to know the reason for everything that he is required to do. This is a characteristic of intelligent obedience as against blind, unreasoning compliance. There is a proper reason for every detail prescribed in the regulations, and the instructor should know and explain it. He should anticipate the men's desire for the reasons, as often the actual question “Why?" may not be asked, though the desire for the knowledge is present. 16. Explanations. Long explanations or speeches should be avoided; descriptions and explanations should be brief and clear. Unnecessary volubility is tiresome, dull, and arouses resentment. Explanations or instruction should seldom, if ever, be given while the squad is marching, or after the issuance of a preliminary command. During an explanation or instruction the men should be at ease, but the instructor must be at attention, just as he should always be at attention when his men are at attention. Instructions or explanations should be so worded that the least apt individual in the unit will understand. Among the common faults of instructors are: talking too fast, using words which the men do not under- stand, and directing explanations toward those possessing the best perception instead of toward those whose minds are less Guick and who therefore need assistance the most. A ood drill instructor will try to imagine himself in the place of the men in ranks and ask §. “Are my explanations simple and clear?” “Is there something more I can do or say that will convey my meaning better?” “Why was that mistake made?” Such self-questioning will often suggest new and better methods of instruction. If a preliminarv command for a movement has been given, it is better to allow the completion of the movement than to interject an explanation. If this cannot be done, then As you were should be given. Too frequent resort to this expedient, however, creates an impression that the leader's knowledge of the drill is not as complete as it should be and thus causes the men to lose confidence in his ability to instruct. 17. Avoiding Mannerisms. The leader should continually exercise vigilant control over his own manner and actions in order that little mannerisms which may detract from his military presence may not develop into unconscious habits. For example, he should avoid excessive or unusual swinging of one or both arms while at drill, using the hands to assist in explanations except when necessary, walking to and fro while giving explanations, and placing the hands on hips or in the pockets. While the squad is marching or marking time, the leader should do likewise, in step with the men. Peculiarities of diction, often inten- tionally cultivated in imitation of others, are apt to become ludicrous, and should be avoided. 18. Giving Commands. The precision and snap with which drill is performed depends very greatly upon the manner in which the commands are given. No single factor con- tributes more directly to the success of close order drill than properly given commands. The best trained unit makes a poor showing in the hands of a leader who cannot give commands correctly. If the commands are given in a careless, hesitating, or drawling manner, they are usually carried out in the same spirit. On the other hand, if they are given correctly, dis. tinctly, and forcefully, the resulting drill will be correspondingly good. 19. Distinctness. Every word of a command should be so distinctly pronounced that it can be readily understood by one who has never before heard that command. The en- tire command as formed in the throat should be allowed to come out unobstructed by the lips or teeth. The mouth should be opened sufficiently wide to allow the sound to emerge freely. Some instructors make strenuous but unsuccessful efforts to be heard and º º: - --> - - -> º -- --- - - - - - - - - - ----- -º-º-º-º-º: º: ------- --~~~~ --~~ --~~~~ -- --~~~~ ------- ----- -º-º: - º º --~~~~ --~~~~~~ º --- - - - |-- º --------- - - º º º - - --~~~~ GENERAL ROBERT E LEE Photo by Signal Corps. U. S. Army. 8 LEADERSHIP II understood, when less physical effort and more care in enunciation would produce satis- factory results. The caution to speak distinctly and enunciate each syllable clearly is particularly applicable to those commands, given at a distance, in which some words tend to sound alike. 20. Preparatory Command. Each preparatory command should be enunciated clearly, with a rising inflection at the end and with such a modulation that the command of execu- tion can be more energetically sounded. The pitch of the preparatory command should be as nearly as possible that of the normal speaking voice, and that of the command of execution a little higher. Some instructors have a tendency to pitch the preparatory com- mand so high that passage to a higher pitch for the command of execution is difficult. The same tendency occurs with respect to the relative forcefulness of the two commands. In commands of more than one word, each word should be distinctly spoken, without slur- ring, and with the rising inflection on the final word. Actual practice in giving commands produces worth while results. - 21. Command of Execution. The command of execution should be given with an almost explosive emphasis which will tend to make men respond automatically. It should be sounded with a tone of finality and yet without the drawl which is apt to accompany a falling inflection. There should be a crispness which leaves no doubt as to exactly when the action is to take place. Although the command should be pronounced as nearly as written, some commands are improved by slight modification or elision. Bizarre, or un- necessarily warped pronunciations, should, however, be avoided. 22. Pauses. A definite pause should always be made between the preparatory command and the command of execution, and in general, such a pause should be of the same dura- tion in the same types of commands. After all, the purpose of the command is to procure the desired response, and if the command of execution follows too quickly for this, only con- fusion results. It is obvious that a too lengthy pause should, however, be avoided. 23. Cadence. By the cadence of a command there is meant the uniform and rhythmic timing of the interval or pause between the last, or emphasized, syllable of the prepara- tory command and the command of execution. A unit will not execute a given movement smartly and accurately unless all of the men in ranks understand the preparatory com- mand and know exactly when to expect the command of execution. If a drill leader uses a very brief interval at one time and a prolonged interval at another, he tends to confuse his men and take them by surprise. The inevitable result is a poor performance, and the fault lies not in the actions of the men but in the commands of the leader. • In general, the interval which gives the best results in movements resulting directly from the commands given, such as those of the squad in response to the command of the squad leader, is that which allows the planting of one foot between the preparatory command and the command of execution. However, in other cases, and even in the case cited, the interval should be lengthened enough to permit proper understanding of the movement to be executed. The interval should be measured exactly in the beats of the drill cadence. Since the regulations prescribe that commands for movements to the right when marching shall be given when the right foot strikes the ground, and for movements to the left when the left foot strikes the ground, great care must be taken to avoid the common tendency to give commands “on the wrong foot.” 24. Correction of Errors. Mistakes are never wholly avoidable, and since they will occur despite the most careful precautions, the leader should develop the ability to correct them properly. That ability is an important characteristic of good leadership. Three factors contribute to the proper exercise of corrective measures: perception of the error, knowledge and prompt application of the remedy, and considerateness in the corrective measure taken. Recognition of the occurrence of a mistake requires alertness and keen observation on the part of the leader. Not a single error of commission or omission should be overlooked. Remedial action should be taken at once, or as soon after the occurrence as practicable. Mistakes tend to repeat themselves, and if too often repeated will become fixed bad habits, sometimes difficult of eradication. The skill of the leader is shown not only in the prompt detection and correction of mistakes, but also in the manner of apply- ing the remedy. Loss of temper and an angry harangue seriously detract from the o LEADERSHIP II - 9 leader's prestige, waste time, and result in distractions, embarrassment, and resentment. Correction of errors should never take the form of continual nagging and fault finding, but should be made in a quiet, dispassionate manner, accompanied by some torm of en- couragement to do better next time. 25. Commendation and Encouragement. The leader should be sparing of reprimands, and such as are necessary should be administered in such a way as not to offend the self- respect and dignity of the individual to whom applied. With the right kind of men and the right kind of leader, commendation produces better results than censure. Therefore, if the individual or the unit performs a task well, prompt acknowledgment of that fact should be made. Appreciation of honest effort will produce even greater effort in the future. It is the improvement and the effort toward improvement, rather than the actual standard attained, that merits the most praise and encouragement. - Questions 1. Distinguish between “rule” or “doctrine” and the term “principle” as used in the text with respect to principles of leadership and of command. 2. Give additional examples of principles involving a statement of the increasing or de. creasing probability of successful leadership in terms of the qualities which a leader may possess or develop. 3. Assuming that the normal strength of the squad is indicative of the approximate number of individuals with whom one leader can best deal directly, can you give examples in which a considerably greater number of individuals is successfully controlled directly by one leader? Bibliography THE INFANTRY SCHool The Infantry School Mailing List, Volumes III, VI, XI, XIII, XIV, XV. VARIOUs AUTHORS Infantry in Battle, The Infantry Journal, Inc., 1934. WAR DEPARTMENT Army Regulations Training Regulations - Field Service Regulations, 1941 NAVY DEPARTMAENI Wavy Regulations Leadership: Military Character; (U.S. Navy Dept., Bureau of Navigation, Washington, D. C.) Janu- ary 1, 1931. ARTHUR H. MILLER Leadership (Knickerbocker Press, New York), - iQ 24). [..IN colN C. ANDREws Leadership and Military Training (J. B. Lippin- , ott, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania), 1918. Maj. GEN. J. F. C. FULLER Genc uship: Its Diseases and Their Cure (The \{ilitary Service Publishing Company) 1936. HERBERT HENSLEY HENson The Analysis of Leadership (Oxford University Press, London, England, Humphrey Milford), | 934. ( )knway TEAD ſh, Irt of J.eadership Col. E. L. KING Overseas Operations in the U.S.N.I. Proc., 1921. CoMDR. R. C. PARKER, USN Leadership in U.S.N.I. Proc., March 1921. CAPT. R. D. WHITE, USN Leadership in U.S.N.I. Proc., May, 1921. MAJ. GEN. J. F. C. FULLER Xenophon and the Art of War in The Royal Air Force Quarterly, Volume 4, 1933. LIEUT. R. H. STAN BRIDGE Psychology and Leadership by Flight, in the Royal Air Force Quarterly, Volume 4, 1933 ENsign R. F. Good, USN - - ! ruders n up of Men, in the U.S.N.I. Proc., July, 1921. 10 - LEADERSHIP II MAJor E. Lisle The Efficiency of an Army Depends Upon the Efficiency of its Leaders, in the Canadian Defense Quarterly, Vol. XII, No. 2, January, 1935. ADMIRAL ALBERT GLeaves, USN Leadership, in the U.S.N.I. Proc., January, 1932. John Buchan Lecture on Leadership, at the University of St. Andrews, 1931. A. W. BJornsrAD . Training Management, (Ralph Publishing Co., Omaha, Neb.), 1926. MAJoR E. L. MUNson, JR. Leadership for American Army Leaders (Infantry Journal) 1941. FIRE CONTROL INSTRUMENTS CONTENTS Paragraphs Chapter I. Introduction: General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2 Chapter II. Aiming Circle (M1918 Fr.) and M1 (New American) . . . . . 3-15 Chapter III. Aiming Circle (M1916 and M1916M1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16–25 Chapter IV. B C Telescope M1915 . . . . . . . . . . • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 26-36 Chapter V. Range Finder M1916 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-49 Chapter VI. Field Glass EE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50-59 Chapter VII. Prismatic Compass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60-68 Chapter VIII. Compass M2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69-76 Chapter IX. Optical Powers and Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77-82 Chapter X. Nonoptical Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83-93 Chapter XI. Care and Adjustment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94-101 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1. General. Optical fire-control instruments used in the field artillery are the aiming circle, battery commander's telescope, prismatic compass, range finder, and field glass. The principal nonoptical instruments are the alidade, plotting scale, protractor, straight- edge, plane table, time-interval recorder, steel tape, thermometer, and declinator. 2. Definitions. To understand the necessity for some of the features of these instru- ments, and their use, it is important to keep in mind the following: a. Compass (magnetic) north is the north direction indicted by the magnetic needle of a compass. b. Y-north (or grid north) is the north direction of the Y-line of a map or grid. c. Azimuth, for field artillery purposes, is the angle measured clockwise from magnetic or Y-north, as the case may be. (1) The Y-azimuth of any given line is the angle measured clockwise from Y-north to the given line. In commands to the executive of a firing battery, this direction is given as COMPASS (SO MUCH). (2) The magnetic azimuth of a given line is the angle measured clockwise from magnetic north to the given line. d. In general, the Y-north direction and the magnetic-north direction are not coincident. The declination constant of an instrument which has a magnetic needle is the clockwise angle from Y-north to the magnetic-north direction of the particular instrument concerned; this will vary for different localities and also for different in- struments in the same locality. To declinate an instrument means to determine the declination constant of the instrument. e. Compass instruments indicate azimuths only with respect to compass (magnetic) north. Therefore, to convert these readings to Y-azimuths, the declination constant must be applied to the compass reading. CHAPTER II AIMING CIRCLE, M1918 (FRENCH), AND M1 (NEW AMERICAN) 3. General. a. The aiming circle, M1918 (French) or M1 (New American), is an instrument for use in measuring angles in azimuth and site, and for simple survey work. These two aiming circles are similar in operation. Their slight differences in construction will be noted in this chapter. 11 12 FIRE CONTROL INSTRUMENTS b. The aiming circle consists of the aiming circle proper, the tripod, the instrument light, and the carrying case. 4. Aiming Circle (Plates 1, 2, 3, and 4). a. By unclamping the wing nut (Plate 1) the aiming circle proper may be rotated freely about, or removed from, the short vertical spindle whose lower ball-shaped end is mounted in a socket and secured by a clamping screw. º - º º º i- 3. -: º: u- O O ºl- |- ſº º - º º º --> 3.2 - Cº. - C. º 5 * - ºn º: º: C. - - -- T C. #5 - º - - - - - s - * º: º º *- – 2 * † º - 3 | # - º º º C. - - # - -> º |- - º - — = - --> E º º ** - C. º ºn tº - º G tº ºr B- - - º C - tº #3 - º º tº º º º - º C. b. Telescope. (1) The telescope is of the prismatic type, pivoted above the compass box, and moved through small vertical angles by the elevation knob. The eyepiece can be focused by rotation to suit the observer's eye. A glass window is fitted into the body opposite the reticle so that the lines and scales on it may be illuminated. A level is mounted on the telescope body. (2) The reticle of the M1918 (French) aiming circle contains a vertical mil-and- stadia scale. The mil scale is graduated, in 5-mil intervals, 100 mils on each side of FIRE CONTROL INSTRUMENTS 13 the normal line (zero). The use of the stadia scale (on the right) is not contemplated, and it is not found on some instruments issued. (3) The reticle of the M1 (New American) aiming circle contains a vertical and a horizontal mil scale. The scales are graduated, in 5-mil intervals, 85 mils on either side of the vertical and the horizontal lines. u º º º º - - - º - u- ſº º : ul *u : : - - --> * º: º ul º - C 5 º º +2 − 2. º - - - tº tº E Lº u º - - º- - º - º * G - - : c. On the lower dial is the azimuth circle, which is graduated into 64 equal spaces each representing 100 mils of angle, and numbered clockwise from 0 to 64. The M1 aiming circle has an additional scale graduated from 0 to 32, with its zero at the 32 mark on the 0–64 scale. At the 0, 16, 32, and 48 graduations, indexes are en- graved which are used in connection with the plateau scale attached to the upper portion of the mount. These indexes are used only to read deflections for the French (collometer) sight. - 14 FIRE CONTROL INSTRUMENTS d. On the upper dial is the plateau scale (Plates 2 and 7), which is used in conjunc- tion with the graduations of the French sight. It consists of a quadrant subdivided into 200-mil spaces, each halved—one half plain and the other cross-hatched. Also, in the center of the left-hand division of the plateau scale (see Plate 7) is an index for reading horizontal angles measured on the azimuth circle of the lower dial. - - - º - - - - - - º - - - - - - - - -- - * - º – º – = * * - º - " - tº º * - - ºn º º º ºf s - * - tº ºn tº dº º lu -- º ºf 3 º' * u, - C - d - - c. * : - - -u - T - - - - - - *- - ºu 3 tº º 5 = º º - -- º, - * * * ~ * > * - ºn e - ºn º * * c = Eº - > * > º º 5 * - * = ºr º + F * * = - º --> - * * * * * * : * ~ 3 - ºr * * - = ºn - E 3 º' - ºf = ºf 2 ſº- ºn 3 - - 3 * : * 5** = * : * ~ * = ºr T. tº º ºr º ºf - a - N - 3 ºf ºz º.º. -º- - - -> - - - - - - - ºn º \ - s: - -- Q # * º: - - : - º º us * : * - ºf - º º: º º: º º º ºu - - - --- * - 2 = - - - u - - -- - * - T. 5: - º * | * * * - - - * > - - - * * ºt - - u - 5 - 5 º' 9 º' ºn - | - - - --- º - * 5. - º: - - º º º 5: Elº 2 5 ºr ºf ººº. 2 º' - C # = 2 = ** = E = 3 5: ... tº º - * - º - - - is == -- - - - ºr * † º - - - - - - e. The azimuth micrometer (Plates 1, 3 and 7) is graduated into 100 equal spaces (numbered every ten) and contains two rows of figures. The outer row is numbered from 0 to 100; the inner row from 100 to 200. There are also two indexes—one on a clear space for reading the outer row, and one on a cross-hatched area for reading the inner row. The clear index is used for measuring azimuths. When using the plateau scale, if an index at graduation 0, 16, 32, or 48 points to the clear space, the 0 to 100 graduations on the micrometer are used for obtaining 1-mil readings; whereas FIRE CONTROL INSTRUMENTS 15 if an index points to the cross-hatched space, the 100 to 200 graduations are used. Where, within a plateau division, an index is exactly between the clear and the cross- hatched division, the micrometer reading is taken opposite its cross-hatched index. Where the index is exactly between two plateau divisions, the greater plateau reading is taken and the micrometer reading is taken opposite its clear index. f. Between the upper dial, which carries the plateau scale, and the telescope is a compass box containing a compass (magnetic needle) and a compass index. The com- pass needle may be clamped in position or released to rotate by means of the needle- release lever for the M1918 or the plunger (Plate 3) for the M1. º lens Field lens Reticule Porro prism erecting system Objective Plate 4. Optical System of Aiming Circle, M1918. g. The rotation of the entire aiming circle proper (both dials moving together) is effected by loosening the wing nut or orienting clamping screw (Plate 1) and re- volving the instrument freely by hand so as to point the telescope (line of sighting) in the approximate general direction desired. The wing nut is then tightened and the line of sighting pointed in accurate direction by turning the orienting knob (Plate 2). Thus, there is a fast motion to obtain general direction and a slow motion for accurate adjustment. When it is desired to move the aiming circle proper through relatively small angles, only the slow motion (orienting knob) is used. These two mechanisms, which move the entire aiming circle proper, are known and referred to as the lower motion. h. From an examination of Plate 7 it is evident that to measure horizontal angles the upper dial must be rotated while the lower dial remains fixed. A quick-release mechanism and the azimuth micrometer knob accomplish this. They are known and referred to as the upper motion. - i. Thus, the upper motion rotates as a unit the upper plate carrying the index of the azimuth scale, the line of sighting (telescope), and the compass box containing the needle and its index. The index of the needle and the index of the azimuth scale are coincident with the line of sighting. j. Below the eyepiece of the M1918 telescope, a prism is provided for magnifying the end of the needle and its index, to facilitate reading. k. Attached to the front of the compass box of the M1 instrument is a magnifier to , facilitate reading the position of the needle. l. A spherical level is provided for leveling. Between the aiming circle proper and the tripod is a ball-and-socket joint. This permits leveling and the clamping of the aiming circle proper in position by clamping screw (Plates 1 and 2). 5. Lighting Aiming Circle at Night. a. Instrument lights M2 and M4 (Plate 5). The instrument lights M2 (for the aiming circle M1 and M4 (for the aiming circle M1918), 16 FIRE CONTROL INSTRUMENTS are similar in design and method of use. Each consists of reticle unit, which may be attached to the left side of the telescope in position to illuminate the reticle; a finger light, attached to the battery case by a flexible cord, which is used to illuminate scales and bubbles of the instrument; and a battery case holding one BA-30 cell, which is provided with a clamp by means of which it is attached to a leg of the tripod. A toggle switch on the battery case turns the reticle and finger on or off simultaneously. A clip is provided on the side of the battery case for holding the finger light when Ilot 111 use. - plate 5. Aiming circle with instrument light. b. Care of instrument lights. When the instrument light is attached to the aiming circle, it should be habitually turned off, except when in actual use. When the in strument light is in its carrying case, remove the BA-30 cell from the battery case and place it in the clip provided for the purpose, as deterioration of the cell while in the battery case may so damage the case as to make it useless. FIRE CONTROL INSTRUMENTS 17 6. Tripod. The tripod is constructed of nonmagnetic metal and consists of three telescoping legs and the sliding vertical support which can be clamped in position by a clamping screw. 7. Carrying Case. The carrying case for the aiming circle consists of three parts: the case proper, which is of metal, approximately cylindrical in shape, and contains the aiming circle proper and the tripod; an intermediate member, which serves the dual purpose of providing a cover for the case proper, and providing stowage space for the instrument light; and a cover for the instrument light compartment. The intermediate member contains clips and brackets for the instrument light; the BA-30 cell from the battery case, and one spare cell; and a leather case in which are two spare lamps. 8. To Set Up Instrument. Extend the tripod legs and embed them firmly in the ground. Raise the sliding vertical support to the height desired and clamp by means of clamping screw; then level by means of the ball-and-socket joint and spherical level and clamp by means of clamping screw (Plates 1 and 2). To insure stability, the sliding vertical support should not be raised higher than necessary, preferably 6 inches or less, Grid north Oſ Y-north Compass north Grid north Oſ Y-north Compass | north Declination C On Std nt Declination CO In Std nt Plate 6. Declination Constant. 9. To Orient on Magnetic North. To orient on magnetic north, rotate the needle- release lever, or button, to permit the compass needle to swing free. Set the azimuth circle to zero and loosen the wing nut; then rotate the instrument until the needle agrees approximately with the index. Clamp with the wing nut and complete accurate setting of the needle on its index by means of the lower motion. This orients the zero of the azimuth scale on magnetic north. When so oriented, readings are taken by mov- ing the line of sighting with the upper motion and are known as magnetic azimuth. To obtain more accurate results, the mean of several readings to an object should be 18 FIRE CONTROL INSTRUMENTS taken, the needle each time being thrown off and centered anew on the index. If this mean is set on the azimuth scale and the line of sighting directed on the object, the 0-3200 line of the instrument points to magnetic north. n 10. To Declinate (Plate 6). Set up the aiming circle over a point from which several points of known Y-azimuth can be seen. These points should lie in different quarters of the compass. Level the instrument carefully. Set the scale at zero and center the needle. With the upper motion turn successively to the known points and record the readings. Check by continuing around to the first point read; if the readings on Hºm º s.r. 7| 5 3 6 4 2 Fig. 1 Fig. 2 One—Indexes for the azimuth scale and the Two—The Vertical #. is moved to the alm- micrometer are set at zero; the Vertical ing point, using the upper motion. The angle hair is laid on the target, * the lower measured (and the reading) is 780. The read- motion. The reading on the plateau Scale ing on the plateau Scale and micrometer is and micrometer is Plateau O Drum (micro- Plateau 8 Drum 80. meter) 100. . ~ º . : ; : ºf 3|3|Tººlá §§º: º º: Bºº, º: , - jº *...* . . . ; Fig. 3 Three—The aiming circle, proper, M-1918 (French). Plate 7. Scales of Aiming Circle, M1918. this point differ by more than 1 mil, the measurements are thrown out and the read- ings are made again. Subtract the compass reading (the mean of three readings) to each of the points from its known Y-azimuth. The average of the differences is the declination constant of the instrument. Record the value of the instrument. If the instrument is to be used in another locality, the declination constant again is de- termined for the new locality. 11. To Orient on Grid (Y) North (Plate 7, fig. 4). By means of the azimuth-worm knob set off the declination constant (par. 10) on the azimuth scale. Center the needle on the needle index by rotating the auxiliary azimuth-worm knob (lower motion). This orients the zero on the azimuth circle on grid (Y) north. 12. To Measure a Horizontal Angle (Plate 7 (1) (2)). Set the index of the azimuth FIRE CONTROL INSTRUMENTS 19 scale at zero by means of the upper motion and the micrometer. With the wing nut un- clamped, turn the head of the instrument in the general direction of one of the points (target), clamp the wing nut, and, sighting through the telescope, bring the vertical hair of the reticle accurately on the point by means of the lower motion. With the upper motion, which changes the settings of the azimuth scale, bring the vertical hair of the reticle on the other point (aiming point) to which the measurement is to be made. The reading of the azimuth scale and micrometer (780) is the angle { Fig. 4 Fig. 5 g Four—The declinań constant, 6350, is set Five—The vertical hair is now turned to the on the scales, and the needle is Centered, target (a small bush), using the upper mo- using the lower motion. The line of sighting tion. The reading is 5610—the clock-Wise is now on magnetic north; and the 0-3200 angle (Y-azimuth) from Y-north to the line is pointing at Y-north. target. Plate 7. Scales of Aiming Circle, M1918—Continued. AºA- • I º º º º & arºº ºº: 2×2 º' & / S-T. * J-T Fig. 1. M1918 (French). Fig. 2. M1 (New American). Plate 8. Measuring Site with the Aiming Circle. 20 FIRE CONTROL INSTRUMENTS desired. Had the aiming point been 780 mils to the left of the target instead of to the right, the reading would have been 5620 (6400-780). Thus the azimuth scale always indicates the clockwise angle from the 0-3200 line to the line of sighting. Before turning the telescope by means of the upper motion be careful that the wing nut is tightly clamped and while turning it, that the position of the tripod is not disturbed. 13. To Measure an Angle of Site (Plate 8). Level the telescope by rotating the ele. vation knob (Plate 2) until the bubble is midway between the graduations on the level vial; then, sighting through the telescope, note on the reticle the reading that is level with the object whose angle of site is desired. The reading to the base of the object shown in the reticle in Plate 8 is —20 mils. 14. Adjustment. To adjust the azimuth micrometer, rotate the instrument until the index coincides with a graduation on the azimuth scale; loosen the locking nut, and rotate the azimuth micrometer until the zero coincides with the index; then tighten the nut securely. 15. Care. When the instrument is not in use, lift the compass needle from the pivot by means of the needle-release lever or needle-release button. Do not dent the tripod legs. Questions 1. Why is the tripod constructed of nonmagnetic metal? 2. What is Y-Azimuth? 3. What is a milP CHAPTER III AIMING CIRCLE, M1916 AND M1916M1 16. General. The aiming circle, M1916 or M1916M1 (Plate 9), is an instrument for use in measuring angles in azimuth and site and for general survey work. It con- sists of the aiming circle proper, the tripod, and the carrying cases. The two models are generally the same except that the azimuth worm of the M1916 instrument has a knob at one end and a micrometer on the other end and the azimuth-worm throw-out lever is at the end of the worm toward the micrometer; for the M1916M1 instrument the azimuth worm has only a knob with the micrometer readings engraved thereon, and the azimuth-worm throw-out lever is located in proximity to the knob. 17. Aiming Circle. a. (1) The telescope is of the prismatic type with the optical system so arranged that the eyepiece is inclined normally 60° from the horizontal and can be rotated approximately 18° below and above this position by rotating the elevating- worm knob (1) (Plate 9). (2) It is provided with a reticle (Plate 10) graduated horizontally and vertically into 5-mil spaces, 25 mils on either side of the intersection of the diagonal lines, which inter- section indicates the optical axis of the telescope. . The outer horizontal graduations are numbered 25. The vertical lines begin at 25 mils from the intersection of the diagonal lines. The instruments of later manufacture have reticles containing a vertical mil and stadia scale (Plate 11). (3) The eyepiece tube is fitted with a glass window opposite the reticle for illumi- nating it when used at night. b. An angle-of-site mechanism is attached to and rotates with the telescope. The scale is graduated into six equal spaces, each representing 100 mils, and numbered from 0 to 6. The 3 graduation indicates the horizontal position of the line of site. The angle-of-site micrometer is graduated into 100 equal spaces, each representing one mil and numbered every 10 from 0 to 100. One revolution of the micrometer moves the angle-of-site index one space or 100 mils on the scale. This corresponds to the number of graduations on the micrometer. c. The cylindrical compass box containing the needle carries the azimuth circle. The needle-release button is provided for raising or lowering the needle on the pivot and can FIRE CONTROL INSTRUMENTS 21 be held down, to permit the needle to function, by rotating the needle-release button holder. A spherical level is housed in the raised portion of the needle-release mechanism. d. The azimuth circle is graduated into 64 equal spaces, each representing 100 mils and numbered from 0 to 64. The azimuth micrometer is graduated into 100 equal -- - NEEDLE RELEASE BUTTON – sºrºrical Level. NEEDLE RELEASE - AZMUTH Süß"Höß - MICROMETER ANGLE OF STEl - MICROMETER - - - - –WINDOW. *ZMUTH KNOE- PRISM sº º – - [. DAL Housing º º º KNoB (2)— * - VERTICAL SPINDLE KNoe (3)-- VERTICAL SPINDLE 2 cl AMPING LEVER Locking clame ARM VERTICAL sºld E. " BUSHING Locking SCREW & CHAN Plate 9. Aiming circle, M1916. º i 3. - 990 Plate 10. Reticle Graduations, Plate 11. Verticle Mil and Stadia Scale, Aiming Circle, M1916. Aiming Circle, M1916. - spaces, each representing 1 mil and numbered every 10 from 0 to 100. One revolution of the micrometer advances the azimuth-circle index one space or 100 mils, which corresponds to the number of graduations on the micrometer. e. The azimuth-worm throw-out lever, when rotated and held, disengages the azimuth- 22 FIRE CONTROL INSTRUMENTS circle and needle mechanism. With the azimuth worm engaged and the wing nut loosened, free rotation of the instrument is obtained. Rotation of the orienting worm knob ( (3) Plate 9) rotates the spindle upon which the instrument is mounted; by this means fine adjustment is obtained for orienting purposes. f. The lower portion of the vertical spindle inserted into the tripod head contains a ball-and-socket joint, which is used in conjunction with the spherical level, as a means for leveling. g. You obtain horizontal motion of the aiming circle by two principal means, the lower motion and the upper motion. The lower motion consists of two parts, the fast motion and the slow motion. Fast motion for large changes is made by loosening the wing nut and turning the head about the spindle. Slow motion is obtained for ac- curate work by turning the orienting-worm knob ( (3) Plate 9). The upper motion consists of two parts, the fast motion and the slow motion. You obtain fast motion by use of the azimuth-worm throw-out lever, and slow motion by turning the azimuth knob. The readings on the scales of the instrument remain unchanged when the in- strument is turned by means of the lower motion. Movement by means of the upper motion changes the reading of the scales. 18. To Set Up Instrument. Extend the tripod legs to the desired height. Grasp two legs, one in each hand. Place the third leg in the direction you plan to sight and embed all the legs firmly in the ground. (If on a hillside, place two legs downhill.) Place the aiming circle on the vertical spindle, and clamp by means of the wing nut. Level by means of the ball-and-socket joint and spherical level, and clamp by means of the vertical-spindle clamping lever. 19. To Read Magnetic Azimuths. a. Rotate the needle-release button holder to allow the needle to swing free. b. Loosen the wing nut and rotate the instrument until the needle marked N approxi- mately coincides with the north index on the compass box; tighten the wing nut, and bring the needle and index to coincide exactly by means of the lower slow motion. The 0-3200 line of the aiming circle then indicates magnetic north. c. With the upper motion, turn the intersection in the reticle to any object; the reading on the azimuth and micrometer scales is the magnetic azimuth from the in- strument to the object. - d. Declinate this instrument as prescribed for the French aiming circle. (Par. 10) 20. To Read Y-Azimuths. a. Proceed as for magnetic azimuths, then add the dec- lination constant of the instrument; the sum is the Y-azimuth. b. To read Y-azimuths directly. (1) Lay the 0-3200 line of the aiming circle on magnetic north as in a previous paragraph. With the upper motion, measure the angle to some auxiliary point; to this angle add the declination constant, and with the upper motion set the sum on the scales; with the lower motion lay the intersection in the reticle back to the auxiliary point. The 0-3200 line of the aiming circle is now on Y-north. (2) With the upper motion turn the intersection in the reticle to any object; the reading on the azimuth and micrometer scale is the Y-azimuth from the instrument to the object. 21. Measurement of Distance by Stadia Scale. To measure distance approximately by means of the stadia scale, a white rod with black bands exactly two yards apart is held upright at the point the distance to which is desired. Rotate knob ((1) Plate 9) until the infinity mark coincides with the lower mark on the rod; the graduation indi- cated by the upper mark is the distance to the point. One thousand yards is the greatest distance that can be measured with a 2-yard rod. 22. To Measure a Horizontal Angle. With the upper motion, set the indexes of the azimuth and micrometer scales at zero. With the wing nut unclamped, turn the head of the instrument in the general direction of one of the points (target), clamp the wing nut, and sighting through the telescope, bring the intersection in the reticle accurately on the point by means of the lower slow motion. With the upper motion bring the intersection in the reticle on the other point (aiming point) to which the measurement is to be made. The reading of the azimuth and micrometer scales is the angle desired. Be FIRE CONTROL INSTRUMENTS 23 careful that the wing nut is tightly clamped before turning the telescope by means of the upper motion, and, while turning it, that the position of the tripod is not disturbed. 23. To Measure an Angle of Site. Turn the elevating-worm knob until the inter- section in the reticle is exactly on the point whose angle of site is desired. Level the angle-of-site bubble by means of the angle-of-site worm knob ( (2) Plate 9). The reading on the site and micrometer scales will be the required angle of site. 24. Adjustments. To adjust the azimuth micrometer, rotate the azimuth-micrometer locking screw and rotate the micrometer until the zero coincides with the index; then tighten the screw. The angle-of-site scale and micrometer are adjusted in the shop so that when the index indicates 3 and the micrometer 0 the line of site is horizontal. To adjust the angle-of-site micrometer, set the index to coincide accurately with the 3 graduation, loosen the angle-of-site micrometer retaining screw, and rotate the micrometer until the 0 coincides with the index; then tighten the screw. 25. Care and Preservation. Before inserting the instrument in its carrying case, cover the objective prism by rotating the prism cover downward. Raise the compass needle from the pivot by rotating the needle-release button holder until the needle- release button is free. Be careful that the vertical spindle is not dented, marred, or otherwise damaged. Questions 1. Why is it necessary to embed the tripod legs firmly? 2. Explain the difference in action of the lower motion and the upper motion. CHAPTER IV BATTERY COMMANDER'S TELESCOPE, M1915 26. General. The battery commander's telescope, M1915 (BC scope), is a binocular observing instrument. It is primarily an instrument for the observation of fire, but is habitually used also for measuring horizontal and vertical angles in the calculation of firing data. It consists of the telescope proper (Plates 12 and 13), mount, tripod, and carrying cases. 27. Telescope, Proper. a. The telescopes are mounted on a common pivot, free to rotate laterally from the vertical to a horizontal position. They can be locked by the telescope clamp knob. The telescopes are placed in the horizontal position for stereoscopic vision; in the vertical position, for periscopic vision. º (1) Both telescopes contain similar optical systems (Plate 14), so arranged as to space the eyepieces approximately 12 inches from the objective prisms. The distance between the objective prisms is about ten times that between the eyepieces when the tele- scopes are horizontal, which causes the objects viewed to be brought into strong relief, unless too far distant. (2) The telescopes, rotating about a common hinge, permit adjustments, for inter- pupillary distance; a scale, graduated every 2 millimeters from 60 to 70 for both the vertical and horizontal positions of the telescopes, permits the observer to set for the spacing of his eyes when the interpupillary distance in millimeters is known. (3) The eyepieces can be focused independently for each eye by screwing them in or out, and are provided with a diopter scale for rapid setting when the observer knows the correction for his eyes. The zero graduations are the settings for normal eyes. If you are to use an instrument regularly, note the reading on the diopter scale and on successive trials with scope use the same setting at the beginning to save time. (4) The right-hand telescope contains a reticle (Plate 15) bearing a horizontal and a vertical line, forming a cross which indicates the optical axis of the telescope. Above the horizontal line are two short lines spaced 3 mils apart, which are for use in noting the height of burst. Horizontal graduations at 5-mil intervals 30 mils on each side of the vertical line also are provided. The reticle can be erected to suit the position of the telescope by rotating the reticule adjusting ring. (5) Ray filters are supplied for use when observing into the glare of the sun or a 24 FIRE CONTROL INSTRUMENTS searchlight, and are attached to the eyepieces by pushing the split ends over the eye guards. 28. Azimuth Scale. a. When mounted on the azimuth mount, the telescope has a movement in elevation and azimuth and is controlled by the elevation and azimuth worm knobs. The amount of elevation or depression can be read on the angle-of-site mechanism attached to the telescope mount. The azimuth mount of the BC scope is assembled integrally with its tripod for carrying, but is discussed here as being an operating com- ponent of the telescope proper. The lower end of the elevation worm wheel contains a hole and tapered seat for mounting on the spindle of the azimuth mount, and is retained in position by the locking plunger. – ELEMATING KNOE TELESCOPE CLAMPING - KNOE –LOCKING PLUNGER ORIENTING KNOE- CLAMPING LEVER - FOR BALL AND SOCKET JOINT ORIENTING CLAMPING- KNOE TRIPOD LEG CLAMPING- LEVERS Plate 12. Battery Commander's-Telescope, M1915. b. The azimuth circle is graduated into 64 equal spaces, each representing an angle of 100 mils and numbered from 0 to 64. c. The azimuth micrometer is graduated into 100 equal spaces, each representing 1 mil and numbered every 10 spaces from 0 to 100. One turn of the micrometer advances the azimuth index 1 space (100 mils), which corresponds to the number of graduations on the micrometer. 29. Angle-of-Site Scale... a. The angle-of-site scale is graduated into 6 equal spaces, each representing an angle of 100 mils and numbered from 0 to 6. The 3 graduation indicates the level position. FIRE CONTROL INSTRUMENTS 25 b. Similarly the angle-of-site micrometer is graduated into 100 equal spaces, each representing 1 mil and numbered every 10. One turn of the micrometer advances the angle-of-site index 100 mils, which corresponds to the number of graduations on the micrometer. c. When rotated and held, the throw-out lever disengages the azimuth worm from the teeth on the worm wheel, permitting free rotation of the upper portion of the mount which carries the telescopes and azimuth index. With the azimuth worm engaged and ANGLE OF SITE KNOE MicroMETER –- SCALE-º-º: - º RETICLE ROTATING RING AZMUTH (i. Knoe ºnterpupil LARY scALE THROWOUT LEVER–º º MicroMETER ººº- scal_E ". . Fºres SCALES Plate 13. Battery Commander's Telescope, M1915. the azimuth clamp loosened, free rotation of the entire mount and telescope is obtained. Rotation of the azimuth adjusting worm knob causes movement of the azimuth circle and the upper portion of the mount, by which means fine adjustment is obtained for orienting. - 29. Mount (Plates 12 and 13). A ball-and-socket joint on the lower portion of the azimuth mount when used in conjunction with the spherical level attached on the top of 26 - FIRE CONTROL INSTRUMENTS the mount, serves as a means for leveling the scope. The ball-and-socket is inserted into the tripod head. 30. Tripod (Plate 13). a. The tripod for the BC scope is that known as type G. b. Its legs consist of two sections. (1) Upper sections are pivoted to the tripod head and may be clamped by means of the locking clamp arm. This prevents the legs from spreading. (2) The lower sections consist of steel tubes, which slide freely through the lower portions of the upper sections and are clamped by means of wing nuts. Pointed shoes, driven in the lower ends, permit embedding the legs in the ground, giving stability to the Scope. ** Objective prism Objective Plate 14. Optical System, BC Telescope, M1915. c. The tripod head contains a split steel bushing, which may be constructed by means of the vertical spindle clamping lever for clamping the ball-and-socket joint of the azimuth mount. d. The azimuth mount remains assembled to the tripod head when placed in the tripod carrying case. - 31. Carrying Case. The carrying case for the BC scope (proper) is of leather, with wood-reenforced recesses so fixed as to hold the instrument immovable and guard it from shock. Compartments are provided for visors and smoked glasses. The case has two closing straps, and, at one end, a heavy leather carrying flap for attachment to a saddle. The carrying case for the tripod is an arrangement of leather straps provided with re- enforced leather boots at both ends and a leather sling for carrying from the shoulder. 32. To Set Up the Instrument. Extend the tripod legs to the desired height and embed them firmly in the ground, holding two legs and placing the third in the direction in which you expect to use the scope. Place the telescope on the vertical spindle and FIRE CONTROL INSTRUMENTS 27 lock. Level by means of the ball-and-socket joint, and clamp in position by means of the vertical spindle clamping lever. 33. To Measure a Horizontal Angle. Set the index and micrometer at zero by means of the upper motion. With the lower motion, which does not change the scales, bring the vertical hair of the reticule on the target or point from which measurement is to be made. With the upper motion, which changes the scales, turn the vertical hair to the aiming point or point to which measurement is to be made. The reading of the azimuth scale and micrometer is the measured angle in mils. 34. To Measure a Site. Place the horizontal cross hair of the reticule at the base of the target by turning the elevation knob. Center the site bubble with the angle-of-site micrometer and read the site from the angle-of-site scale and its micrometer scale. The reading for a horizontal line is 300; sites above the horizontal are greater than 300, sites below are less. They are read exactly as on the scale. For example 320 on the scale is read as 320, not as plus 20. 35. Adjustment. a. To adjust the azimuth micrometer, bring the index on the upper portion of the mount in line with a graduation, loosen the screw securing the micrometer, and rotate the micrometer until zero coincides with the index; then tighten the screw. b. The angle-of-site micrometer and scale are adjusted in the shop so that, when the index indicates 3 and the micrometer 0, the line of sight is horizontal. To adjust the angle-of-site micrometer, set the index to coincide accurately with the 3 graduation; then loosen the screw securing the micrometer and rotate the micrometer until the zero coincides with the index; then tighten the screw. | | | | | | | | 30 20 to - | * 10 20 30 Plate 15. Reticle Graduations, BC Telescope, M1915. 36. Care. a. When the instrument is not in use, place the objective and eyepiece caps in position to protect the lenses. Do not attempt to spread the telescopes with the clamp tightened; such action might bend or spread the tube bases, causing overlapping of the images, and preventing the use of the telescope as a binocular instrument. b. Carefully protect the vertical spindle on the azimuth mount from injury and dents, which would make the assembly of the telescope mount difficult. Keep it slightly oiled to prevent the formation of rust. Questions 1. Does movement by the lower motion change the reading on the scale? 2. At what setting on the index is the instrument horizontal (level)? Chapter V THE RANGE FINDER, M1916 (1-METER BASE) 37. General. a. The range finder is an instrument for use primarily in measuring distances. It may be used to measure horizontal and vertical (site) angles, but is not convenient for this purpose. b. The 1-meter-base range finder, M1916 (Plate 17), complete, consists of the range finder proper, mount, tripod, adjusting lath, and leather carrying cases. BUFFER RANGE KNOE OPEN SIGHT -DOPTER SCALE / 2–HALVING ADJUSTMENT º KNOE COVER END BOX SLEEVE ELEVATING KNOB. AZMUTH KNOE -"º THROWOUT LEVER – SCALE microme TER– EYEPIECE CAP Plate 16. Range Finder, M1916, 1-Meter Base. 38. Range Finder, Proper (Plates 16 and 17). a. Our range finder is of the horizontal base, inverted-coincidence type, which determines distance by a method of triangulation, on the basis of a base line 1 meter in length, corresponding to the spacing of the objective windows. Its range scale is graduated in yards from 400 to 20,000. - b. Its optical system (Plate 18) consists practically of two periscopes laid horizontally, such that their objective prisms are spaced 1 meter apart, but having a common eyepiece. (1) Before the two images enter the eye lens, they pass through the ocular prism (Plate 19), which is arranged so as to divide the field as shown in Plate 20. (2) An object, when viewed through the eyepiece, appears as two objects, one above the other, with the upper inverted as shown in Fig. 1, Plate 20; the images appear- ing to be separated by a line, beyond which they do not pass. This line is known as the halving line. In Fig. 2, Plate 20 the images are shown when coincidence is obtained and when halving adjustment is correct. In Fig. 3, Plate 20 the images are shown when the halving line is out of adjustment. Notice the difference in location of the two images in their relation to the halving line. (3) In order to measure ranges accurately the halving line must be in adjustment with coincidence secured, as shown in Fig. 2, Plate 20. That is, corresponding parts of the two objects must reach the line at the same time. - 28 FIRE CONTROL INSTRUMENTS 29 1. (4) The eyepiece can be focused by rotation, and a diopter scale is provided for rapid setting, once the observer has determined the correction for his eye. The zero mark indicates the setting for the normal eye, but nearly everyone will want to make some slight adjustment. (5) A ray-filter holder containing one smoked and one amber glass is pivoted within the eyepiece adapter and controlled by the ray-filter lever near the eyepiece. The smoked glass is provided for observing into the direct rays of a searchlight or of the sun, and the amber glass is used to moderate exceptionally bright daylight or the reflection of the sun over water. tº-oto, by ordinance D----- U. S. A.) Plate 17. Range Finder, M1916, 1-Meter Base. - Cork buffer pads and covers End box sleeves End box retaining rings Optical tube assembly Eyeshield Ray filter lever Range scale . Cover of range pointer window . Gimbal joint cover . Measuring roller 11 1. Correction wedge window 2. Correction wedge control 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. Halving adjuster Eyepiece bracket Range finder support clamping lever Angle of site scale Angle of site micrometer knob Angle of site level Range finder support 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. Azimuth scale 27. 28. 29. Support catch Elevation worm knob Elevation worm housing Elevation worm wheel Elevation worm wheel clamping handle Azimuth micrometer Eyepiece cap Azimuth adjusting knob Tripod, Type U 30 FIRE CONTROL INSTRUMENTS (6) The open sight, mounted on the top of the tube to the right of the eyepiece, permits rapid training of the instrument on the object and should be used at the beginning of a problem to speed the outcome. (7) The adapter, attached to the tube below the eyepiece, is provided as a means for attaching the range finder to the support on the upper portion of the mount. 39. Mount (Plate 17). a. Our Range Finder Mount consists of an azimuth mechan- ism, above which is hinged the elevation mechanism, by which means the line of sight can be rotated approximately 18° above and below the horizontal. The angle- of-site mechanism is attached to the left side of the elevation mechanism. When the support clamp lever is released, the range finder can be rotated horizontally approxi- mately 10°, independently of the other motions. b. The azimuth circle is graduated into 64 equal spaces, each representing 100 mils of angle, and numbered from 0 to 64. The azimuth micrometer is graduated into 100 equal spaces, each representing 1 mil of angle and numbered from 0 to 100. One turn of the micrometer advances the index one space or 100 mils, which corresponds to the number of graduations on the micrometer. c. The throw-out lever, when rotated and held, disengages the azimuth worm from the teeth on the worm wheel, permitting free rotation of the upper portion of the mount carrying the range finder and azimuth index. With the azimuth worm engaged and the vertical spindle clamping lever loosened, free rotation of the entire azimuth mount and range finder is obtained. Rotation of the azimuth adjusting worm knob causes movement of the azimuth circle and the upper portion of the azimuth mount, by which means fine adjustment is obtained for orienting. d. The angle-of-site scale is graduated into six equal spaces, each representing 100 mils of angle and numbered from 0 to 6, the 3 graduation indicating the level posi- tion. The angle-of-site micrometer is graduated into 100 equal spaces, each representing 1 mil and numbered from 0 to 100. One complete turn of the micrometer advances the index one space or 100 mils, which corresponds to the number of graduations on the micrometer. e. Rotating the hinge clamp screw lever permits the upper portion of the mount to move laterally, by which means the range finder can be placed in a vertical position. f. The mount is kept attached to the tripod at all times, but can be removed easily by loosening the vertical spindle clamping lever and the vertical spindle bushing locking SCIeW. 40. Tripod (Plate 17). a. General. The tripod, type U, is issued with this instru- ment. In describing the tripod, no reference is made to the azimuth mount, as it is considered to be a component of the instrument and not of the tripod. b. Tripod legs. The legs consist of two sections: (1) The upper sections are pivoted to the tripod head and may be clamped by means of the locking clamp to prevent the legs from spreading. (2) The lower sections consists of steel tubes which slide freely through the lower portions of the upper sections and may be clamped by means of the wing nuts. Pointed shoes, driven in the lower ends, permit embedding the legs in the ground. c. The tripod head. The tripod head is similar to that of the type G (Par. 30) save for the shape of the hole in the split steel bushing to receive the mount. The bushing may be contracted by means of the vertical spindle clamping lever for gripping the ball-and-socket joint of the azimuth mount. 41. Adjusting Lath. General. The adjusting lath consists of a metal strip upon which two vertical lines are painted, the distance between which is the same as the distance between the optical axes passing through the windows of the range finder with which it is issued. The lath is serially numbered the same as the range finder, and should be kept with it; adjustments should be made with no other lath. The sight, placed at the center, is for observing the center of the range finder when adjusting. 42. Carrying Cases. a. The range finder proper is carried in a cylindrical leather case, reenforced with two steel hoops. The case has an opening at one end, closed by a cylindrical leather cap. Sº | - *- º | |; 6–Tºe bjective window Pente objective prism (Diagrammetic) Objective * ! Pento objective pris Left objective Right objective & Correction lens E. | ---—-—--|->| Plate 28. Triangular Plotting Scale. 85. Plotting Scales. a. The triangular plotting scale. (Plate 28). This scale is of box- wood with a triangular cross section. Several scales are engraved on it for use on the various standard maps and charts. It may also be used as an alidade. For this purpose the upper edge is used in sighting. A line drawn along one of the lower edges records the direction of the line of sighting. b. The flat plotting scale. (Plate 29). This is a flat boxwood rule having gradua- tions in yards and in meters to a scale of 1:20,000. The least reading is 10 yards. FIRE CONTROL INSTRUMENTS 47 86. Protractor (Plate 30). The protractor most useful for artillery work is a 16-inch semicircle of transparent material. It is used to measure azimuths, firing angles, and deflections between datum lines on a map, firing chart, or air photo. **Ifilliºnºi i TTI TTTI ITTI i r_Tºrt.I.T.T.T.T.T.T.T.T. ºr rºl. TT.I.T.T.T.T.TTTTTTTTT.I.T that W tº 3 u 3 & O —1– * @ dº sattva tº sº, º ºs gº, * * g3 c & tºº, º ºr ©9,3 tºº, sº &é, Q& &gºsº a gº & # *** * \ || | | * ºff ºf ºf Ll ºf Ll fºil fºil f" ºf...? D Plate 29. Flat Plotting Scale. º U ty | 6 3 = 3:TE £n r - :*- —- ~~ | | 00,09 00 G1 0\\01 009.9 00109 OOGS O9,0S OUSp º JJº U009 OOSz 0002 00s! 00,0| COSsouv,000 --. Tº Lºſi Li Ti Lººſ' 1'ſ Tº Liff'ſ L'Îll iſ 1'.'ill'ſ tºil ºffiliº 1 ºffil ºf Tº". Plate 30. Protractor. Plate 31. Range-Deflection Fan. 87. Range-Deflection Fan (Plate 31). The fan is a protractor made of transparent material. It has rays from the center-drawn at 20-mil intervals and concentric arcs differ- ing in radius by 100 yards (scale 1:20,000). It is used primarily in rapid plotting. If extreme accuracy is not essential, its use eliminates the drawing of certain lines and permits range and angular measurements to be made in a single operation. 88. Straightedge (Plate 32). The straightedge is a metal rule, 24 or 30 inches long, having graduations in yards to a scale of 1:20,000 engraved along one edge. 3 mºrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrrtſTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTT Q Soo Tooo TSoo Tzooo T2Soo Tao'oo Tasoo Taooo apoo Tsooo Tssoo Too oo esco Tºoo Tºoo sooo Tasoo. Toooo Tosoo" ſoooo Tosoo Tºoo Tirsoo aboo izsoo 13600 1/20000 YARDS - STA NLESS U. S. ARMY Plate 32. Straightedge. FIRE CONTROL INSTRUMENTS 49 89. Recorder, Time-Interval, Single-Hand (Plate 33). a. Description. This time- interval recorder is a watch-like tally with a single hand. The main dial is graduated to read in seconds and fifths of seconds. Every 5-second mark is numbered and a small subdial records the minutes from 0 to 30. One complete revolution of the second hand moves the minute hand one space. It is stem-wound and the hands are started, stopped, and returned by pressing the stem. A rubber shock absorber and a leather chain are supplied with each recorder. Plate 33. Time-Interval Recorder, Single-Hand. b. Use. The time-interval recorder is used when precise measurement of elapsed time is desired. - c. Care. The time-interval reorder is delicately constructed. Don't drop it or subject it to unnecessary shock. To protect the crystal, carry it with the face toward the body. Plate 34. Time-Interval Recorder, Double-Hand. 90. Recorder, Time-Interval, Double-Hand (Plate 34). This time-interval recorder is similar to that described in paragraph 89, except that it has two hands, one operated by pressing the stem and the other by a button which is set in the edge of the case. They are mutually independent. By this means “time out” during any measurement may be accurately obtained. In addition, an auxiliary dial, of the same type as the second hand of an ordinary timepiece, is fixed in the lower half of the face of the instrument. A stop watch may be issued in lieu of the time-interval recorder. 91. Tape, Steel, 100-Foot. a. Description. The 100-foot tape consists of a graduated steel strip inclosed in a circular metal case. It is graduated in feet and inches. A small knob mounted on a hinge near the center of the case is provided to rewind the tape. 50 FIRE CONTROL INSTRUMENTS b. Use. Hold the tape level while making measurements. On steep slopes it may be necessary to make a number of short measurements to avoid the error introduced by inclining the tape, or to measure the slant distance and the angle of slope and from these compute the horizontal distance. c. Care. Be careful not to kink or subject the tape to sharp bends, as it is constructed of tempered steel and will break. If used in wet weather, dry it before rewinding, and wipe it with an oily rag to help prevent the formation of rust. 92. Thermometer. a. Description. The thermometer is graduated in degrees, Fahren- heit, from 23° below to 130° above zero, and numbered every 10°. b. Use. The thermometer is used to determine the temperature of the powder and of the air. c. Care. Handle the thermometer carefully to prevent the breaking of the delicate glass tube, or separation of the measuring column. 93. Plane Table. The plane table is most useful for locating points and measuring data. Its disadvantages are that it is conspicuous, bulky to carry, and the work cannot be exposed to wet weather. a. Description. The plane table consists of a drawing board, a tripod, and a declinator. (1) Drawing board. (Plate 35). The drawing board has a small hole at each corner for attaching the declinator; on the under side of the drawing board is a screw socket for securing the drawing table to the tripod. Plate 35. Plane Table with Tripod. (2) Tripod. (Plate 35). The tripod head has a screw which fits into the socket on the under side of the drawing board. By means of a ball-and-socket joint the drawing board may be leveled independently of the positicn of the tripod legs. When the draw- ing board is leveled, it may be rotated in the horizontal plane by loosening the lower wing nut. Each tripod leg may be adjusted for height by wing nuts on the lower end of the upper leg. Each leg can be locked to the head by a wing nut. FIRE CONTROL INSTRUMENTS 51 (3) Declinator. (Plate 36) The declinator, usually called the needle, is a magnetic needle mounted in a narrow metal box. It is secured to the drawing board by a screw fitting in one of the corner holes. b. To set up plane table. Set up the table approximately level, two legs being placed downhill if the board is on a slope. In general, it is sufficiently accurate to set the center of the table over the station point, but when the plotted point is near the edge and the object sighted upon is not distant, set the table up so that the plotted point is over the point on the ground. Plate 36. Declinator. c. To attach a grid or map. The sheet is fastened to the table so that the grid lines are parallel to the edges of the table. The sheet should be larger than the table, with the surplus folded over the edge and fastened with brass thumb tacks. A strip of card- board or heavy paper, placed along the edge of the sheet under the tacks, will prevent tearing. A waterproof cover is used to protect the work when the table is not being used. d. To level plane table. Level the table with the alidade in two positions, at right angles to each other. Level the table by eye and partially tighten the upper wing nut. Turn the leveling screw in the base of the alidade until about one-half of it projects through the base. Place the alidade along the longer axis of the table and center the bubble by tapping an edge of the table. Reverse the alidade. If the bubble is in the center, the long axis of the table is leveled. If the bubble is not in the center, bring it halfway to the center by means of the leveling screw, and center it exactly by tapping an edge of the table. Continue the process, reversing the alidade and centering the bubble as above, until the bubble remains centered when the alidade is reversed. The long axis of the table now is level. The alidade is a level at this setting of the screw, and may be so used without changing the screw settings. Lay the alidade along the short axis of the table, and center the bubble by tapping the edge of the table. The short axis of the table now is level. Check the leveling along both axes, and tighten the upper wing nut so the table is secured in this plane. Before using the alidade for sight- ing, have the leveling screw flush with the base. e. To orient plane table. The plane table may be oriented by means of a known line, plotted on the table, and visible on the ground. f. To declimate plane table. Orient the plane table. Attach the declinator and turn it until the needle points to the index. Draw a fine line along the edge of the alidade near each end and move the alidade parallel to this line until its edge is on the plotted point. Check by sighting the point, and repeat until there is no error. Draw a ray. Do not pivot the alidade around a needle stuck in the plotted point if the point is to be used a number of times, as this will make the point too large for accurate work. g. Adjustment and care. The plane table and tripod require no adjustment when reasonable care is given them. Loosen the clamps on the tripod head when the table is not in use. Make periodic examination of the board to insure that the plate for attach- ment to the tripod head has not become loosened where the screws enter the wood of the table. ' Questions 1. Why is it necessary to use a hard pencil when drawing rays? 2. How can pin points be used in map work? CHAPTER XI ADJUSTMENT AND CARE g 94. General. To properly take care of an instrument, familiarize yourself with the methods of mounting, functioning, use, and adjustment of the instrument. 95. Minor Repair and Adjustment of Instruments. a. The only repairs permitted in the field by battery mechanics are the replacing of knobs, micrometers, or other parts that can be disassembled easily with the usual tools issued. b. The only adjustments permitted in the field by the battery mechanics are stated in the description of each instrument. c. Backlash in the worms of instruments equipped with throw-out levers can be removed by adjusting the screw plug which controls the plunger spring. 96. Care in Handling. a. Fire-control instruments contain delicate mechanisms and accurately arranged optical parts. Handle them gently to avoid all unnecessary shocks which would eventually render the instrument unserviceable. b. When using instruments equipped with throw-out or eccentric levers for dis- engaging worms from their worm wheels when rapidly training on objects, take care to rotate the throw-out levers sufficiently to prevent the worm from scraping over the teeth on the worm wheel, which action eventually would damage the teeth, causing in- accurate readings. c. Instruments provided with carrying cases, chests, and the like, are placed therein without undue force. 97. Disassembling. a. Under no circumstances will the disassembling of any instru- ment, or part thereof, be made except by a skilled mechanic familiar with fire-control instruments and authorized by the Ordnance officer to repairs. b. Do not unnecessarily turn screws when not incident to the use of the instruments. c. Instruments which fail to function properly are returned to the authorized section of the Ordnance Department for repairs. 98. Oiling. All interior moving parts of fire-control instruments are oiled or greased when assembled; such oiling or greasing being sufficient lubrication to last for a con- siderable length of time. Moving or exposed parts requiring oiling or greasing are lubricated sparingly with the lubricants furnished by the Ordnance Department for fire- control instruments, and no other. Be careful that no oil or grease reaches the optical parts or other parts that do not require lubrication. To prevent the collection of dust and grit, wipe off excess lubricants that seep from the mechanism. 99. Care of Lenses and Windows. a. To obtain satisfactory vision, keep the surfaces of the lenses and windows clean and dry. b. To avoid scratching, use clean, soft linen, optical cloth, or paper, chamois, and camel's-hair brushes, free from grit, dust, and lint, for cleaning lenses. c. Under no circumstances whatever do you use polishing liquids and pastes for polishing lenses and scales. d. To remove oil or grease from lenses and windows, apply alcohol with a rag or camel's-hair brush and rub off gently with a clean rag or lens paper. e. To remove dust, brush lightly with a camel's-hair brush, and rap the brush against a hard body, knocking out the small particles of dust which cling to the hairs. Continue this operation until the dust is removed. f. Do not wipe off lenses with the fingers. g. Occasionally, moisture collects on the lenses of optical instruments, owing to con- densation caused by the temperature of these parts being lower than that of the surround- ing air. Placing the instrument in a moderately warm place usually removes such mois- ture. Be careful to avoid subjecting the instruments to sudden or unusual degrees of heat, lest unequal expansion of parts cause inaccuracies of alinement. 100. Protection from Weather. Protect instruments from wet weather as much as possible, and, when used during a rain, wipe them off with a cloth as soon as practicable after the rain ceases. Never return them to their cases wet; always store them in a warm, dry place. 52 FIRE CONTROL INSTRUMENTS 53 101. Tools, Accessories, and Cleaning Material. The following is a list of authorized tools, accessories, and cleaning materials for the maintenance, adjustment, and preserva- tion of the instruments: n Instrument Tools and accessories Cleaning material Where carried tº tº º I cleaning brush . . . . . . . . . º Range finder . . . . . I adjusting key . . . . i I ch . skin * }Instrument Carrying case tº I chamois skin . . . . . . . . . . . Battery , command 2 amber glass disks |} . .h."bish } Do er's telescope ! gº. -----. . . . . . . & I chamois skin . . . . . . . . . . . c Field glasses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ' ' | \ . ; Carrying CaSC camel's-hair brush, small BATTERY COMMUNICATIONS CONTENTS Paragraphs Chapter I. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-4 Chapter II. Messenger Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-11 Chapter III. Visual Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-17 Chapter IV. Voice and Sound Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-20 Chapter V. Radio Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21–37 Chapter VI. Wire Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-83 CHAPTER I GENERAL 1. General. a. A battery signal-communication system should provide for the simul- taneous transmission, without interference, of two general types of commands and orders: e (1) Firing commands, which are transmitted directly from the battery observation post (or command post) to the guns (firing battery). (2) Fire directions, such as the designation of targets, which are transmitted from the battalion observation post, command post, or fire-direction center to the battery observation post, command post, or directly to the guns. Tactical and administrative orders and instructions are transmitted over this channel. b. To accomplish this, the battery must provide two separate channels of communica- tion, one between the battery observation post (or command post) and the guns, for conduct of fire, and one between the observation post (or command post) and the guns, for command and fire direction. 2. Battery Signal Means. a. Normally, the following means of signal communication are at the disposal of the battery commander: - (1) Messengers. (2) Visual (flags and arm signals). (3) Voice. (4) Radio. (5) Wire (telephone). b. No one of these means of communication should be considered as primary. Radio communication should be established immediately upon occupation of position to be followed by wire communication. When wire communication is established, radio is shut down, but should always be available for immediate use in case of failure of the wire system. Bear constantly in mind that no one signal means can ever be considered infallible; appropriate alternative means must be immediately available, if not in actual operation. 3. Personnel and Equipment. a. Personnel. Under the supervision of the reconnaissance officer, the signal sergeant is in general charge of communication. All members of the battery detail should be capable of installing and operating all communication facilities available. Select messengers from relief telephone operators and linemen and use them as needed. b. Equipment. The more important items of communication equipment of the field artillery battery for mobilization are included in the following extract from the Table of Basic Allowances for field artillery. Current Tables of Basic Allowances govern unit equipment. 55 56 BATTERY COMMUNICATIONS Battery Truck-D Items - Horse-D 105-mm Medium Axle RL-27-A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 2 2 Flag Kit M-113 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 4 4 Radio Set, SCR-194 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 3 3 Reel Unit RL-26-A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - I I Reel Unit RL-31 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - I I Reel, battery, horse-drawn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. º- - Switchboard BD-71 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 2 2 Telephone EE-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 9 9 Wire, W-IIo, miles (on reels DR-5) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 9 9 Wire, W-150, miles (on reels DR-4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 5 5 4. Field Messages. a. Classes of messages. Messages are classified according to: (1) Intelligibility of their language as clear or code messages. (a) A clear message is one in which the text of the message conveys an in- telligible meaning in a spoken language. (b) A code message is one in which the text of the message conveys no intelligible meaning in any spoken language. (2) Procedure used when transmitting electrically. This classification refers to the procedure employed in transmission of the message and in no way to the writing of the message by the writer. (a) Abbreviated form. This form is used in field artillery when transmitting a message by electrical means. Only the body of the message and the time signed is transmitted unless the writer desires a writer's number. Ordinarily, the official designa- tion of the addressee and sender are written in the field message blank before the message is transmitted. However, where time is a vital factor and the communication means is adjacent to the writer, only the body of the message is written and the re- mainder is covered by oral instructions; for example, “Send this message to the CO, 3rd Armd Field Artillery Battalion.” (3) Urgency with which handled. Certain messages, because of their importance or urgency, are given priority over others in transmissions. In order of priority, messages sent by the battery are classified as: (a) Urgent is reserved for messages requiring the greatest speed in handling. It is used chiefly during combat, or when combat is imminent or simulated, in cases where delay may result in unnecessary casualties or serious tactical disadvantages. Send urgent messages immediately upon receipt, except when another urgent message is being transmitted. Urgent messages are classified as such by the writer. Commanders restrict the use of the urgent classification to most important messages; excessive use will defeat its purpose. Never demand greater priority for a message than its com- parative urgency warrants. (b) Routine is used for messages which require no special precedence. Transmitt them in the order in which they are received. b. Field message blank. The field message blank is used by originators of written messages. The same form is used by battery telephone, radio, and visual-station oper- ators to record messages received over the various signal devices. All battery com- munication personnel should be familiar with this form. Messages written on plain paper or on a different message form should contain the information required on the M-105-A message form in the same relative sequence. c. Entries on the field message blank. The writer of a message fills in the spaces on the form as shown in the following form. The parenthetical numbers in the figure refer to the subparagraphs of explanation which follow: BATTERY COMMUNICATIONS 57 These spaces for Message Center Only Time Filed (1) | Msg Cen No (1) | How Sent (1) (3) MESSAGE (Submit to Message Center in Duplicatc) • * * g a s - a e º 'º e º º is º a º (Classification) (2) • NO (4) DATE 25 APR 42 (5) TO CO 3rd Armd FA Bn (6) (7) Btry received heavy shell concentration at 8:1 p A. Nów displacing to alternate position I oo yols N of ROCKY POINT SCHOOL. (9) (8) CO Btry A 3rd Armd FA Bn o820 Official Designation of Sender Time Signed (10) Capt. Signature and Grade of Writer The M-105-A Message Form. (1) Not used by writer. (2) If you desire classification in speed of handling other than routine, print (in CAPITALS) the classification: URGENT. (3) In this space indicate the means selected for transmission. The writer does not ordinarily indicate the means of transmission, this function in most cases is performed by message center. (4) The writer's number. Not used except for special identification purposes. (5) Not required or transmitted electrically when the abbreviated form message is used. However, if recorded, it should appear as shown. * (6) The official designation of the addressee. Expressions such as “CO 3rd Armd FA Bn” and “Ln O 3rd Armd FA Bn” are appropriate. When a message is sent to a headquarters, the addressee usually is the commanding officer of that unit. Do not use personal names and code names or numbers. If an organization is indicated, give its complete designation. f (7) Write messages plainly and legibly, using a pencil. Poor writers should print. Print proper names and code or cipher groups in CAPITALS. Make messages brief but complete. Use only authorized abbreviations. Underline the printed numeral 1 (one), 1, to avoid confusing it with the printed letter l; print the numeral 0 (zero) with an oblique line, 7, to avoid mistaking it for the letter O. (8) The official designation of the sender or authority for the message (not necessarily the writer) goes in this space. The information given in (6) above is applicable here. (9) The time entered in this space is the time the writer signed the message; always enter it. (10) The personal signature of the sender or the person authorized to write the message for him is entered in this space. This signature imparts to the message the force of a live document and authorizes its transmission. The signature itself is not transmitted. CHAPTER II MESSENGER COMMUNICATION 5. Messengers. a. Messengers are employed by all units as required. Certain in- dividuals are designated as messengers, and, as far as practicable, provide this service for their unit, but all communication personnel are trained in the delivery of written and oral messages and may be so employed when their other duties permit. Individuals whose primary duty is that of messenger wear a red brassard on the left sleeve. b. Messengers generally are used when other signal agencies fail, when distances are so short that this service is the most rapid agency, or when the character of the message precludes the use of other agencies. c. Messengers are classified according to the type of service rendered (Par. 6) and according to the type of transportation furnished. d. When messages are particularly important or the route is especially dangerous, several messengers may be used to carry duplicates of the same message. They may travel the same route, spaced to avoid fire and ambush, or may follow different routes. They may be provided with the same or different types of transportation. e. Messages will be carried in a dispatch case when one is provided. Otherwise, when practicable, messages will be carried in the coat or shirt pocket. 6. Types of Service. a. Special messenger service is used by all units. Messengers are sent as required, to deliver messages to a special destination and returned to the sender with an acknowledgment and, if desired, a reply. b. When the tactical situation is sufficiently stable, scheduled service should be estab- lished. Trips are made periodically, usually between various command posts. The method of transportation, the route, and the time of departure from each point are prescribed by the communication officer. The schedules of subordinate units are coordinated by the superior unit. Since scheduled messenger service is much more economical in personnel than is the use of special messengers, this agency should be established by all units to include battalions, whenever the tactical situation permits. 7. Types of Transportation. The type of transportation to be used depends upon the urgency of the message and the length and character of the route. Runners often must be used over comparatively long distances because of their ability to negotiate difficult terrain and to conceal themselves. Similarly, many messengers who start on a trip with some type of transportation may be forced to finish the trip on foot. Motor cars are used over long distances and in emergencies. Units may transmit and receive messages by airplane, the message being picked up and dropped at designated places, usually the panel-display ground. This use of the airplane is described in TR 75-10 and in BFM, Vol. IV. & 8. Routes. a. Messenger routes may be prescribed, or they may be left to the discretion of the messenger. In either case, when practicable, alternate routes should be selected in advance, to be used if for any reason, such as congestion or enemy fire, the principal route becomes unavailable. The choice of route depends upon: (1) The type of transportation provided. (2) The length and condition of the route. (3) Exposure to observation or fire. (4) Traffic conditions and orders regarding circulation. b. A map showing routes over which messengers are to travel should be kept posted at each message center. When practicable, before being employed as messengers men should go over the routes to be used, preferably with a person familiar with the ground. This is especially advisable when the route is to be used at night. c. Routes should be conspicuously marked at points where messengers are liable to go astray. This work should be done by the division engineers, but frequently it devolves upon the messengers themselves, either on the first trip over a new route or when specially detailed for that purpose. In many cases a tagged wire line serves satisfactorily to indicate a route. 9. Instructions for Messengers. Messengers should be given all information available 58 BATTERY COMMUNICATIONS * 59 as to the location of the addressee, the route to be followed, and the urgency of the message. In addition, they may be told the contents of the message, whether an answer is expected, and, if necessary, where to report upon return. Special instruc- tions also may be given; such as, to show the message to certain individuals along the route or to take certain action in case the addressee cannot be found or the transportation fails. 10. Receipts for Messages. a. A messenger ordinarily returns to the message center, or individual who dispatched him, with a receipt from the addressee or his authorized representative, showing the time of delivery. For this purpose he is furnished a delivery list, duplicate message, or other suitable form. b. When the messenger is instructed to show the message to persons other than the addressee, those persons initial the original inessage. c. In some cases usually those of urgent messages, the messenger may be instructed to inform the sender immediately, by telephone or other means, when the message has been delivered. This having been accomplished, he returns with the usual receipt. 11. Oral Messages. Because of the high probability of error, oral messages should seldom be sent by messenger. When so sent, messages should be simple and brief. The messenger should be required to repeat the message back to the sender until he has committed it to memory, and to deliver it to the addressee verbatim. After delivery, he reports to the sender that the message has been delivered. CHAPTER III VISUAL COMMUNICATION 12. General. a. Visual communication includes all signals received by the eye. For this purpose field artillery batteries employ signal lamps, semaphore flags, arm signals, and panels. In addition, they may be required to receive pyrotechnic signals sent by units of other arms. b. Visual communication is an auxiliary agency, supplementing wire and radio. Its use depends upon the character of the warfare, the proximity of the enemy, the terrain, and the weather. It is unsuited for the transmission of long messages, but is well suited for transmitting prearranged signals and short code groups, such as those of the Fire Control Code. In gun and howitzer batteries, lamps and flags are par- ticularly valuable for the transmission of initial firing commands when wire com- munication has not yet been installed or has been interrupted. When the distance is short, arm signals, using the semaphore code, may be used in lieu of flags. c. Visual signaling should not be used when it is likely to disclose a position, to draw fire on other troops, or when signals being sent may be read by the enemy. Accordingly, great care must be exercised in the establishment of visual stations, especially those signaling from rear to front. These considerations, therefore, often preclude two-way visual communication. 13. Equipment. a. Signal lamp, EE-6. The signal lamp, EE-6, consists of the lamp proper, a key, the batteries, the necessary connections, and a carrying belt and harness. The lamp proper is equipped with a 6-volt bulb, a 14-centimeter parabolic reflector, a hinged lid, a hollow sighting tube, and a hollow-tube handle. Four batteries, BA-15, are connected in series and contained in a leather case. Care must be exercised to keep the parabolic mirror clean and unscratched. It should never be touched with the fingers, and should be cleaned only with a soft cloth or piece of cotton dipped in alcohol or water. When properly focused, the lamp projects a beam of approximately parallel light rays. The more nearly the rays are made parallel, the more restricted becomes the area in which they mav be observed and the greater becomes the trans- mission range. Under favorable conditions the lamp will operate satisfactorily up to a range of 3300 yards in daylight or 6000 yards at night. Ordinarily a white bulb is employed, but a red one should be substituted when operating through smoke or fog. 60 BATTERY COMMUNICATIONS Signals may be read more easily if the lamp is located in deep shadow or with a dark background. This is especially important on bright sunny days. b. Improvised lamp. Several improvements on the signal lamp, EE-6, may be im- provised. Stability may be added by affixing the lamp, by means of a hollow-tube handle, to a tripod such as is used with the prismatic compass or with commercial cameras. Convenience of operation may be improved by constructing a special case for carrying the batteries, and including in it a cover on which the key may be mounted. Dependability may be enhanced by constructing this case to hold eight batteries, so that four may be kept in reserve. In emergencies, a commercial flashlight of suitable power makes a satisfactory signal lamp. Its operation will be improved by the addition of a mount or tripod and in operating key similar to those improvised for use with the signal lamp, EE-6. c. Signal flags. Each flag kit, M-113, consists of a canvas carrying case and two semaphore flags. Each flag is 18 inches square, divided diagonally into a red and white portion, and is mounted in a staff 24 inches long. d. Panels. Panels are strips of cloth of various dimensions, which are exposed on the ground for signaling to airplanes. Usually they are white but, for special purposes or to meet special climatic conditions, may be black or colored. They are issued in various sets, each consisting of a basic, or marking panel, and several signaling panels, all contained in a canvas carrying case. e. Pyrotechnics. Pyrotechnic signals appear as variously colored stars, single or grouped, with or without parachutes, to which meanings are arbitrarily assigned. Ordinarily they are projected by means of rockets, but special projectors and Very pistols sometimes are used. 14. Operation. a. Lamps are operated by selected personnel using the International Morse Code. g b. Flags are operated by the same personnel as are lamps, using the semaphore code. c. Panels usually are manipulated by radio personnel, using the panel code. For this reason airground radio sets should, when practicable, be located near a level cleared patch of ground of sufficient size to serve as a panel-display ground. d. Pyrotechnic signals are reported to proper authority by all field artillery personnel observing them. When the situation requires, individuals are specially designated to watch for such signals. These individuals are, when practicable, given the direction from which the signals are expected and are provided with an improvised means of orientation. 15. Employment of Lamps and Flags. a. A visual station is equipped with both lamps and flags, the one most appropriate to the occasion being used. b. They are operated by two men, one of whom sends or receives while the other records. Semaphore signals, on account of their greater speed of transmission, are used whenever practicable. Under conditions of poor visibility, or when distances are too great for use of semaphore, lamps should be used. c. A visual net consists of the base station and secondary stations. Secondary stations must be informed of the location of the base station; it is not necessary that the base station know the exact location of the secondary stations, which may move from one point to another. The secondary station, knowing the location of the base station, can sight on it, while the operator at the base station must watch the entire sector in which secondary stations are operating. When a call is seen, the base station sights on the calling station and replies, thus establishing the net. 16. Lamp Procedure. a. With obvious modifications, radio procedure is used in the operation of signal lamps. Addresses are omitted, the context of the message indicating to whom it should be delivered. Call signs are prescribed in Signal Operation Instruc- tions or in some cases by the superior field artillery commander. They are used only when required to establish communication or to attract the attention of the called station. In no case should radio call signs be assigned to lamp stations. Groups provided in the Fire Control Code (move up, move down, and the like) are used in establishing or improving communication. BATTERY COMMUNICATIONS 61 b. The following special signals are used in lamp operation: (1) One dot: Last word was received. - (2) Two dots: Repeat last word. (3) Series of dots: (from transmitting station): Error. (from receiving station): I must interrupt. (4) CH: Resight your lamp, signals are dim. (5) Series of dashes of increasing length. Your adjustment is improving. (When the key is held down without interruption, the adjustment is then satisfactory. Cor- respondingly, when the dashes are shortened, the adjustment is impairing the signal.) -*- B 2 º Ö *: . * . cº º, * : ** §1A:Bółº!.5 ERROR-REPEA SEVERAL TIME3 * A. * Fole. LOW º // ~ §º { - ** ſ \ * Lºs ( . ) ſ ſ Q. W 'S RECEIVED OR END OF NMESSAGE Ae GO AHEA}} 4. REPEATED SEVERAL y ./ # * * J’ a' £4 Tºtºs pe. ...: §. º r *> →a. tº N 4' rºs § º 4> } \{ º ' ' … . F R §§ .. Plate 1. The Semaphore Code. : J º E. 5 HQ c. Unless the signal F precedes the transmission, the receiving station acknowledges, each word with either one or two dots and, after the transmission is completed (by the group AR), acknowledges receipt of the entire message by sending R. If F precedes the transmission, the receiving station will not acknowledge or transmit. 17. Flag Procedure. In general the procedure used with lamps is applicable to the use of flags. The call-up consists only of the signal Attention, made by waving the flags in short vertical arcs, one on each side of the body. End of message is indicated by the signal Chop-chop, made by waving both flags on one side of the body in short vertical arcs in opposite directions. * 62 BATTERY COMMUNICATIONS The following semaphore procedure signals may be used: End of Word Interval End of message ................................... Chop chop several times Acknowledgment R. Error ....................................... E. Repeat last message • OOO Move to your right ... MR. Move to your left ML Move up ............................... ... MU MOVe down ... . . MD Fire, battery fired -- D CHAPTER IV VOICE AND SOUND COMMUNICATION 18. General. Voice is used as a signal agency principally between the observation post and guns of a battery, and between the observation post of a battalion and those of its batteries. It is thus used to supplement wire, and, particularly in fast-moving situations, may replace it. It finds special application in the battery in direct fire against fast— moving targets. 19. Employment. Voice messages and orders may be sent either by the originator of the message or by suitably qualified assistants. The transmitting range may be in- creased by the use of one or more relay posts, or, in the battery, by the use of the megaphone. 20. Sound. Sound communication is the transmission of a message by means of some inanimate object and the direct intelligible reception by ear of that sound. Sound communication is chiefly of value for alarms, for the purpose of attracting attention, and for the transmission of short prearranged messages and orders. Whistles, small arms, artillery, motors of airplanes, in flight, horns, sirens, and rattles are frequently used for signal purposes. Sound signals are published in Signal Operation Instructions. CHAPTER V RADIO COMMUNICATION , 21. Advantages and Disadvantages of Radio. Radio offers a means of communication which has a number of importaint advantages over other means. Among these advan- tages are: (1) Rapid installation, (2) flexibility, and (3) use while units are in motion. On the other hand there are some disadvantages which require precautionary measures. Some of these disadvantages are: (1) Effects of terrain and local conditions in radio reception, (2) lack of secrecy, (3) interference by friendly stations, and (4) deliberate interference by enemy stations. 22. Location of Sets. In order to minimize the effects of terrain on radio communica- tion some thought must be exercised in selecting the location of radio sets. In general the higher the frequency on which a radio works, the more will intervening hill masks, trees, and such things as power lines interfere with the radio wave. The radiation from the high frequency radio sets, issued to the firing battery, acts very much like light. waves. Therefore, every effort should be made to locate the sets so that hill masks will not shield one station from the cther. When an operator with a properly working set in operation is unable to contact the other station, he should change his location. Often it is necessary to move only a few feet to establish communication. 23. Overcoming Lack of Secrecy. In the firing battery, where most of the traffic handled by radio is conduct of fire, the lack of secrecy is not critical. All messages containing tactical information to be transmitted by radio should be cryptographed except where there is no time for cryptographing and the information in enemy hands could not alter the situation. BATTERY COMMUNICATIONS - 63 24. Interference From Friendly Stations. Interference from friendly stations is caused by inexperienced or undisciplined operators breaking in on one another's transmission, usually because of improper calibration. The only way to overcome this is by thorough training and rigidly enforced discipline. Even when accurately calibrated the receivers of the SCR-194 will interfere with one another and for this reason should not be in nets of more than two unless the sets are separated by considerable distance. 25. Deliberate Interference By The Enemy. Deliberate interference by the enemy will be limited by the facilities available to him. He must have transmitters powerful enough to interfere with our reception, and he will be denying himself use of the frequency or frequencies that he is blocking. Radio operators can be trained to receive messages through a great deal of interference. 26. SCR-194 Set. This set is operated by one man and is designed to provide voice communication over relatively short distances, up to approximately five miles. It is equipped with two types of antennas, one for portable operation and one for operation from a vehicle. All equipment required for transmission and reception is packed in a canvas bag which can easily be carried by the operator. 27. General Operation of the SCR-194 Set. a. The SCR-194 should be set up in an elevated location and, if possible, with a line of sight between sets. Intervening build- ings, trees, and hills reduce the effective range of the SCR-194, and at times make communication impossible. If communication cannot be established at one location the set should be moved to another to secure a more favorable path for the radio waves. b. There are 62 channels for communication on the SCR-194, each separated from the next by 400 kilocycles. There are two coils in the set marked A and B, respectively. When operating on channels 1-25, inclusive, use coil A, the large coil. When operating on channels 26-62 inclusive, use coil B, the small coil. When using the large coil extend the antenna completely. When using the small coil drop the top two sections of the antenna. c. To put the set in operation proceed as follows: (1) Turn on the filament switch. (2) Adjust FILAMENT RHEOSTAT until the meter reads two volts. A hissing noise should be heard in the earphones, indicating that the set is operating. (3) Operate the switch on the microphone, and blow or whistle into the micro- phone. If the set is operating properly this will be heard in the receivers. (4) Calibrate the set as rollows: (a) Set the channel indicator on the red mark which is farthest to the right on the dial scale being used. There are two dial scale plates on each set. The upper scale is used when the small coil is being used; and the lower scale is used when the large coil is being used. (b) Turn the switch marked CALIBRATOR to the ON position. (c) Loosen the lock screw and adjust the thumbscrew marked ADJUST, until a marked decrease in the rushing sound in the headphones is observed. (d) Turn the switch marked CALIBRATOR to its OFF position. (e) Set the channel indicator to the channel assigned by the Signal Operation Instructions (Sec. 2, par. 308). The set is now ready for operation and should be oper- ated in the manner set forth in the following paragraphs. 28. Definition. Radio procedure is a standardized routine followed by the radio operators in the handling of traffic. Refer to TM 11-454 and FM 24-6 for a com- plete discussion of radio procedure. Strict compliance with these and any supplemental regulations relative to operating procedure insures the accurate and rapid handling of traffic with minimum transmissions. Every radio operator must have a thorough knowledge of the correct procedure to use in any particular case. Deviation from authorized procedure usually results in delaying traffic, and is prohibited. Certain short cuts in procedure to speed up traffic under special conditions are specifically authorized. * 29. Call Signs and Frequencies. Every radio station is assigned a call sign and fre- quency. They are found in the S.O.I. (Signal Operation Instruction). Allotment of call 64 * BATTERY COMMUNICATIONS signs and frequencies is controlled through the division signal officer and may be controlled by corps or army. Use no frequencies or call signs other than those assigned in the S. O. I. 30. Phonetic Alphabet. Certain letters of the alphabet have similar sounds and are often confused in telephone conversations and in voice radio operation. To avoid this difficulty, the phonetic alphabet is prescribed. Spell out call signs, code groups, and words which are apt to be misunderstood, using the phonetic alphabet. For example, transmit the call sign SF4 as follows: SAIL FOX FOUR. 31. Establishing Communication. To establish communication the radio operator sets up his radio and listens to determine if anyone is transmitting on his frequency. If he hears no one he calls the station that he wishes to contact. This procedure is best demon- strated by an example. a. Assume the call signs of the radio set at the OP and guns are PM2 and SF4, respec- tively. The OP operator would transmit: (1) “SAIL FOX FOUR FROM PREP MIKE TWO (Repeats twice) ANSWER.” (2) If the operator at the OP heard this transmission he would answer giving a readability report. The degrees of readability are as follows: (a) Unreadable. (b) Poor; encoded messages unreadable. Transmit clear text through twice. (c) Fair. Transmit clear text through once slowly, encoded messages through tW1Ce. (d) Good. Transmit clear text or encoded messages once. (e) Perfect. (3) The OP operator would transmit: “PREP MIKE TWO FROM SAIL FOX FOUR READIBILITY GOOD ANSWER.” (4) If the net consists of only two stations the call signs may be dropped if the readability is good or better. PM2 answers: “READABILITY PERFECT GO AHEAD.” (5) SF4 would receipt for the readability report by transmitting the phonetic equi- valent of R: “ROGER.” b. Communication is now established. The operator at the OP should notify the BC that he has established communication with the guns. The OP operator should notify the executive that he has established communication with the OP. 32. Transmitting A Fire Mission. a. The following procedure should be followed in transmitting fire commands using the SCR-194 radio. This procedure probably will be slightly modified when sets are issued. The BC commands: “Battery Adjust.” The OP operator transmits: “BATTERY ADJUST,” and releases the microphone button on his set. (This causes the radio set to act as a receiver.) b. The OP operator repeats the command to the executive in a loud voice, at the same time holding down the microphone button so that the command will be repeated back to the OP. This indicates to the OP operator that the command has been received by the executive. The OP operator nods to the BC who continues with the subsequent commands, which are transmitted and repeated as was the first command shown above. c. As soon as the executive commands “FIRE,” the OP operator transmits: “NUMBER ONE FIRED.” d. The BC senses the round and commands appropriate shifts. These commands are transmitted and repeated back just as were the initial commands. 33. Closing the Net. a. After wire communication is established radios will be shut down. The BC will order the OP operator to close the net. He will transmit: “CLOSE YOUR STATION GO AHEAD.” If the OP operator receives this message, he will receipt: “WILCO THAT IS ALL.” b. Both radio sets are turned off. The word “Wilco” is a procedure signal meaning, “Will comply.” It is used in voice procedure to receipt for a command when the com- BATTERY COMMUNICATIONS 65 mand can be carried out by the operator himself. The operator can close his station, therefore, he receipts with “Wilco.” 34. General. The flexibility of radio communication makes it an excellent means of communication during initial occupation of position and during displacements. Every effort should be made to use radios in such manner as to get the maximum possible good from them. The following is a brief discussion of a method of employment of radio within the firing battery and the battalion and applies particularly to units equipped with the SCR-194. With other types of radio sets the methods will be slightly different, but the basic principles will be the same. - 35. Initial Occupation of Position (Light Battalion). a. Upon initial occupation of position, radio communication should be established immediately. If radio operators are slow in establishing communication, one advantage of radio (its rapid installation) is lost. In a gun battery the SCR-194 is the only set available the basis of issue being three per battery. Communication should be established between the battery commander's set at the OP and the battery executive's set at the howitzer position and be utilized to transmit the initial data to the executive. By the time the battery is ready to fire the initial registration, wire will usually be in between the observation post and the firing battery. As soon as wire communication is established the radio is operated only in case of wire failure. Where the situation precludes the installation of wire, radio will be used as the primary means of communication between the observation post and the firing battery position. b. When a forward observer is sent out, he will have as part of his equipment the third SCR-194 in the battery. Upon arrival at his forward position he will check into the battery radio net. The forward observer may communicate with the battery com- mander's set at the observation post; or if a battalion fire-direction center is established, the forward observer will communicate on his battery channel with a base set at the battalion fire-direction center. This base set is part of the equipment of the battalion headquarters battery. The BC and executive sets will now usually be shut down and the net will consist of the forward observer and base set at battalion headquarters. This is an shown in (Fig. 1, Plate 2), the nets for all the SCR-194 radio sets of the battalion. c. The liaison nets of the battalion consists of SCR-194 sets, one set with each liaison officer and one base set for each liaison set. These base sets are at the battalion com- mand post, usually in the vicinity of the fire-direction center. 36. Displacement by Echelon (Light Battalion). a. Displacement by echelon within the light battalion is frequently necessary to provide continuous support to the infantry. It is to be avoided when the situation permits. It is usually resorted to when insufficient artillery is available to take over direct-support missions. b. The proper handling of the radio during displacement by echelon requires careful planning. The plan should be understood by all concerned. Variations to meet special situations may be readily introduced without the loss of flexibility. c. A plan for displacement by echelon is outlined in the succeeding paragraphs. The displacement resolves itself into three phases: (1) Reconnaissance and issuance of orders by the battalion commander. (2) Displacement of one echelon (in this case A and B batteries and the battalion headquarters). (3) Displacement of the second echelon (one battery which has been in position taking over the fires of the battalion while the first echelon was displacing). d. At the time it is desired to start a displacement, the SCR-194 sets are in operation as shown in Plate 2, Fig. 1. The battery commanders of the batteries in the first echelon will take with them their BC radio sets as they go on reconnaissance with the battalion commander. The BC and executive sets of the battery in the second echelon are taken to the observation post or wherever the BC plans to direct fire, the conduct of fire being handled by the wire circuit from the observation post to the firing battery position. e. When the battalion commander is ready to order the displacement of the first echelon, one of the SCR-194 sets in the reconnaissance party will contact one of the FA2 (1) 66 BATTERY COMMUNICATIONS five sets at the battalion fire-direction center, preferably one with which it has been com- municating. A prearranged message will be transmitted ordering the displacement of the first echelon. Fig. 1. SCR-194 radio nets of a light battalion after initial occupation. Öroa ôro B &so 2 Čuno 1. ^ N. \ / \ - | \ \ | N. \ \ \ \ N \ \ ^ & ‘A & * * Fig. 2. SCR-194 nets in operation in the light battalion during displacement of the first echelon. Plate 2. SCR-194 Radio Nets. f. On receipt of the message to displace the first echelon, the battalion executive has the liaison sets netted on one liaison frequency with the battery commander's set of the battery remaining in position. The forward observer of the battery remaining in position is directed to communicate with the battery executive's set, which is near the battery commander's set at this time. The forward observers of the two batteries displacing will not be in communication with any part of the battalion during the displacement. How- BATTERY COMMUNICATIONS 67 ever, they should be told to work with the “C” Ex set on the “C” Ex frequency in an emergency. The SCR-194 nets in operating at this time are indicated in Plate 2, Fig. 2. g. When the first echelon is in position (two batteries and the battalion headquarters) and the battalion commander is ready to displace the second echelon, he does so by having an SCR-194 set at the battalion command post establish communication with a set in the second echelon. A prearranged message is sent, preferably on the frequency used by the forward observer net. - & h. During the displacement of the second echelon, the SCR-194 radios in operation are shown in Plate 2, Fig. 3. * i. In each case, even though messages are sent by radio calling for the displacement of an echelon of the battalion, it is usual to dispatch the same order by messenger. This messenger can take longer messages than are usually transmitted by radio and in addi- tion can serve as a guide. Fig. 3. SCR-194 nets in operation in the light battalion during displacement of the Second echelon. Plate 2. SCR-194 Radio Nets—Continued. 37. Medium Battalion. No SCR-194 sets are issued to the medium battalion head- quarters battery. When it is desired to have radio communication between forward observers and the battalion fire-direction center, the battalion will borrow one set from each of the firing batteries. The medium battalion seldom will displace by echelon. When radio is used in displacement for communication between the old and the new OP, the SCR-161 or SCR-245 radio set of the battalion will be used. Questions 1. How many SCR 194 Radio sets are available to each battery? 2. Is more than one man necessary to successfully operate the 194 set? 3. Name 2 advantages and 3 disadvantages in Radio Communication. 4. There are two coils for the 194 radio. Name and describe each. 5. How many communication channels are there in the 194 set? CHAPTER VI WIRE COMMUNICATION 38. Wire Equipment. Although no one means of signal communication can be con- sidered the primary means of communication, wire communication is established by all units of the field artillery (except mechanized and antitank artillery) when prac- ticable. The principal items of equipment for the installation, operation, and main- tenance of wire communication are: the EE-5 or EE-8-A or (EE-8) telephone, the BD-9 or BD-71 switchboard, W-110 and W-150 field wire, the TE-33 repair kit con- sisting of knife and pliers, and the battery reel or the RL-26-A unit reel. 39. Circuits. Wire circuits are classified as trunk circuits, which connect two switch- boards, and local circuits, which connect a telephone to a switchboard or another tele- . phone. A wire circuit from the battalion switchboard to the battery switchboard is an example of a trunk circuit. A wire circuit from the battery observation post to the gun position or a wire circuit from the battery switchboard to the gun position is an example of a local circuit. Also circuits are classified as metallic circuits, in which two wires form a complete path for the electric current and ground-return circuits, in which the earth takes the place of one wire. METAL 1 Plate 3. A Traffic Diagram Prepared by a Battery Switchboard Operator. 40. The Telephone Directory. The telephone directory consists of two parts, one of names which designate unit headquarter and telephone centrals, and one of numbers which designate officers and offices. Telephone directory names of all units of a division usually begin with the same letter. Battalions of a regiment use the directory names of the regiment followed by Red for the first battalion, White for the second battalion, and Blue for the third battalion. Batteries use the directory name of their batteries fol- lowed by the proper letter designation. Thus, if the 3rd Armd Field Artillery Battalion has the directory name of Metal, Battery A will have the directory name of Metal A. The directory name of a called party may be abbreviated when there is no possibility of confusion at the switchboard. Directory numbers always remain the same. Installations not given a number use an appropriate abbreviation or word descriptive of that establish- ment, as Metal OP, or Metal B Guns. The telephone directory of a division is prepared by the division signal officer as an item of signal operation instructions. A copy, printed on linen tags, should be furnished for each telephone and switchboard in use. 41. Traffic Diagram. A traffic diagram is a graphic description of the wire system. The switchboard operator makes it to assist him in routing calls. By showing the 68 BATTERY COMMUNICATIONS 69 circuits installed to other centrals, it enables him to choose the most direct route for a call or, if that circuit is busy or out of order, to choose a practicable alternative route. In preparing a traffic diagram, the switchboard operator draws a large circle to represent his own central, labeling it with the proper directory name. A circuit is entered on the traffic diagram as soon as it has been brought into the switch- board, tested and found to be in working order. A local circuit from the switchboard is shown by a line terminating in a dot, and by the directory number of the party served by that circuit. A trunk circuit is shown by a line terminating in a circle bearing the directory name of the distant telephone central. The number of circuits connecting the telephone centrals is noted on the diagram. Local circuits pertaining to other telephone centrals are not shown. As time permits, the operator calls the various telephone centrals connected with his own, inquiries as to the trunk circuits which they have, and enters the information thus received on his traffic diagram. In this way the diagram is built up to include all adjacent telephone centrals. Plate 3 shows a traffic diagram prepared by a battery switchboard operator. 42. Phonetic Alphabet. When it is necessary, for clarity, to spell out words or use numerals in telephone transmission use the following pronunciation: Pronunciation of numerals. Transmit numerals as digits, except in the case of “hun- dred” or “thousand,” when you use word “hundred” or “thousand.” Numeral Spoken as Numeral Spoken as O Ze-ro 5 Fi-iv I Wun 6 Siks 2 Too 7 Sev-ven 3 Thuh-ree 8 Ate 4 Fo-wer 9 Ni-yen Examples Numeral Spoken as 44 Fo-wer fo-wer 8o Ate ze-ro . 136 Wun thuh-ree siks 500 Fi-iv hun-dred 1478 Wun fo-wer sev-ven ate 2400 Too fo-wer hundred 7ooo Sev-ven thou-sand 16ooo Wun siks thou-sand 43. Description. The EE-5 field telephone is of the local-battery, magneto type. It is designed for use on local-battery systems only and cannot be used on common-battery systems. It may be used either on a complete metallic circuit or on a ground-return circuit. It is contained in a leather case, has a carrying strap and weighs 10% pounds total. The component parts, except the handset, are mounted on an aluminum frame with a hardwood top panel which mount the L and G terminals for connection to a wire circuit, external-battery connections, and a spring clip for securing the generator crank. A compartment is provided in the carrying case for the handset and the handset cord. The handset, connected to the other operating equipment by the handset cord, contains the transmitter, the receiver, and the push-button switch. When the handset is to be placed in its compartment, wrap the handset cord around the handset as shown in Plate 4. Direct current for talking circuit is provided by one BA-9 battery (4.5 volts), which fits into a compartment beneath the top panel. A strong spring, which grips the edge of the battery, holds the battery terminals against the contacts in the rear of the compartment. Plate 4 shows a sectionalized view of the telephone. Plate 5 shows a schematic diagram of the electrical circuit. A wiring diagram is pasted and shellacked on the frame of the telephone. 44. Tests. When an EE-5 telephone is issued to an operator, he should give it the following tests: a. Open the case and remove the handset from its compartment, unwind the cord from the handset by rotating the handset and inspect the handset and handset cord. b. Insert a good BA-9 battery into the battery compartment. (Before inserting the battery, remove the paraffin coating from its terminals and bend them as shown in 70 BATTERY COMMUNICATIONS Plate 6.) If a BA-9 battery is not available, connect any 4.5-volt battery to the contacts marked BATT on the top panel. Never exceed 4.5 volts. c. Remove the generator crank from its spring clip and attach it to the generator shaft. d. Connect the L and G terminals to those of a tested telephone. Turn the generator crank of each telephone and be certain that the buzzer of the other telephone operates. Operate the handset switch of each telephone, talk into the transmitter, and be certain the conversation is audible in the receiver of the other telephone. ; 5 6 12 13 1. External battery terminals. 8. Transmitter. 2. Handset compartment. 9. Battery compartment. 3. Handset terminals. 10. Buzzer. 4. Automatic switch. 11. Protector strip. 5. Condenser. 12. Receiver. |6. Generator. 13. Push button. 7. L and G terminals. Plate 4. Sectionalized View of the EE-5 Telephone. e. If it is necessary to test a telephone by itself proceed as follows: (1) To test the generator circuit, place the fingers across the L and G terminals and turn the generator crank. A shock should be felt in the fingers. If the shock is not felt, wet the fingers and repeat the test. (2) To test the talking and listening circuits, short-circuit the L and G terminals with a piece of metal, operate the handset switch, and blow into the transmitter. The blowing sound should be clearly audible in the receiver. Remove the short circuit and repeat the test. The blowing sound, if audible, at all, should be very faint. (3) To test the ringer circuit, remove the telephone from its case, short-circuit from the spring contact to the upper screw contact on the automatic switch of the generator, BATTERY COMMUNICATIONS 71 and turn the generator crank. The buzzer should operate. (This is widely known as the 100% test). 45. Installation. Before connecting the telephone to a wire circuit, remove the in- sulation from the wires and clean the stranded conductors to insure good electrical con- tact. In removing the insulation, bruise a short section of it (about two inches) several Handset Handset tenure & S (ſ § - N \ |\G |R Rec Protector 2 — ~5Automatic switch \ | – L strip N Buzzer / \ º \ Tr / --|---|--- —-O -º-º: N 2^ N > < * E N- *~ - _^ 2’ |= s <— ſº Bottery Madneto- º §ºo, S, P iſ Condense” — Induction coil Plate 5. Schematic Diagram of the Circuits of the EE-5 Telephone. Fig. 1. As issued. Fig. 2. Prepared for use. Plate 6. The BA-9 Telephone Battery. inches from the end of each wire. Remove the insulation from the bruised section, leav- ing the firm insulation on the ends of the wire. In cleaning the stranded conductors, scrape them with the back of the screwdriver blade of the issue knife. Open the case, place the wires around the screw contacts L and G, and screw them down firmly. The space between the L and G terminals is small, and unless the insulation is left on the 72, BATTERY COMMUNICATIONS ends of the wires there is a possibility of the strands of one wire making contact with those of the other wire or the other terminal, thus causing a short circuit. If the telephone is to be connected to a ground-return circuit, connect both wires of the twisted pair to the L terminal and connect a short length of wire to the G terminal and to a ground rod. Remove the crank from its clip on the top panel and attach it to the generator shaft. Remove the handset from its compartment. 46. Removal From Service. When removing an EE-5 telephone from a wire circuit, (1) replace the handset cord on the handset by rotating the handset and place it receiver end down in its compartment. Be certain the push button is not depressed. (2) Remove the crank from the generator shaft and place it under its clip. (3) Disconnect the wires and close the case. Never disconnect a telephone from a wire circuit without notifying the operator at the other end. 47. Care and Maintenance. a. If the telephone is to be removed from service for several days, remove the battery from its compartment. Occasionally, remove the tele- phone from its case, blow the dust and dirt out of the equipment, and clean the case with saddle soap and soften with neat's-foot oil. b. If the calling circuit fails to function, inspect the generator and the contacts of the automatic switch to be certain that they are clean and are making contact. Inspect the protector strip and remove any dirt or dust. Listen in the receiver while turning the generator crank; if the ringing sound is heard loudly, the generator is in working condition and the condenser is short-circuited. c. If clicks are heard in the receiver when the push button is depressed in making the test of the talking and listening circuits, the listening circuit probably is satisfactory and the talking circuit is continuous. If the blowing sound is not audible in the receiver, the fault probably is a packed transmitter. Jar the transmitter against the palm of the hand several times. This should cause the carbon granules to loosen and the transmitter to function properly. Inspect the battery and its contacts in the battery compartment. A battery of more than 4.5 volts will cause the carbon granules in the transmitter to heat and to pack. If the listening circuit is inoperative, inspect the receiver. Remove any dirt or rust from the pole pieces and check the wiring in the receiver. Place the brown side of the diaphragm next to the pole pieces. Replace a frayed or broken handset cord by disconnecting the three contacts on the handset terminals and on the mounting in the handset and by installing a new cord. Connect the wire having a green tracer to G, the wire having a red tracer to R, and the wire having a yellow tracer to Y. Inspect the contacts of the push-button switch in the handset. Be certain the contacts are clean and that they touch when the push button is depressed. d. If the buzzer does not operate, inspect the automatic switch on the generator to make certain the contact next to the generator is made when the generator is at rest. Inspect the buzzer for loose connections. Adjust the armature adjusting screw which holds the armature in place above the electromagnets, and tighten the adjustable nuts on the yoke. Listen for the ringing in the receiver. If it is very loud, the buzzer may be in working order and the condenser short-circuited. 48. Description. The EE-8-A, which replaces the EE-5 telephone, is designed for use on either a local battery talking and signaling or a local battery talking and a com mon battery signaling system. It can use either a complete metallic circuit or a ground- return circuit. It is contained in a leather case, has a carrying strap, and weighs 9% pounds total. A light aluminum frame completely incloses all the equipment except the handset. Two removable side plates provide access to the equipment. A compartment for the handset and handset cord is provided in the carrying case. The handset con- tains the transmitter, the receiver, and the handset switch. The handset is connected to the other operating equipment by the handset cord, a three-conductor cord terminat- ing at the handset terminal on the top panel of the frame. On the top panel of the aluminum frame are mounted the handset mounting, external-battery connections, line terminals L1 and L2 for connecting a wire circuit, a three-conductor jack for attach- ment of a head and chest set, a lever switch on which the handset is hung when the BATTERY COMMUNICATIONS 73 telephone is used on a common battery system, and a screw switch which converts the telephone, from either a local battery signaling or common battery signaling to the other. Although the EE-8-A telephone is similar to the EE-5 telephone, the component parts of the EE-8-A are of new design, more compact, and more efficient. Direct cur- rent for the talking circuit is furnished by two BA-30 batteries in series (total of 3 volts), which give satisfactory operation for periods of from 10 hours continuous duty to 45 days light duty. The generator crank folds into a recess in the case when it is released. Leave it connected to the generator at all times. A wiring diagram and a schematic diagram are pasted and shellacked on the chassis of the telephone. 49. Tests. When an EE-8-A telephone is issued to an operator, it should be given the following tests: a. Open the case and inspect the screw switch. Be certain that it is turned in a counter- clockwise direction to a positive stop. b. Remove the handset from its compartment and inspect the handset, the handset cord, and the handset connections on the top panel of the frame. c. Insert two good BA-30 batteries in the battery compartment. If BA-30 batteries are not available, other batteries, whose total voltage does not exceed three volts, may be connected to the external-battery binding posts marked T & BAT + and BAT —. d. If a tested telephone is available, connect it to the telephone under test. Turn the generator crank of each telephone and be certain the ringer of the other telephone operates. Talk over each telephone and be certain the conversation is audible in the receiver of the other. e. If it is necessary to test the telephone by itself, proceed as follows: (1) To test the generator circuit, place the fingers across L1 and L2, and turn the generator crank. A shock should be felt in the fingers. (2) To test the talking and listening circuits, operate the handset switch and listen in the receiver; clicks should be heard. Blow into the transmitter (handset switch operated); the blowing sound should be heard clearly in the receiver. The test should be repeated with L1 and L2 shorted. The blowing sound should now have a deeper tCIle. (3) To test the ringer circuit, remove the telephone from its case, remove one side plate from the chassis, short-circuit from the spring contact to the upper screw contact of the automatic switch of the generator, and turn the generator crank. The ringer should operate. Do not make this test in the field. 50. Installation. Before connecting an EE-8-A telephone to a wire circuit, remove % inch of insulation from the ends of the wires and scrape the stranded conductors to insure a good electrical contact. Insert the wires through the holes in the terminals Ll and L2 and screw the knurled caps down firmly against the wires. Do not use pliers or excessive force. If the telephone is used on a ground-return circuit, connect the single wire (or both wires of a twisted pair) to either L1 or L2, and connect a short length of wire to the other contact and to a ground rod. Remove the handset from its compartment. 51. Removal From Service. When removing an EE-8-A telephone from a wire circuit, replace the handset and the handset cord in the compartment by folding the handset cord along the side of the handset; remove the wires from the line terminals and close the case. Never disconnect a telephone from a wire circuit without notifying the operator at the other end. 52. Care and Maintenance. a. When an EE-8-A telephone is removed from service for more than a few hours, remove the batteries. Leaving the batteries in the telephone may result in much trouble. Leakage of the electrolyte will cause corrosion of contacts and other metal parts. Occasionally, remove the telephone from its case, blow the dust and dirt out of the equipment, and clean the case with saddle soap and soften with neat's-foot oil. Return the telephone to its case and replace the screws immedi- ately, before the case dries and shrinks. b. If the generator circuit fails to function, inspect, and, if necessary, clean and adjust 74 BATTERY COMMUNICATIONS the generator spring contacts. The generator is lubricated with a nonfluid lubricant and none other should be used. Lubricants containing graphite should be avoided. c. If the blowing sound is not audible in the receiver when testing the talking and listening circuits, the trouble may be in either circuit. Turn the generator crank and if the sound of the generator is heard in the receiver the listening circuits is satisfactory. The trouble is in the talking circuit. If the sound of the generator is not audible in the receiver, the trouble may be in the receiver. Inspect the receiver. If there is dirt between the receiver face and the diaphragm, remove it by means of paper strips. The receiver and transmitter units cannot be disassembled. In case of trouble in either unit, the entire unit must be replaced. L | Common-battery | holding coila O— Bot — sº f ( . )(2) 2 Af _- -N Ringer 2 -- * / º Lºſ T & Bat 4T TS N switch / | 1.97f-L \ / --> Screw c/ - * switch 3 o | º \ r -* | Automotic switch Magneto — 9 generator .5 mf A “Tºmº -sº- 2 {} -T- Handset | Plate 7. Schematic Diagram of the Circuits of the EE-8-A Telephone. d. If the ringer does not operate, examine the generator spring contacts and if neces- sary clean and adjust them. Inspect the ringer. The gong may be adjusted with respect to the clapper by means of the gong clamping screws. The air gap between the armature and the core may be increased or decreased by removing the gong and ad- justing the armature 2nd clapper mounting with respect to the frame. TELEPHONE OPERATION 53. General. a. Reserve telephone communication primarily for person-to-person con- versations, and for the transmission of firing commands and oral messages. The tele- phone is not a suitable means for a message center to use in transmitting written mes- sages. Ordinarily a written message should be sent by telegraph, radio, or messenger. b. Before initiating a telephone call, decide what you have to say to the called party and how you can say it briefly and clearly. While a conversation is taking place over a wire circuit, that circuit is denied to everyone else; consequently, make every effort to free it as soon as practicable. c. In initiating a telephone call, turn the generator crank of the telephone several times and listen in the receiver for the switchboard operator (or called party in the case of a local call) to answer. When the switchboard operator answers, give him the tele- phone directory designation of the called party. For example, if you desire to speak to the Commanding Officer, 3d Armd Field Artillery Battalion say, Metal 6, when the switchboard operator answers. d. In answering a telephone call, announce the directory name and number of that telephone followed by your official designation. For example, a telephone operator at the 3rd Armd Field Artillery Battalion command post answers the commanding officer's telephone by saying, Metal 6, Operator speaking. The sergeant major answers the same telephone by saying, Metal 6, Sergeant Major speaking. BATTERY COMMUNICATIONS 75 e. Operate the handset switch only when you are speaking into the transmitter. You thereby save the battery and cut outside noises in the receiver. 54. Transmission of an Oral Message. When speed is essential and the message is not long or difficult, an officer may have it transmitted orally. As a general rule, use this type of transmission only when the message is very short (a few words); never use it when a complete written record is essential. The following example illustrates the procedure of handling such a message. The commanding officer of Battery A desires to report to the battalion fire-direction center that 40 rounds have been fired on concentration 36. The operations required are as follows: a. BC to OP telephone operator, Oral message for fire-direction center. b. The telephone operator calls the battalion fire-direction center, and when the tele- phone operator there answers he says, Oral message for fire-direction center from Battery Afirm. c. FDC operator (loudly) to FD center, Oral message for fire-direction center from Battery Afirm. d. S-3 (or officer acting for him), Go ahead. e. FDC operator to OP operator, Go ahead. f. OP operator to BC, Go ahead. g. BC to OP operator, Four zero rounds fired on concentration three six. That is all. h. OP operator to FDC operator, Four zero rounds fired on concentration three six. That is all. i. FDC operator to S-3 (loudly), Four zero rounds fired on concentration three six. That is all. * j. S-3 to FDC operator. Roger. k. FDC operator to OP operator. Roger. l, OP operator to BC, Roger. m. When the receiving officer gives Roger, he becomes responsible that any record necessary is made. 55. Transmission of a Written Message. a. General. Normally a written message should be addressed to the commanding officer of the unit to which the message pertains and should be signed in the name of the commanding officer of the unit sending the message. Only rarely should written messages be transmitted by telephone. Should it become necessary to transmit a written message by telephone, try the following sug- gested procedures. b. Calling. When a telephone operator is given a message for transmission, he imme- diately initiates a call, by directory designation, or the addressee. When the called party answers, the operator identifies himself and notifies the called party that he has a message, as This is Metal A OP, take this message. The called party fills in on a message blank above of FICIAL DESIGNATION OF SENDER, the commanding officer indicated by the calling party's directory name, and says Go ahead. The calling party then transmits the text of the message and the time signed. \ c. Handling the message. The transmitting operator must exercise care to insure that the message is correctly received. He transmits the message phrase by phrase, waiting after each phrase to hear the receiving operator repeat it. Proper names, dates, hours, and coordinates are transmitted singly. Any word susceptible to misunderstanding is spelled out immediately after it is transmitted. Use the phonetic alphabet in such spelling and in the transmission of individual letters. During each pause by the transmitting operator, the receiving operator repeats the word or phrase transmitted, as he writes it making a duplicate. Make the repetition clearly and distinctly in the same form as the transmission. In case the receiving operator does not understand a word or phrase, he immediately says Repeat. The transmitting operator then retransmits that portion. In case the receiving operator repeats a word or phrase incorrectly, the transmitting operator says Error and retransmits that portion, emphasizing the part in which the error occurred. When the transmission is completed the receiving operator verifies the message by saying Roger. If there are no further messages the transmitting operator says That is all, and 76 BATTERY COMMUNICATIONS both ring off. Both operators record the time of receipt and their personal signs on their copies. d. Example. The following example of the transmission of a telephone message illus- trates the procedure: (1) The message shown below is given by the battery commander to the telephone operator on the command line at the battery observation post. (2) The telephone operator calls Metal 6. These spaces for Message Center Only Time Filed Msg Cen No. How Sent MESSAGE (Submit to Message Center in Duplicate) * s s a • * * * * * s s s 6 tº * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * s e s e s tº - - e º 'º e (Classification) O DATE TO CO 3RD ARMD FA Bn Have only 4% rounds HE left in Btry. CO Btry A 8:16 A Official Designation of Sender Time Signed Capt. FA Signature and Grade of Writer. A field message as written. (3) The telephone operator at the command and operation center of the 3rd Armd Field Artillery Battalion answers the call Metal 6, operator speaking. (4) The telephone operator at the battery says, This is Metal A OP, take this message. (5) The operator fills in on his message blank after TO, CO 3rd Armd FA Bn, and above OFFICIAL DESIGNATION OF SENDER, CO Btry A, and says, Go ahead. (6) The battery operator transmits the message: Have only fo—wer ze-ro rounds (Waits while the battalion oper- ator repeats the phrase back). Hypo easy - (Waits for repetition). Left in battery (Waits for repetition). Ni-yen wun siks A (Waits for repetition). (7) The battalion operator says: Roger. (8) The battery operator says, That is all, and both operators ring off. (9) Each operator records the time received and his personal sign (usually his initials) below the message and encircles them. (10) When a message is addressed to a unit which has a message-center telephone, the same procedure is followed except that the call is initiated for the message center. When the addressee or the official designation of sender is other than commanding officer, the telephone operator must include the addressee or designation in his trans- mission. 56. Description. a. General. A switchboard is a device for interconnecting wire cir- cuits. With its telephone, it includes a means of receiving and identifying the signal from a calling party, of calling a called party, and of talking to each party. The BD-9 (11) switchboard used by field artillery units is known as the monocord switchboard. It is made up of unit panels, each of which (together with the operator's phone) fur- nishes all the means listed above for that circuit. Each unit has a cord, plug, and jack which furnish a means of interconnection between units and hence between circuits con- nected to them. There is no direct electrical connection between units other than those BATTERY COMMUNICATIONS 77 required to furnish the supplementary functions of night alarm and ground. The units are mounted in groups in wooden frames from which they may be removed for repair or replacement. The operator's set (a telephone, EE-5 or EE-8-A) is connected to a plug which is part of the board. No connection is made between the operator's set and any unit except by this plug and its connecting cord. Two types of switch- boards are issued to FA units, the BD-9 (four drop) and BD-11 (twelve drop). They are identical except for the number of units and the size of the frame. *- *le m bell -2 To ground rod AN º in the ground A A G Top bus ber Middle bus bor Bottom bus bor L NZ sº. To oper at of S telephone B)(B) NZ I c. night of or m bell bettery : Operator 5 cord and plug Plate 8. Frame and Permanent Wiring of the BD-9 Switchboard. b. The frame. The frame is made of hardwood and is varnished to resist moisture. Its function is to hold the switchboard units firmly in place and to protect them from dust and mechanical injury. Extending across the back of the frame are three hori- zontal brass bus bars. In addition to providing a mechanical support for the units, the top bus bar serves as a common ground connection and the middle and bottom bus bars serve as night-alarm and night-alarm-battery connections for all units. Three Fahnestock clips are installed on the top of the frame and four on the bottom. The purpose of each is indicated by a marking on the wood adjacent to it. Plate 8 shows diagrammatically the bus bars, the operator's cord and plug, the Fahnestock clips, and the permanent wiring between them. c. The EE-2 unit. The EE-2 switchboard unit includes all the apparatus necessary for the switchboard terminus of one wire circuit. Each unit is entirely independent of every other unit except for the auxiliary night-alarm and ground circuits. Plate 9 shows the relative location of the parts on the panel of insulating material. The unit is held firmly in place in the frame against the bus bars by two mounting screws, one of which screws into the top bus bar and one of which screws into the bottom bus bar. The terminal blocks are provided with screws by means of which the twisted-pair wire circuit is con- nected to the unit. The lightning arrester is a small, toothed washer held in place be- tween the terminal blocks by the upper mounting screws. Excessive charges of electricity coming in over the wire circuit jump across the small air gap between this washer and 78 BATTERY COMMUNICATIONS the terminal blocks, pass through the upper mounting screw to the upper bus bar and then pass to the ground. The glass-inclosed fuses which fit into spring connections below the terminal blocks, protect the unit against excessive current in the wire circuit. Ex- O | \\ O -Top bus bor 2 Lightning orrestér __ with mounty,3 screw { [. lſ on magnet core -Terminol block Line signal, coils | HDesignation strip _^" Line signal * Trip latch te º Night alsº bus bar Signal drop alarm spring contact Jack tip spºn; Night alarm contact e | Jk. signal contac - IJk. sleeve brº I Unit plug Mounting screw Bottom bus' bar To operetor's lºhone Fig. 1. Skeleton drawing.’ Plate 9. The EE-2 Switchboard Unit. cessive current, which might damage the equipment, causes the fuses to burn out, opening the circuit through the unit. Below the fuses is placed a designation strip of white celluloid. On it write the code designation of the organization served by that wnit. The signal drop is a flat piece of material, hinged to the panel at its lower edge, BATTERY COMMUNICATIONS 79 and normally held in a vertical position by the brass trip latch. The trip latch is fastened to the line signal armature. When the line signal coils are energized by current passing through them, the armature is attracted and the trip latch is raised, releasing the - Bell Ground F----(3) | | | J | T | | | Line Top Bar | | +3 Line. 25 | § C) ă 3Fºse . =} 3: --> -c. .gſ, 2. º | | | [H- Drop Maanet Middle Ear | Triplºtch | F-----------|- _T^_ Line i ! ional | t--ºf- _** ** __Kośhütter t--- Alarm Spring Contact _/TA Tip Bºrşst ----, Anviyº, Foottorn Bar | | Sleeve Contact | | | º, @) ©. Setter @ * Cord Plug | Çoperators Plug To line and Ground Terminals of Operator's Telephone Fig. 2. Schematic wiring diagram, night-alarm and ground connections added. Plate 9. The EE-2 Switchboard Unit—Continued. signal drop which falls by gravity to a horizontal position. When the signal drop falls, its lower edge forces the night-alarm spring against its contact and completes the night- alarm circuit. When the unit is not in use the drop is held in a vertical position by the spring clip. The jack consists of the opening in the panel and the three spring 80 BATTERY COMMUNICATIONS contacts (tip, sleeve, and signal) in rear. The tip and sleeve spring contacts are con- nected to the terminal blocks and to the unit cord and plug. The signal contact, which normally is in contact with the tip spring contact, is connected through the line signal coils to the sleeve spring contact and its terminal block. When a plug is inserted into the jack, the tip and sleeve of the plug make contact with the tip and sleeve spring contacts of the jack, and contact of the signal contact with the tip spring contact is broken. This connects the inserted plug and cord directly to the terminal blocks of the unit and disconnects the line signaling circuit through the coils. The unit cord con- nects the unit plug to the tip and sleeve contacts of its unit jack. Thus, if the plug of one unit is inserted into the jack of another unit, the two wire circuits connected to the terminal blocks of those units are electrically connected. O NIGHT ALARM BELL 356 (3)&YS Öe MONOCORD MONOCORD OPERATOR'S SWITCHEOARD SWITCHEOARD TELEPHONE l, @@@@ º | NIGHT ALARM BELL GROUND TET BATTERY ROD — Plate 10. Two BD-9 Switchboards Installed for Operation as a Single Unit. d. Operator's equipment. The operator's equipment consists of an EE-5 telephone, night-alarm bell, night-alarm battery, ground rod, and necessary wires to connect them to the Fahnestock clips on the frame. The operator's cord and plug and any unit's cord and plug are identical except that the operator's cord and plug is colored red for ready identification. It is to connect the operator's telephone to any switchboard unit for calling or talking. e. The carrying case. The carrying case is made of fiber and is provided with a carry- ing strap. It provides a convenient method of protecting and carrying the switchboard. 57. Installation. a. There are three principles which must be followed in installing a BD-9 monocord switchboard. (1) It must be secured firmly by means of the four holes in the frame, so that the operator may operate the board efficiently. If it is not secured firmly it is unsteady when the operator makes connections, signal drops will fall, and the operator will be confused. (2) It must be mounted vertically or leaning slightly forward. When a signal drop is released by the trip latch, it falls by gravity to a horizontal position. If the switchboard is leaning back the drop will not fall when released. (3) It must be mounted high enough to prevent contact of the plugs with the BATTERY COMMUNICATIONS 81 ground. If the plugs come in contact with the ground, a short circuit will develop across the tip and sleeve and the units will not function properly. b. Often two BD-9 switchboards are necessary to accommodate the wire circuits of a complete battery wire system. In this case the second switchboard is installed beside the first, and similarly lettered Fahnestock clips on the two switchboard frames are connected by pieces of wire (Plate 10). The operator's telephone is connected to L1 and L2 of either switchboard. The night-alarm bell is connected to A and A1 of either switchboard. The battery is connected to B and B1 of either switchboard. The ground rod is connected to G of either switchboard. The operator's telephone must be secured firmly, so the operator may turn the crank with ease. The ground connection and the connections to the operator's telephone must always be made. The connections to the night-alarm bell and battery should be made prior to use of the switchboard at night. c. Wire circuits are connected to switchboard units as soon as the wires are turned over by the personnel laying them. After each circuit is connected to the terminal blocks of a unit, check it by calling the party connected to it and having him call the switchboard. Verify the directory name or number for each circuit and enter in pencil on the designation strip. 58. Tests. Before using the switchboard give it certain tests to insure that it is in satisfactory operating condition. These tests below are based on the premise that an EE-5 telephone in satisfactory operating condition is connected to L1 and L2. a. Place the fingers across the gap between the tip and sleeve contacts of the operator's plug and turn the crank of the operator's telephone. A shock should be felt in the fingers. * b. Place the operator's plug across the terminal blocks of the first EE-2 unit and turn the generator crank. The signal drop of that unit should fall. c. Place the operator's plug in the jack of the first unit, place the tip and sleeve con- tacts of the first unit plug across the terminal block of the second unit, and turn the generator crank. The signal drop of the second unit should fall. d. Place the unit plug of the first unit in the jack of the second unit, place the unit plug of the second unit across the terminal blocks of the third unit, and turn the generator crank. The signal drop of the third unit should fall. e. Continue until the last unit plug is reached. Place the fingers across the gap between the tip and sleeve contacts of that plug and turn the generator crank. A shock should be felt in the fingers. f. If any unit does not respond to the test, place its plug in its jack, skip over it, and go to the next unit. When the other units have been tested, return to the unserviceable unit and either repair or replace it. g. Connect the operator's telephone to B and B1, place the fingers across A and A1, release the drops of each unit in turn, and turn the generator crank. A shock should be felt in the fingers if the night-alarm circuit is satisfactory. If a night-alarm bell and battery have been connected prior to tests a and f, the bell should ring each time a drop falls, and test g will not be necessary. 59. Care and Maintenance. a. General. When not in use, the switchboard should be kept in its fiber case. Dirt should not be allowed to accumulate on any part of the switchboard. All mounting screws and all wire connections should be kept tight. During transportation, the signal drops should be held closed by the spring clips. b. EE-2 units. (1) Since the units are independent of each other, each being complete in itself, the unserviceable condition of a unit does not affect the proper operation of the rest of the switchboard. Occasionally, remove the EE-2 units from the frame, and inspect, and clean them. The EE-2 units may be removed from the frame by removing the mounting screws at the top and at the bottom. The metal contacts should be cleaned, the wiring checked for loose or frayed connections, and the trip latch adjusted for proper operation of the signal drop. Take particular care to keep dirt and dust from accumulating between the toothed washer (lightning arrester) on the upper 82 . BATTERY COMMUNICATIONS mounting screw and the terminal blocks. Dirt and dust, if allowed to accumulate in the air gap, will introduce a leak to the ground and between the wires, with re- sulting poor transmission. Remove worn or frayed cords from units and install service- able cords. The trip latch may be adjusted by means of the small screw mounted horizontally in rear of the armature. Blown-out fuses are usually indicated by a darkening of the glass tubing, which can be readily observed against the white back- ground. (2) If, in testing the switchboard, a unit does not respond to the test, the cause of failure must be isolated. If the signal drop does not fall when the unit plug of the previously tested unit is placed across the terminal blocks and the crank turned, the trouble may be a blown fuse, a short circuit, or an open circuit. Inspect the fuses. If you find a fuse with the wire in the center of the glass tube broken, remove it by pressing it up and out, and insert a good one. If the fault is not obvious, place the plug of an adjoining unit across the contacts at the bottom of the fuses and turn the crank. If the signal drop falls the fault is in the fuses, and by testing from the top of one to the bottom of the other the blown fuse may be detected. If the drop does not fall the trouble is in the unit. Examine the trip latch to be certain it releases the signal drop when the crank is turned. Inspect the signal contact to be certain it makes contact with the tip spring contact of the jack. Examine the cord and plug and the wiring of the unit for possible short circuits. 60. Description. a. General. The BD-71 monocord switch-board is an improved mono- cord switchboard. The BD-71 switchboard weighs 50 pounds. This switchboard accom- modates six wire circuits, two of which are permanently simplexed for ground-return telegraphy or telephony. All elements of the switchboard are fitted into a strong 7-ply, wooden case which is provided with carrying handles, an adjustable carrying strap, and four collapsible steel legs. The case is divided into three principal compart- ments. The front or operating compartment contains the switchboard units, cords, and the operator's equipment. The top or terminal compartment contains the line-terminal strip with binding posts for the incoming wire circuits, the ground binding post, and the simplexed telegraph or telephone binding posts. The rear compartment incloses the repeating coils, the battery trough for batteries in use, a rack for spare batteries, and the multiple-terminal strip. The switchboard includes the necessary equipment to permit the operator to ring and talk to any party, a night alarm, and two night lights. b. The operating compartment. (1) Cover. The cover of the operating compartment consists of two panels. The upper panel may be placed to serve as a rain or sun shade or be pushed back into a recess at the top of the case. The lower panel, hinged at the bottom and provided with a brace to hold it horizontally when open, serves as a writ- ing surface. A sheet of white pyralin is mounted on the writing surface for the notation of the traffic diagram and other data. (2) The EE-2-B units and installation. (Plate 11). The EE-2-B switchboard units are mounted in the center section of the compartment. Each unit consists of two terminal blocks at the top, a ring-talk key, a signal drop, a jack, and unit cord and plug, all inter- wired and connected to the bus bars of the switchboard by means of two flexible wire leads and three metal contacts. The units are mounted in position by means of two screws, one on the top and one on the bottom. When the key of any unit is placed in the talk position (down), the operator's listening circuit is connected to the terminal blocks of that unit and the operator's talking circuit is closed. When the key of a unit is in the center (neutral) position, the line-signal coils are connected across the terminal blocks through the tip and signal contacts of the jack. Incoming ringing current, passing through the line-signal coils, causes the trip latch to be raised, releas- ing the signal drop which falls by gravity to a horizontal position. The position of the trip latch with respect to the signal drop is adjustable by means of the locked screw in the rear of the armature. The cord and plug serve to connect the unit to any other unit. A designation strip below the ring-talk key is provided for noting the directory name or number served by that unit. (3) The telephone panel. The telephone panel is to the right of the switchboard BATTERY COMMUNICATIONS 83 units. In this panel are mounted the night-alarm bell and all the elements essential to the operator for calling and talking, except the head-and-chest set. The telephone panel framework may be removed by taking out the two screws at the top and the three screws at the bottom. All the equipment is wired to the switchboard by means of a flexible cable. Terminal blocks Designation strip Ring-talk key Signal drop tº . . . ſ º º Spring clip º | Trip atch Night-alarm spring Opening in jack Unit cord Unit plug Tip contact of plug Plate 11. The EE-2 Switchboard Unit. (4) The jack panel. The panel to the left of the switchboard units is known as the jack panel. It accommodates a three conductor jack, three binding posts, one of the panel lights, and the night-alarm and light switches. All elements are permanently interwired and connected to the remaining equipment by means of a flexible cable. The jack serves to connect the head-and-chest set by means of its cord and plug. Bind. ing posts are provided to serve as an alternate means of connecting a head-and-chest 84 BATTERY COMMUNICATIONS set or a telephone handset. The light illuminates the designation strips, key handles, drops, jacks, and cords of the switchboard units. - (5) The head-and-chest set. The head-and-chest set is made up of a chest trans- mitter unit, a receiver, a wire head-band and pad, and a connecting cord and plug. The chest unit includes a transmitter and a switch for closing the talking circuit. Straps are provided to hold the transmitter in place in front of the operator. The receiver is fitted to a wire head-band. The connecting cord consists of three conductors and connects the transmitter and receiver to the operator's telephone equipment by means of the three-conductor plug and the wiring in the switchboard. c. The rear compartment. The rear compartment incloses the repeating coils, batteries, and the multiple-terminal strip used when operating two or more switchboards together as one unit. The repeating coils are provided with balanced line windings for simplex telephone or telegraph use, and are mounted centrally so that all terminal connections are accessible for inspection and test. Six BA-30 batteries are used in the switchboard and are located in the trough at the bottom of the compartment. Six spare batteries are placed in the vertical rack at the right side. The terminals for multiple connections are mounted on an insulating panel at the left. The edge of the case is fitted with a metal and sponge-rubber closure designed to serve as a rain-proof outlet for multiple connections. The compartment is closed by means of the cover. It is hinged at the bottom and is provided with spring catches on the inside for closing while in service, and with latches at the top for closing upon removal from service. The wiring dia. gram of the entire switchboard is mounted on the inside of the cover. d. The terminal compartment. The top or terminal compartment is especially de- signed to provide facilities for connecting the wire circuits to the switchboard. A line- terminal strip is provided with binding posts so constructed as to permit connection of the wire without removing any insulation whatsoever. Steel pins with hardened points riveted to the knurled tops of the binding posts pierce the wire through the insulation and make positive contact. Each terminal is fitted with a spark gap to ground in the form of an air space between the pointed metal strip at the base of each post and a bar running between each pair of terminals. This bar is connected to the ground binding post. Two upright metal corner posts serve to keep the wires in place at either end of the compartment. The sides at either end of the cover, ordinarily held closed by spring hinges, provide the required outlet clearance when the compartment is closed after line connections have been made. A white sheet of pyralin mounted on the under side of the cover serves as a surface on which wire data may be written and erased. e. Night alarm and lights. The night alarm consists of a bell which rings as soon as any drop falls. The alarm is set for each board by operating the NT-AL switch on the jack panel. The night lights are controlled by the LT switch on the jack panel. The reflector shades should be turned so as to direct the light across the designation strips of the switchboard units. 61. Installation. a. Setting up the switchboard. As transported, the switchboard is entirely closed with the steel supporting legs telescoped, folded, and locked in place underneath the case. The legs should be unfolded and extended full length by setting the entire switchboard sideways or upside down on the ground, and then releasing the button on the spring release of each leg. The switchboard should be placed where desired in a level position with all legs in firm contact with the ground. If the switch- board is to be placed on a table or similar support, the legs should be left folded and locked in place. b. Preparing the operating compartment. The operating compartment is opened and the lower panel of the cover is hooked in place horizontally. The upper panel is adjusted to serve as a rain and sun shade or is pushed back into the recess just beneath the top of the case. The cords are pulled from under the switchboard units and the spring clips are lowered to the horizontal position. c. Installing the batteries. The rear compartment is opened, and six BA-30 batteries are placed in the battery trough so that the positive (center) terminals are toward the BATTERY COMMUNICATIONS 85 metal plate and the negative (case) terminals are toward the contact spring. If BA-30 batteries are not available, 3-volt direct-current sources may be used by connecting them to the binding posts on the multiple-terminal strip, marked +3V and —TR, and +3V and —LT. d. Preparing the operator's head-and-chest set. The neck and chest straps are adjusted. The transmitter is adjusted to position for talking. The headband and receiver are put in place and the plug is inserted into the jack on the jack panel. The toggle switch on the head-and-chest set is set to the locking position to close the transmitter circuit. This switch may be left in the locking position continuously since the trans- mitting battery is not connected until a key is placed in the talk position. e. Multiple connections. To obtain additional line capacity, two or more switchboards may be operated in multiple. To do this, the switchboards are placed adjacent to each other and the terminals marked + 3V, A, B, C, and D in the rear compartment of one board are connected with similarly marked terminals in the rear compartment of the other board. Place the wires over the sponge-rubber closure at the edge of each case before the compartment is closed. This outlet is designed to provide enough clearance for all necessary wires with the cover shut and latched. One head-and-chest set is used in operating both switchboards, the second head-and-chest set is not plugged in. If the night alarm and night lights are to be used, install four batteries in the second switchboard. In emergency, if extra batteries are not available, operate the night lights and the night alarm by running a wire between the –LT binding posts on the multiple-terminal strips. Close the NT-AL switch on the second switchboard. f. Wire connections. Connect the wire circuits to the binding posts in the top com- partment. Do not remove insulation from the wires. Secure the wires by placing them in the open slots of the binding posts and by turning down the knurled heads tightly with the fingers. Do not use pliers. A hardened steel pin pierces the insulation and makes contact with the strands of the wire. Connect wire circuits desired also for the operation of simplex telegraphy or telephony to the first two pairs of binding posts of the BD-71 switchboard. In a firing battery, connect the circuits to units of the BD-71 switchboard as follows: No. 1, battalion circuit; No. 3, command circuit to OP (or CP); No. 5, conduct-of-fire circuit to OP; No. 6, conduct-of-fire circuit to gun position. If simplex telegraphy or telephony is to be used, connect the wire from the telegraph instrument or the telephone to the binding post marked TG 1 (2) for simplexing over circuits 1 (2). Arrange all wires to lie behind the metal corner posts at either end of the compartment. Close the cover while the sides are held open. The partially open sides provides ample clearance so that the cover may be completely closed and latched with the wires in place. 62. Tests. a. General. Before the wire circuits are connected to the line terminals, the operator should make certain tests of the switchboard to insure that all the equipment is in satisfactory operating condition. b. To test the operator's talking and listening circuits. Depress the key of that unit to the talk position, and blow into the transmitter. The sound should be heard in the receiver. c. To test the line and signal circuits. Connect a tested telephone to a pair of line terminals. Ring the phone by raising the key of that unit to the ring position and turning the generator crank of the operator's phone. See that the drop on the unit falls as the generator of the telephone is turned. If required, remove the unit and readjust the drop. The test may be combined with that of subparagraph d below. Depress the key to the talk (locking) position and talk into the transmitter of both the telephone and the switchboard. Be certain the voice can be heard distinctly in the other receiver. Each unit should be tested as prescribed above. d. To test the night-alarm circuit. To insure that the night-alarm circuit is in operat- ing order, proceed as in subparagraph c above after turning on the NT-AL switch on the jack panel. As each drop falls the bell should ring. Restoring the drop should stop the ringing of the bell. 86 BATTERY COMMUNICATIONS e. To test the light circuit. The lamps should light when the LT switch is turned on. Focus the reflectors across the designation strips of the switchboard units. 63. Maintenance. a. General. During transport, completely close all compartments of the switchboard, fold the legs and lock them in place underneath the case. When they are not in use and during movement of the switchboard, secure the signal drops of the units by the spring clips. Do not permit dirt and dust to accumulate on any part of the switchboard. Keep all mounting screws tight, and all wire connections and metal contacts clean. When the switchboard is removed from service for several days, remove the batteries from the rear compartment. b. EE-2-B units. The EE-2-B units should be removed from the operating compart- ment, inspected, and cleaned occasionally. A unit may be removed by disconnecting the line leads from the terminal blocks, removing the mounting screws at the top and bottom, and pulling out the unit. Complete removal requires the disconnection of the two flexible wire leads from their contacts. Reconnect these leads properly; connect the solid yellow lead to the bottom left screw, the yellow lead with the green tracer to the top right screw. Clean the contacts of the switch by drawing a piece of paper or a fine file between them. Adjust the position of the trip latch with reference to the signal drop by means of the locked screw mounted in rear of the armature. In re- placing worn or frayed cord, exercise care that you follow the color-code system. c. Operator's equipment. (1) Telephone equipment. Telephone parts mounted in the telephone panel may be removed and repaired individually, or the entire unit may be removed. To remove the entire unit, remove the panel screws and disconnect the leads. Remove the generator by disconnecting the leads and removing the four screws under the panel shelf. The bakelite washers and insulating strip must be retained as they are necessary to insulate the unit from the frame of the panel. Remove the jack panel for inspection and repair by removing the two retaining screws. (2) Emergency use of a field telephone as an operator's set. If the talking and listening circuits or the calling circuits of the switchboard fail and cannot be repaired immediately, use a field telephone as the operator's set. Insert the plug of the head- and-chest set in the jack of the EE-8 telephone (or connect the leads to the proper terminals of the handset mounting on the frame of the EE-5 telephone), and connect the spare cord and plug to the line binding posts of the telephone. After batteries are inserted in the telephone, place it against the right side of the switchboard and place the switchboard carrying strap around it and through the loop in the leg casting. Then double the strap back to the buckle and tighten it, so that the telephone rests securely against the side of the case in such way that the generator crank can be rotated easily by the operator. Then use the cord and plug as you use the operator's cord and plug of the BD-9 switchboard. If a spare cord and plug is not available, connect the tele- phone to a spare unit and use its cord and plug as an operator's cord and plug. When a telephone is used as an operator's set, the ring-talk keys are not used and should be left in the center position. Answer call by plugging into the jack of the calling party. To complete the call withdraw the plug, insert it in the jack of the called party, pick up the called party's unit plug, and turn the crank of the telephone. If the call is local, immediately insert the called party's plug in the calling party's jack. If it is a trunk call, delay the connection until the next switchboard operator has received and ac- knowledged the called party's number. 64. Circuits of the BD-71 Switchboard. Circuit diagrams of the BD-71 switchboard are contained in TM 11-330. OPERATION 65. General. a. Basic principles. In order that a switchboard operator, may handle traffic over the switchboard quickly, efficiently, and accurately, he must follow a very rigid routine in answering and completing calls. He must focus his attention and his eyes on the switchboard and be ready to answer a call the instant a signal drop falls. The procedure in completing a call must be practiced until the different operations become automatic. Any variation from the standard procedure slows the operation and BATTERY COMMUNICATIONS 87 delays the call. Courtesy, coolness, and patience are primary requisites of a good switchboard operator. b. Special phrases. The following prescribed phrases, where applicable, should be used my switchboard operators. (1) Metal (assigned directory name). Used in answering a call. (2) Thank you. Used by an operator to indicate that he has correctly understood a number given him and that he is proceeding to complete the call. (3) What number please? Used by an operator to request repetition of a number he has not understood. (4) Waiting? Waiting? Waiting? Used to determine whether a connection is 1I] USC. (5) What number is calling please? Used when the reply to the challenge waiting is a new number given by one of the parties, or when, for any reason, it is necessary to determine the identity of the calling party. (6) Metal does not answer. Used by an operator in reporting that a called central (Metal) does not answer. (7) Here is your party. Used when necessary to notify the calling party that the connection has been made. (8) The line is busy. Used when a calling party desires connection with a party who is talking to someone else. (9) I must interrupt, urgent call (fire mission) from . . . . . . , please hang up. Used when a routine connection has been made and one of the circuits connected is needed for an urgent call or for a fire mission. (10) The number is Metal 6, I will connect you. Used when a party asks for the commanding officer and does not use the directory name. c. Traffic rules. Normally, the switchboard operator answers calls in the order in which the signal drops fall. When several drops fall simultaneously, trunk circuits should be answered first, followed by local circuits in order of their importance. After making the connection for one call, the operator should promptly answer and complete the other calls on the switchboard. When all calls have been completed, he should supervise each in turn to determine whether or not the called party has answered. Normally, the operator does not disturb a connection until the parties connecting ring-off, the drop of the calling party falls, and his challenge waiting, repeated three times, is unanswered. However, when a circuit is needed for the transmission of a fire mission or an urgent call, the operator must interrupt established routine connections which prevent com- pletion of that call. 66. Procedure. a. General. A switchboard operator awaiting a call faces the switch- board ready to answer and complete a call the instant a drop falls. He answers calls and makes connections as rapidly as possible, consistent with accuracy and courtesy. He continually supervises connections and clears them immediately after their use is discontinued. He confines his conversation as far as possible to prescribed phrases. He speaks directly into his transmitter in clear, well-modulated tones. b. Making connections. (1) BD-9 (11) switchboard. When a drop falls, the operator inserts the operator's plug into the jack of that unit and, retaining hold of the plug, answers; as, Metal. On receiving the designation of the called party, he says thank you or what number please? if he did not understand the number. After he understands the number the operator withdraws the operator's plug, inserts it into the jack of the called party's unit, grasps the plug of that unit, and rings. If the call is for a telephone directly connected to his switchboard (local call), he immediately inserts the plug of the called party into the jack of the calling party. . If the call is for a telephone not directly con- nected to his switchboard (trunk call), he delays the final connection until the switch- board operator has answered and has received and acknowledged the designation of the called party. When the connection is completed and the called party answers, he replaces the signal drop. (2) BD-71 switchboard. When a drop falls, the switchboard operator depresses the key of that unit to talk position (down) and answers the call; as, Metal and picks up the 88 BATTERY COMMUNICATIONS plug of that unit. On receiving the designation of the called party, he says thank you if he understands the number and restores the key to the neutral position. Unless the call- ing party's key is restored to the neutral position before ringing the called party, the operation of the generator will ring back the calling party, which is undesirable. He rings the called party by holding the key of that unit in the ring position (up) and turning the generator crank several times. Immediately after ringing, he depresses the called party’s key to the talk position, and, if it is a local call, inserts the calling party's plug into the called party's jack. If it is a trunk call, he delays the connection until the distant operator has received and acknowledged the called party's number. When the connection is completed, the operator's telephone is bridged across the line, permitting him to supervise the call. When conversation begins, he restores the calling party's drop and the called party's key. If it is necessary for the operator to answer another call be- fore he has supervised the first connection, he restores the key but leaves the drop down, and proceeds to handle the other call. He then goes back to the first call, and, after supervising it, restores the drop. A drop should never be restored until the connection has been supervised. Care must be exercised that keys on two connections are never in the talk position at the same time, as the two circuits will be coupled through the opera- tor's set and cause crosstalk. After talking to any party his key should always be re- stored to the neutral position before commencing any other operation. Multiple operation is the same as operation of a single switchboard. c. Special calls. (1) Conference call. When the calling party desires simultaneous connection with more than one party, he so specifies by stating; as, Conference call, Metal 6, Minute 6, and Main 6. The operator says thank you and proceeds as before to ring one of the called parties. When the party answers, the operator cautions hold the line, conference call from Market 6, and makes the connection between that party and the calling party. He then rings the next called party and, cautioning as before, connects that party and the first called party. This procedure, with obvious modifications, applies whether the calls are trunk or local, and regardless of the number of called parties. At the completion of all the connections, the switchboard operator notifies the calling party, here are your parties, go ahead. (2) Fire mission. If a calling party says fire mission, when the battery switchboard operator answers, the operator says thank you and immediately proceeds with the indi- cated connection. He must not leave the connection until he is positive that the call has been completed. If the circuit is being used for any purpose except an urgent call, the operator breaks the connection after notifying the parties, I must interrupt, fire mission from . . . . . . , please hang up, and proceeds to complete the fire-mission call. (3) Urgent call. An urgent call is one requiring the utmost speed and must be completed immediately, regardless of other calls. If a circuit which is needed for an urgent call is engaged in any other call except another urgent call, the operator inter- rupts the connection, after cautioning, I must interrupt, urgent call from . . . , please hang up, and completes the urgent call with all possible speed. (4) Conduct-of-fire circuit. In order to provide direct telephone communication between the observation post and the gun position of a firing battery for the conduct of fire, the conduct-of-fire circuit to the observation post may be connected through the switchboard to the conduct-of-fire circuit to the gun position. The two switchboard units concerned should be cross-connected by the insertion of the plug of each unit into the jack of the other unit. The unit cords and plugs with which this connection is made should be tagged or otherwise marked so that the operator will not break the connection by mistake. The operator should check the circuit from time to time to verify its completeness. When either telephone operator rings, the buzzer of the other telephone operates; instant communication is available. d. Supervision. (1) BD-9 (11) switchboard. On completing a connection, if no other calls are waiting, the switchboard operator should check the connection by leaving the operator's plug in the called party's jack until he hears conversation between the two parties. If other calls come in before such check is made, he should plug into the un- BATTERY COMMUNICATIONS 89 checked connection as soon as possible after completing those calls. At every opportunity the switchboard operator should plug into existing connections and listen long enough to determine whether conversation is in progress. He must take care that he does not interrupt a conversation. When the parties finish their conversation, both parties ring off and the signal drop of the called party falls. The switchboard operator plugs in and challenges, waiting? If three such challenges are successively made and there is no reply, he may assume that the conversation is completed and break the connection. (2) BD-71 switchboard. After making a connection, the switchboard operator may leave the key of the called party's unit in the talk position until conversation begins. If other calls are waiting, the key should be restored to the center (neutral) position, and the other calls completed. As soon as practicable thereafter he should return to the un- checked connection, depress the key, and listen. If he hears no conversation, he should inquire, did your party answer? The operator should frequently depress the key of units which are connected, to be certain conversation is in progress. Two keys should never be depressed at the same time as crosstalk will result. When the parties have finished their conversation, both parties ring off by turning their generator cranks, and the signal drop of the calling party will fall. The operator depresses the key of that unit to the talk position, and challenges waiting? If three such challenges are made and there is no reply, he may assume that the conversation is finished and break the connection. e. Testing circuits. (1) BD-9 (11) switchboard. Each circuit connected to a switch- board should be tested at intervals, the frequency of the tests depending upon prevailing conditions and the relative importance of the circuits. In testing the switchboard, the operator inserts the operator's plug into the unit to be tested, and rings. When answered, he states the nature of the call; as, Metal Afirm, line test, give me a ring. He then re- moves the operator's plug from the jack and stands by to note the result of the ring. If the proper signal drop falls, he reinserts the plug and says Roger. (2) BD-71 suitchboard. In testing a circuit, the operator raises the key of the unit to which the circuit is connected to the ring position, turns the generator crank, and immediately depresses the key to the talk position. When his call is answered, he states, Metal, line test, give me a ring. He then places the key in the center (neutral) position, and stands by to note the result of the ring. If the proper signal drop falls, he depresses the key to the talk position, says Roger, and places the key back in the neutral position. SIMPLEXING 67. General. The term simplexing means superimposing an additional channel of communication, either ground-return telegraph or ground-return telephone, upon an existing trunk circuit. If the necessary connections are properly made, both channels of communication may be used simultaneously without mutual interference. 68. Circuits Simplexed. Trunk circuits between battalions and batteries are simplexed for ground-return telephony to provide a direct channel of telephone communication between the battalion fire-direction center and the gun position of each battery. The necessary equipment is installed and operated by wire personnel. Ground-return telephony is not secret and may be intercepted by enemy intercept stations. Conse- quently only fire-control messages may be transmitted over these circuits. 69. The Repeating Coil. To simplex a wire circuit between two units equipped with the BD-9 switchboard it is necessary to connect a repeating coil at each switchboard. Repeating coils are built into and permanently wired within BD-71 switchboard. The coil itself consists of two windings on an iron core. The ends of one winding are connected to terminals marked LINE. The ends of the other winding are connected to two terminals marked SWITCHBOARD. The midpoint of the line winding is connected to a terminal marked TELEG. 70. Connections Necessary for Simplexing. a. BD-71 switchboard. Using the BD-71 switchboard, a circuit is simplexed by connecting the wire circuit to the Number 1 (2) pair of terminals of the terminal strip and connecting the TG-1 (2) terminal to one line terminal of the ground-return telephone. The other line terminal of the telephone 90 BATTERY COMMUNICATIONS is connected to a ground stake. This ground stake may be located near the switchboard or may be located at the gun position. If located at the gun position, the ground wire should be long enough to permit necessary movement of the telephone. b. BD-9 switchboard. The repeating coil is usually located in the line as close to the switchboard terminals as practicable. The binding posts marked LINE are connected directly to the trunk circuit between the headquarters, and those marked SWITCH- BOARD are connected to the desired line-terminal blocks on the switchboard. The binding post marked TELEG is connected to the line leading to one line terminal of the telephone, the other line terminal of which is connected to a ground stake. 71. Grounds. In ground-return circuits a good low-resistance ground connection is necessary for each telephone not only to insure sufficient operating current, but also to prevent interference with neighboring telephone circuits. In a few scattered parts of the country, ground resistance may be so high as to preclude the use of ground-return telephony but it is usually possible to obtain a good ground by one of the following IIl Caſ].S. a. Drive a metal ground rod about 3 feet in length well into moist ground. Usually the ground near the roots of a shrub, cactus, or other vegetation is moist. If only dry ground is available, wet it thoroughly and pack it down around the rod. b. Use two or more grounds at least 15 feet apart connected together. WIRE-LAYING EQUIPMENT 72. General. a. Three types of reels are issued to field artillery batteries for laying and recovering wire. The RL-26-A reel unit and the RL-31 reel unit are issued to motorized batteries; the battery reel is issued to horse-drawn units; and the RL-27-A axle (Plate 12, Fig. 1) is issued to all units. Several improvisations are in general use, particularly in motorized units. b. Two types of wire drums are supplied. The DR-4 drum is used with the RL-27-A axle and with some improvised reels. It holds one-half mile of W-110 wire. The DR-5 drum is used with the RL-26-A reel unit. It holds one mile of W-110 wire. 73. The Hand Reel. (Plate 12, Fig. 2). The hand reel is a light wire-laying device which consists of the DR-4 drum mounted on the RL-27-A axle. The axle is fitted with two knurled aluminum handles with inserted bronze bushings in which the axle proper rotates. One handle is removable to permit the mounting of the drum. When used to lay wire it may be carried by two men, or it may be placed in a suitable sup- port on the ground or on a vehicle and the wire pulled off by hand. 74. The Reel Unit, RL-26-A (Plate 13). a. General description. This reel consists essentially of a small gasoline engine mounted on a frame and connected to two axles, on each of which may be mounted a DR-5 drum of wire. It is used in laying and recover- ing wire, using either or both drums. The power for recovering wire may be furnished by the engine or by hand. It may be operated from any vehicle of suitable size and strength or, exceptionally, from the ground. With two full drums in place it weighs 686 pounds. Replacement of wire is accomplished by substituting a full drum for an empty OIlê. b. Construction. Each axle is driven through a main and a secondary clutch. The lower reel axle is connected directly to its main clutch; the upper reel axle is connected to its clutch by means of a sprocket chain. The main clutches govern the rotational speed of the axles; the secondary clutches disconnect the axles and permits them to turn freely in their bearings. Loading cradles support the drums in position while the axles are being inserted or removed. Spring-operated latches hold the axles in position. c. The engine. The gasoline engine for recovering wire is mounted on the skid frame of the unit. It may be either a Lauson or Briggs and Stratton air-cooled unit, rated at 1% HP at 3600 RPM. The gasoline tank, capacity about 2 gallons, is connected to the engine by means of airplane tubing. A cut-off valve is provided at the tank. Mounted on the frame is a control panel, on which are placed the ignition switch and the choke and throttle controls. The throttle control and the choke control are operated by pulling . BATTERY COMMUNICATIONS 91 them out or pushing them in. The throttle control may be set in any desired position by a slight turn clockwise. (1) To start the engine. (a) Turn the ignition switch to ON. (b) Pull the choke control all the way out. (c) Advance the throttle by pulling out the knob. (d) Turn the engine by a thrust of the foot on the pedal. Repeat as necessary. (e) When the engine starts, depress the choke control immediately and adjust until smooth operation is secured. (f) Warm the engine by running it for a few minutes. Fig. 1. The RL-27-A axle. Fig. 2. A DR-4 drum mounted on the RL-27-A axle. Plate 12. The Hand Reel. (2) To operate the engine. (a) Regulate the speed by the throttle control. (b) Throw the axles in and out of operation, as desired, by manipulation of the main-clutch levers. d. Laying wire. Use the reel unit to lay wire as follows: Disengage both main clutches and engage both secondary clutches. Tie the ends of the wire to a stationary object and allow them to pay out as the vehicle advances. When necessary, brake the drum by use of the clutches, the loading cradle, or improvised means. From a stationary position wire is laid by pulling it off. e. Recovering wire. To recover wire by motor power, start the motor, connect the wire 92 BATTERY COMMUNICATIONS to a drum, and engage the secondary clutch of the drum. Regulate the speed of re- covery by manipulating the main clutch. Be prepared at any time to disengage it. Never tie the clutches in the engaged position. Guide the wire into the drum by per- sonnel at the reel and on the line. Personnel on the line should be at least 50 feet away from the reel and outside any loop which may be formed in the wire. To recover wire by hand, disengage all clutches and fix the handle to the proper axle. f. Care. The reel should be checked and given the same care as a motor vehicle. Lubricate the engine and other moving parts as required, fill the oil cups regularly with cylinder oil, and lubricate the sprocket chain with graphite grease. Use SAE-30 oil during the summer; SAE-20 during winter. Keep the oil level in the transmission high enough to be seen by looking down the filler spout. Check the oil after each hour of operation; after each thirty hours of operation change it. 1. Clutch drum. 11. Spring-operated latch. 2. Main-clutch shifting lever for upper reel. 12. Sprocket-chain housing. 3. Main-clutch shifting lever for lower reel. 13. Ignition switch. 4. One-cylinder gasoline engine. 14. Carburetor throttle. 5. Foot starter. - 15. Carburetor choke. 6. Secondary-clutch levers. 16. Loading cradles. 7. Exhaust pipe. 17. Hand crank. 8. Tool for withdrawing axles. 18. Oil filler plug. 9. Square reel axles. 19. Drain plug. 10. Set screw for adjusting sprocket chain. Plate 13. The RL-26-A Reel. 75. The Battery Reel. a. Description. The battery reel is a two-wheeled vehicle used by horse or horse-drawn batteries for laying and recovering wire in the field. It is equipped with one drum, mechanically rotated and controlled, one large chest (instru- ment), one small chest (with two compartments), wireman's seat, and appropriate parts and fittings especially designed for and used only on this reel. It holds about 2% miles of W-110 wire. It is drawn by four horses. The operation of the drum is BATTERY COMMUNICATIONS 93 controlled by a hand lever, which acts in the nature of a clutch lever, engaging and disengaging the drum from the wheel of the cart. b. Refilling. In transferring wire from a drum to a battery reel, a support (box, jack, or the like) is placed under the left rear corner of the reel so that the left wheel is clear of the ground. The hand lever is thrown as far to the left as possible and blocked in that position. The wire should be tested on the drum; if it does not test clear of trouble, it should be watched carefully and tested occasionally as it goes on the reel. Attach the wire to the drum of the reel by passing the end outward through the hole near the axle and tie a knot in the wire about six inches from the end to prevent its slipping back. This leaves the end of the wire available for testing when the reel is filled. Turn the left wheel counterclockwise, thus winding the wire on the drum of the reel. Guide the wire by allowing it to run through the wireman's leather pad or the wire guide on the reel. When the reel is filled, test it by attaching telephones to the two ends of the wire and ring and talk over the wire. If the wire tests satis- factorily, mark it with a tag showing the date of test and the initials of the signal corporal supervising the test. If the wire fails to test satisfactorily, unwind it until all defects are located and repaired. 76. The RL-31 Reel Unit (Plate 14). The RL-31 reel unit is a lightweight portable frame and mounting designed to facilitate the reeling and unreeling of field wire by hand. It mounts one DR-5 reel or two DR-4 reels. The unit consists of a folding tubular aluminum frame and provides bearings for a steel axle equipped with a removable crank for turning by hand. A brake unit is provided to prevent overspinning of the reels. Two tailboard hangers with bolts are provided to facilitate mounting { | º sº º º tº a pººl º §§§ §§§ º \§ tºº.", "sº º ºº: sº & Sº º Plate 14. The RL-31 Reel Unit with DR-5 Reel. the reel unit on the tailboard of a vehicle. Four toe plates are provided to hold the reel unit securely in place when it is mounted on the floor of a vehicle. The unit may be set up on the ground, mounted in a vehicle, or secured to the tailboard thereof. It may also be used as a carrying frame similar to a litter; two men support the weight of the frame and reel on the carrying straps. One man may use it in a wheelbarrow fashion as a rolling frame. 77. Improvised Reels. Improvised means of laying wire are frequently of great as- sistance in installing the battery wire system. DR-4 drums may be installed on a 4-ton truck. Improvised devices may be used to lay wire. Field Wire and Wire Splices 78. Types and Characteristics. Two types of field wire known as W-110 and W-150 are issued to all units of field artillery. In both types, both conductors are insulated with a rubber compound and weatherproof braid. 94 BATTERY COMMUNICATIONS a. W-110. This wire consists of five steel and two copper wires stranded together. The twisted pair weighs about 130 pounds per mile, has a tensile strength of about 340 pounds and a transmission range of about 12 miles. A modification of this wire is known as W-110-B. Its characteristics are similar to the wire W-110. Both the W-110 and W-110-B usually are issued on. DR-5 drums which weigh 40 pounds empty. b. W-150. This is a light field wire designed primarily for use by liaison and forward observers. The wire consists of six steel and one copper wire stranded together. The twisted pair weighs about 50 pounds per mile, has a tensile strength of about 100 pounds and a transmission range of about 9 miles. Usually it is issued on a commercial- type spool containing about 9% mile of wire. H. | 4" -— i-E-ºs- H- Pliers length -- Pllers length —- *- -º-º-º-º-- lº-º-Fº Plate 15. Staggered Splice in W-110 Wire. 79. Wire Splices. The kind of splice employed depends upon the types of wire to be connected. The installation may require the splicing of field wire to field wire, or field wire to solid conductor wire, either bare or insulated, or of one solid conductor to another. In making splices three cardinal principles must be observed; the conductivity of the wire must not be impaired, the insulation resistance must not be decreased and the tensile strength of the wire must not be materially decreased. If these principles are observed, the resulting splice will be good. a. Field-wire splice. The standard field-wire splice, utilizing copper seizing wire, is used to splice all types of standard-conductor field wire, except the light field wire. Every soldier engaged in communication work must be able to make a good wire splice. Occasions constantly arise in which such ability is necessary. It is therefore important that every man be trained for this work. (1) Teamwork in splicing. Usually, more than one man is available at the time a splice is being made. In that case the over-all time for the splice can be greatly reduced if two men use a standard cooperative method and function as a team. Here the team- work splice is described; a similar procedure can be followed by one man working alone. (2) Staggering splice (Plate 15). Each man prepares one of the two wires which are to be spliced together. To obtain a uniform stagger, each man measures back one plier's length (about 7 inches) from the end of one conductor of the wire he is preparing, and cuts off the conductor thus measured. Each man now has two conductors; one is one plier's length shorter than the other. (3) Crushing insulation (Plate 16). Each man now begins crushing the insulation on his long conductor at one plier's length from its end (or abreast of the end of the short conductor). Using the heel of his pliers, he crushes the insulation toward the end for a distance of about 4 inches and leaves uncrushed about 2 inches of the insulation on the end of the conductor. He next measures back one plier's length along the short con- ductor, and in a similar manner crushed about 4 inches of its insulation. The uncrushed insulation holds the strands of the conductor together, preventing possible injury to the splicer by the steel strands, and greatly reduces the over-all splicing time giving a uniform BATTERY COMMUNICATIONS 95 stagger which insures equal tension on both conductors of the wire when the splice is completed. (4) Skinning conductor (Plate 16). Each man scores or rings the crushed insulation on both conductors with the jaws of his pliers at a joint about 9% inch from the point at which the crushing began. Then, changing the hand grip on his pliers, he draws the cut- ting edges of his pliers straight along the conductor so as to push the crushed insulation . ahead of the pliers. Take care to draw the pliers perpendicularly along the conductor, \ . A-cutting |/~ edge Bruised insulation º & º:233& &C." &R's >. Q. - (S Heel º \ à | º 2 Fig. 1. Bruising insulation. º One inch of rubber insulation Bruised tf insulation iſſ. ºfs --- d * -- - º º --> OY Straight - pull Š *E * > * - \\ & º ... ? Eſ … • «» * * .* • ſº Af º E = \\ \\ \s \ Removing insulation. Removing Insulation. w --- Fig. 2. Plate 16. as drawing the pliers at any appreciably different angle to the conductor will nick or break the strands, then bare about 3% inches of the strands of the conductor. Although slower, this skinning may be done more satisfactorily with less danger to the strands by using the jaws or heel of the pliers instead of the cutting edges. If these strands appear dirty, scrape them with the back of the screwdriver blade of your electrician's knife. The entire procedure of staggering the splice, crushing the insulation, and skinning the wire should not take over 1 minute. 96 BATTERY COMMUNICATIONS 6 to 8 inches of Seizing wire Febric insuld!: on *'s *NESs ~º- *— y &N *iser *— 2-’ \ insulation 22° NS sº SS * <-- One inch of unbruised #, insulation left on ends of wires Wºº to prevent splaying of strands §(); Fig. 1. Square knot with seizing wire in place. Not more f than 3/8 º sº |--2– - *- º *— —s ===ſſºſºs C : . 2" Strands cut off 2% just short of Z e e rubber insulation / Seizing / *~ST Wiſe % | % Q *- Žs, tº Fig. 2. Beginning the wrapping in seizing wire. Ends of rubber insulation º \) Seizing wire % must not protrude Fig. 3. The completed splice. Plate 17. The Field-wire Splice. BATTERY COMMUNICATIONS Rubber insulation Seizing VV re #3 1/2 inch on rubber insulation —º *— —% Overlop ; holf width of tope One inch on fabric insulation One inch on fabric insulation ! ?, ?///////7. A * * * , tº t t " ' * , $ ...'. • * * * t\\ , . " \ \\\"."AA \\\\\ \ ‘. &\", \ Šº Fig. 2. Applying friction tape. Plate 18. Taping Splices. FA2 (1) , 98 BATTERY COMMUNICATIONS (5) Tying square knot (Plate 17). Now bring the ends of the two wires together. Each man ties the long conductor of one wire and the short conductor of the other wire in a square knot. Place the square knot so as to leave about 94 inch between the knot and the rubber insulation. Then peel the weatherproof braid of the conductor back from the 94 inch of crushed but unskinned insulation; this leaves /, inch of exposed rubber insulation to assure close adhesion of the rubber tape when it is applied. (6) Applying seizing wire (Plate 17). Insert A. 6- to 8-inch piece of seizing wire / . *-us ,--> * ~ 5-9pp sº º- a- ºs sº-ºes s º arºss *— # ºs- *s- - ** º-sº 7. % \ſ -msmº, Fabric º _* \\- Rubber e.--> e gº N & * insulation_* N insulation 99°S s Steel strends 2N N Copper strends of right hand wire - Not more * *º sº 2, Copper Steel strands of strands of \ \ \ left hand *S right hand wire -> scut off Just short of rubber Nºision Steel strands N of left hand wire Ends of rubber ſ insulation R / 2 3:B;º ( *— —ºw- º Yae---— Ends of * copper strands must not protſ u de Plate 19. The Standard Splice (a substitute splice). BATTERY COMMUNICATIONS 99 through and centered in the square knot; then pull the knot tight. Take two or three close turns with the seizing wire, both to the left and to the right of the square knot. These turns bind the ends of the knot before the excess ends of the conductors are cut off. After the excess ends of the conductors are cut off flush with the rubber insulation, continue the seizing-wire wrap to the left and right of the square knot until two turns are taken on the rubber insulation. Then cut off the ends of the seizing wire flush and press them down into the rubber. With two men tying the square knots and applying the seizing wire at the same time, the over-all time for these operations should be about 1 minute. (7) Taping splices (Plate 18). Splices must be taped carefully to prevent water from seeping into the conductors, thus grounding the circuit. Place a double wrapping Loose ends crossed over crest of knot Plate 20. Method of Tying Knot in the Light Field Wire Splice. of rubber tape over the spliced conductor, followed by a double wrapping of friction tape. To apply the rubber tape, begin at the center of the splice and wrap the tape across the knot at an angle of about 45 degrees with the axis of the wire, successive layers overlapping about half the width of the tape. Continue the wrapping onto the rubber insulation for a distance of one-half inch; turn and wrap back across the splice to a point one-half inch on the rubber insulation on the other side;, turn again and end the wrapping in the center. Stretch the rubber tape tightly to give a water-tight seal. Use the jaws of the pliers to crimp the tape into close contact with the rubber insulation on both ends of the splice. To apply the friction tape, start at the center and wrap it over the rubber tape as described above, continuing for about one inch on the solid fabric insulation at each end of the splice. The tape must be drawn snugly against the insulation, particularly at the ends. When the taping is finished, roll the taped splice between the hands to smooth out the tape and make it grip tightly. b. The standard splice (Plate 19). If it is necessary to make a splice in W-110 wire when seizing wire is not available, the standard splice must be used. After the insula- 100 BATTERY COMMUNICATIONS tion is removed from the wires and they are cleaned, separate the copper strands from the steel strands, twist the steel strands together again, and bend the copper strands back along the insulation. Using the twisted steel strands only, tie a square knot in the wires and pull the knot up tight so there is not more than three eights of an inch between the knot and the rubber insulation. Place the copper strands from each wire along the splice parallel to its axis, allowing them to extend beyond the knot on either side. Wrap the copper strands around the wires for two turns tightly against the knot. Cut off the loose ends of the stranded wires just short of the rubber insulation and continue wrapping the copper strands about the wires as in the field-wire splice. The procedure used in making the standard splice is tedious and requires excessive time, but it is the only satisfactory substitute for the field-wire splice. c. The light field wire splice. The field wire splice and the standard splice are not entirely applicable to wire W-150. To splice the wire, cut off one conductor of each wire a plier's length (about six inches) from the end. Slip back about 3 inches of the rubber insulation from each conductor by inserting the wire in the jaws of the pliers, clamping the jaws lightly and drawing the pliers toward the end of the wire. The re- maining three inches of insulation on the end of the conductor keep the strands from fraying. Tie a square knot; then cross the short ends over the crest of the knots as in Plate 20. Wrap several turns with each end over the bare portion of the conductor and two turns over the rubber insulation. Cut off the excess and crimp down flush with the surface of the insulation. This splice will not loosen when tension on the wire is relieved and has adequate electrical conductivity. Tape the splice as described in para- graph a (7) above. BATTERY WIRE SYSTEMS 80. General. The wire system installed by a gun battery must be such that the collective communication system will provide for the adjustment of fire on appropriate targets by the best available form of observation. A battery acting as part of a battalion installs the wire system prescribed by the battalion commander. However, the system prescribed by the battalion commander represents a minimum installation required by the battalion and does not prevent the battery commander from installing additional circuits if he so desires. A battery acting alone installs any wire system which will permit its fire to be conducted properly. In many cases where a battery is acting alone, its wire system may consist initially of a single wire circuit between the gun position and the observation post. As it becomes necessary to push observation forward, a wire circuit should be in- stalled to the new observation post from the old observation post or from the gun position, preferably from the latter. Plate 21 shows such an installation. a. Circuits to switchboards at gun positions (observation posts) (Plates 22, 23). The most flexible wire system for a gun battery consists of a switchboard with two wire cir- cuits from it to the gun position and two wire circuits from it to the observation post. The switchboard may be installed in the vicinity of the observation post or the gun position, depending on the particular situation, the location of the battalion command post, and the length of the fire circuit from the battalion to the battery switchboard. The decision is made by the battalion commander and announced in his order; as Cir- cuits to switchboards at gun positions, or Circuits to switchboards at observation posts. Either statement indicates to the battery commander the location at which his switch- board will be installed and requires two circuits to the gun position and two to the observation post. In organizations equipped with a BD-71 switchboard the fire-direction circuit to the gun position is not connected. into a switchboard unit. It is connected to the binding post marked TG-1 on the line-terminal strip for direct, ground-return telephony to the battalion fire-direction center. b. Circuits to gun positions (observation posts). In some situations it is undersirable or impossible because of lack of equipment, personnel, or time to have one or more of the batteries install a switchboard. In such situation the battalion commander will pre- scribe, Circuits to gun positions (observation posts), in his order. The battery will then install a single wire circuit between its gun position and its observation post and will have —a telephone operator available at the indicated terminus of the battalion circuit. BATTERY COMMUNICATIONS 101 / / This circuit installed when ^ observation is pushed forward. |May be installed from old OP instead of from GP) A Conduct-of-fire Command circuit circuit to OP Conduct-of-fire circuit to GP N sº * & N Fire-direction SS Battalion circuit circuit to GP S3. ottoll Oſh C iſ CU ~ . - ~ Laid by bettery. ---- Loid by Hettolion. Plate 22, Battery wire System, Battery Equipped with BD-9 Switchboard 102 BATTERY COMMUNICATIONS c. Displacement of observation post. When it becomes necessary for a battery to dis- place its observation, wire communication should be established to the new observation post either by extending one of the circuits from the old observation post or by installing a new circuit from the switchboard or the gun position. 81. The Switchboard. a. The switchboard is the most vital part of the wire system. It is the focus of the wire circuits to installations of the unit which it serves and to higher, adjacent, and subordinate units. Locate it so that it is centrally placed with respect to the activities it serves. Protect it from hostile fire, from traffic, from damp- ness, and, as far as practicable, from noise. Switchboard operators should have sufficient privacy and protection to enable them to concentrate fully upon their work. [...] Ç (COMMAND AND operaTION CENTER) | FD 3 FD 4 \ FD 1 FD 2 | N - 2/ Ns ->'' T - — — — — — — — --G-FD center Plate 23. Local Telephone Circuits in a Battalion Command-post Area, Battalion and all Batteries Equipped with BD-9 and BD-11 Switchboards. b. Circuits to be connected to the switchboard should be to a central point. From that point to the switchboard, elevate them to prevent traffic obstruction, or burn them. Cable such circuits loosely by means of loops of twine or wire. c. If circuits reach the position of the switchboard before it is installed, connect them to telephones for temporary service pending such installation. d. As time permits, improve the installation to increase neatness and to facilitate maintenance. e. As soon as possible after the installation, post copies of the telephone code and the traffic diagram near the switchboard. 82. Circuit Installation. a. Wire routes. Select routes for wire circuits so as to afford cover from hostile observation and fire and to save as much wire as possible. Mainte- nance of wire circuits is a direct function of the length of the circuits. Make every attempt to have them as short as possible and to protect them from damage by hostile fire and from damage by friendly troops and vehicles. b. Protection and identification of circuits. (1) Tagging. Circuits must be tagged at the terminals and at critical points along the route. Where a number of circuits are laid close together, for example along a trench, tag each at frequent intervals. On one º ( . [. | f * Šº v. º Žºgº §) ; } e.g. SS * s- * * * *G}º Water drains *. lº Ne i.e. *N ſº Ö off, from this point ; X 0 7 * - ſº * wº- & º º L t Q º - () º, i -º-º: E. V j g t | š’sº ; i º - l ſ j C ſ y - d 5 , ſ \. .* { N 2. | {{ } ºf * : * ſ | ‘. \ 14 | º Fig. 1. The drip loop. running eno [] ºl gº º º l A ſº T #ss § | Iſu, § Eig. 2. The clove-hitch tie. | º Sº Fig. 4. The loop-knot tie. Fig. 5. The knob tie. Plate 24. wire Ties. 104 BATTERY COMMUNICATIONS side of the tag show the name of the unit which laid the circuit; on the other side the name of the unit or the point to which the circuit is laid. (2) Tying. At frequent intervals along the route, tie all circuits to some solid object. Points of particular importance are: (a) At each terminal, before being brought to the telephone or switchboard. (b) At all bends in the line. (c) At all stream and traffic crossings. (d) At all places where displacement of wire is possible. (3) Wire ties. The kind of tie used to secure wire to an object depends upon the location and nature of the object. Before tying wire pull off a small amount of slack and leave it behind the tie. Plate 24 shows the different wire ties. (a) Drip loop. Where wire is tied above equipment to which it is connected, arrange a drip loop in the wire. Do this by leaving slack between tie and equipment, so that the wire will bend downward between them. (b) Clove-hitch tie. Use the clove-hitch tie in tying wire to a knob, insulator, stake, post, or small object if one end of the object is exposed so that the wire may be placed over it. To make the clove hitch, stand facing the object to which the wire is to be tied. Make a loop in the wire with the standing part (that part of the wire toward the point where the laying of wire began) behind the running part (that part of the wire toward the reel). Place the loop over the knob. With the standing part of the wire, make another loop with the standing part behind the running part and place it over the knob beside the first loop. Draw the loops tight. Forming the two loops and placing them on the knob may be accomplished in a number of different ways; all these ways are satisfactory as long as the results described herein are obtained. (c) Square-knot tie. Use the square-knot tie in tying wire to a tree, pole, or other object around which the wire can be placed, but which does not have an exposed end. Stand facing the tree or other object on the side on which the wire is being laid. Pull in enough slack to make a bight to go around the tree, with about 6 inches left over. A bight is a loop formed on the wire so that the two parts lie alongside one another. Place the bight around the tree from the front, going around the back of the tree in the direction in which the wire is being laid. With the end of the bight and the two wires forming the neck of the bight, tie the first half of the square knot. Then with the end of the bight and the standing part only complete the square knot. (d) Loop-knot tie. Use the loop-knot tie in tying field wire to a tree, pole, or other object around which the wire can be placed. This tie has the advantage of unu- tying and falling away from the tree when the protruding loop is pulled. To make the tie, stand facing the tree on the side on which the wire is being laid. Pull in enough slack to make a turn around the tree, with about 18 inches left over. Form a bight in the wire and place it around the tree from the front, going around the back of the tree in the direction in which the wire is being laid. Bring the bight out underneath the neck formed by the standing part and the running end, and pass it around the neck for one turn. The V-opening formed in front of the tree when the bight was placed about the tree is divided into a front and rear section by the turn. Reach through the rear open- ing inside the turn and pull through it a small bight formed by doubling the original bight. Draw up this resulting bow knot snugly. (e) Knob tie. Use the knob tie in securing twisted-pair wire to a knob, insulator, stake, small post, or other small object, one end of which is exposed so that the wire may be placed over it. It is not suited to ties over an object larger than an insulator or knob. To make a knob tie, form a loop in the twisted-pair wire. Separate the two wires in the loop and bend each back around its side of the wire so that they again touch each other 180° opposite the original position of the loop. Place the loop over the knob and draw it tight around the knob. (4) Slack. When wire is laid on the ground, the importance of laying circuits with slack, so as to hug the ground, cannot be overemphasized. Wire which is laid slack is less liable to breakage by being caught and dragged by passing traffic, and to breakage by shell fire. Wire laid slack on the ground can be raised later on poles, hedges, or BATTERY COMMUNICATIONS 105 branches of trees. In estimating the amount of wire required for a given installation, allow 15 to 20 percent extra, for slack and ties. (5) Bends in the line. Where the wire circuit must follow curves in a road, tie it at frequent intervals as shown in Plate 25. If this is not done, the wire will be pulled across the road as shown by the dotted line in the figure. (6) Railroad crossings. Where wire circuits cross railroads, the wire should be cut, pulled through under the rails, and spliced. The wire should be tied and, tagged on each side of the tracks and the splice made between the two ties, as shown in Plate 26. /T N- 2^-—s 2. º ºr ºss _^: 2 ºssº * - s > • Tie and tag _\º 2×3*. º, C ~< . “ —” gº . * w ſº - \L- & º sºs - º tº *SS ! - ... . -º-º-º-º: S’s T^cs. º * *S `ss *TT & tº . *sº º Plate 26. Wire Crossing Under Railroad Tracks. (7) Stream crossings. Wire lines which cross streams must be raised sufficiently high to clear the water. Tie the wire in at each side of the stream and raise it on poles or trees. The height above the water is not important unless there is a possibility of traffic crossing at the same place or of mounted troops using the place to water. In these cases, raise the wire sufficiently to clear the traffic. (8) Traffic crossings. In crossing probable paths of traffic, bury the lines or raise them overhead as shown in Plate 27. (a) Culverts. Culverts furnish the best means for traffic crossings and should be used when they are available. Tie the wire so that it will hug the top of the culvert in order to be clear of the water. (b) Buried crossings. Bury the wire at least six inches and to a point at least two feet beyond each edge of the road. Tie it in to some solid object at each end of the buried portion to prevent its being dragged out of the ditch. A few stakes, for use when other objects are not available, should be carried on each reel. 106 BATTERY COMMUNICATIONS (c) Overhead crossings. Elevate the wire at least fourteen feet. It must hug the ground until it reaches the base of the pole or tree which is to be used; at this point tie it close to the ground. Then continue it up the tree high enough to insure sufficient clearance at the lowest part of the elevated portion. Complete the other side of the crossing as in a similar manner. 22 A33°7′2. º ſ &? * • 2. A zºº *—º %2. < // sº f j Nºz £º cº-º. (lºſſ 22 Saya least two º 13, § 2. ~~~hººl, ºr feet below lowes *T sº # Aless fourteenſed *" ºr is sº Sº...gºi ºr # * ~ * ~ || sºs |s “%:... º. a 2-cº -ºx F QºS. | `ss [º & * * * * | 2 * >}} | S s Sºº--ºr a i * >Sºlºs J is ºss_-_º -ºš2 ſº ſºil 2’->} *~ * --> `-- ~~ sº ~1/ v \ || ** t º ** ~~ `s ~ •e - s -- < & ’’ ‘’A ag ** ~~ ~ *-> * > *... *s-, Essº is D º | N gºa sº coº _^ º *. `s ºss ~ ** 2’->~ A4-2 ,-,-- / ~ - 2’ --- -**_ ** Tº *~ * re. - A- - 3. *…* Protective wrop- ^^ & pings of tape.< VVire is buried of least N-e - ~...~ſ. ) - T -, vº tº & º "...a s A S R X in ches `--> º sº-º Plate 27. Traffic Crossings. 83. Repairing Wire Circuits. a. Forward areas. The vulnerability of wire circuits to shell fire and traffic makes their repair and maintenance a serious problem. Constant supervision of the wire system and a well-planned procedure for maintenance are vital in forward areas. b. Testing circuits. Switchboard and telephone operators must test their circuits regularly by calling, being called, and conversing over, the circuits. c. Linemen. At all times, linemen should be available near the switchboard to initiate BATTERY COMMUNICATIONS 107 quickly the repair of wire circuits. The equipment carried by linemen should include the following: EE-5 or EE-8-A telephone with test clips and spare battery, TE-33 tool equipment (consisting of knife and pliers), seizing wire, and rubber and friction tape. A valuable addition to the equipment of a lineman consists of two short pieces of wire (24 in.) with test clips on each end. These wires (known as jumpers) are used to bridge a break during the construction of a splice, thus keeping the circuit in operation. After repairing a break, a lineman should check the circuit by talking to the operators at both ends and by having them talk to each other. Before returning to his position, he should ascertain from the switchboard operator or the signal sergeant whether any other circuits in his vicinity are not in operation. Questions . Describe the Telephone Directory. Name two commonly used field telephones. What is meant by “Phonetic Alphabet” . Pronounce 44, 88, 100, 1200, 3000. . What tests should the telephone operator make prior to connecting his phone? What is meant by “ground-return” circuit? . Describe the battery reel. DUTIES OF BC DETAIL CONTENTS * Paragraphs Chapter I. Organization and Duties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-6 Chapter II. Illustrative Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-19 Chapter III. Variations in Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-44 Chapter IV. Displacements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45–48 Chapter V. Heavy Artillery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49-51 Chapter VI. Horse-Drawn Artillery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52-53 CHAPTER I ORGANIZATION AND DUTIES 1. General. The commander of a field artillery gun battery, the BC, has a detail to assist him in the reconnaissance, selection, and occupation of position, RSOP, and in the preparation and delivery of fire. 2. Organization. The detail consists of the battery commander's party and the remainder of the detail. The party consists of the reconnaissance officer, RO, and ==-e * S <>C : sº ſº 22.2 º %22}^ſ. –º Ø4% *&^% ſ T-3 % % Plane Table º 2 º ſº ------ º, º º % º % 62 Ø 22 Z sº, a sº º/* aſ lº Plate 1. Typical Battery Detail in Position. certain key enlisted men, and usually accompanies the BC on the march. The execu- tive sometimes is included as a member of the party. Members of the party assist the BC in reconnaissance, in initiating the movement of the firing battery forward to the position, and in the occupation and organization of the position. The remainder of the detail consists of one complete wire-communication team. 3. Duties of Individuals. a. The table following gives the principal tactical duties of key personnel of the battery. Some of the individuals listed are not normally in- 109 110 DUTIES OF BC DETAIL cluded in the detail, but have important duties in some phase of the occupation of position. The duties listed are not invariable or rigid, and should be adapted to the situation. To meet the requirements of the average situation, members of the battery are assigned normal duties in accordance with the aptitudes of the men; but duties of individuals are variable, interchangeable, and elastic, and training should be conducted with this in view. Individual Duties Battery commander . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...Commands battery. Executive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Commands firing battery; assists battery commander. Reconnaissance officer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .In charge of survey operations, communication, and organ- ization of observation post; assists battery commander in reconnaissance. Assistant executive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...Assists executive; in charge of transportation. Ist Sergeant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .......In charge of truck park and battery rear echelon. Instrument sergeant .....................In charge of battery detail; assistant to RO in survey operations, organization of OP, and preparation and conduct of fire; care of instruments; prepares visibility and dead-space charts; visual signalman at OP. Instrument corporal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...Assists instrument scrgeant. Instrument operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Assists instrument sergeant; instrument operator and visual signalman at howitzer position. Scout corporal 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Guides firing battery to position; instrument operator at OP; assists in survey operations; messenger, visual signal- man, and relief telephone operator at OP. Scout corporal 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gun marker; assists in survey; operates aiming circle at howitzer position prior to occupation of position; mes- senger, visual signalman, and relief telephone operator at howitzer position. Signal sergeant . . . . . . . . . . . º, º ºr e º e . . . . . . . . Establishment and maintenance of communication; care of signal cquipment. Signal corporal 1 . . . . . . . . . ..............In charge of wire truck I; assists signal sergeant. Signal corporal 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . In charge of wire truck 2; assists signal sergeant. Operations corporal (heavy artillery only) ...Assists in survey; draftsman. b. The forward observer is not listed in the above table as a specifically assigned duty. All officers are trained to perform the duties of forward observer. It is necessary that noncommissioned officers be trained and prepared to perform the duties of the various battery officers. Sufficient enlisted men also must be trained to perform duties in for- ward-observer details, in addition to their normal duties. These men include non- commissioned-officer assistants to the forward observer, radio operator, scouts, and messengers. 4. Duties of Individuals of the Battery Detail, War Strength. Performed by Duties 75-mm H-D 75-mm T-D 155-mm. T-D In charge of BC detail; assists in Instrument sergeant Instrument sergeant |Instrument sergeant organizing OP; calculates firing data; care of instruments. Observer at OP; operates instru-|Instrument corporal |Instrument corporal |Instrument corporal ments; marks route. Observer at OP; operates instru-|Range-finder Range-finder Range-finder ments; marks route. corporal corporal corporal DUTIES OF BC DETAIL 111 Performed Duties 75-mm H-D 75-mm T-D 155-mm T-D Assists RO in survey; operatcs in- || Instrum.cnt Instrument Instrument struments; signal-lamp operator at | operator 1 operator I operator I OP. Delivers, sets up and operatcs aim- || Instrument Instrument Instrument ing circle at post of executive; opcrator 2 operator 2 Operator 2 signal-lamp operator there. Assists RO; guides battery to posi- tion; member of visual team at OP. Assists RO; gun marker; member of visual team at post of cxecu- tive. Establishes and maintains communication; care of equipment. Assistant to signal charge of reel (wire truck) 1; establishes and maintains tele- phone circuits; when at CP, in charge of messengers. Assistant to signal sergeant; in charge of reel (wire truck) 2; establishes and maintains tele- phone circuits; *in charge of reels and led horses at CP. Telephone operator for BC on com- mand circuit. Telephone operator at post of ex- ecutive. Telephone operator at OP on con- duct-of-fire circuit. Relief operators; messengers; main- tain telephone circuits; spare visual team. * Establish telephone central; operate switchboard. Wiremen on reels (wire trucks) 1 signal signal- scrgeant; in and 2 respectively; linemen. (Note 1). Linemen on recls (wire truck) 1 and 2 respectively; messengers. (Note I). Orderly for BC; **also in charge of led horses at OP. Horseholder for members of BC party; messenger. (Note 2). Assists executive in occupation of position; messenger. Horseholders and messengers. (Notc 2). Battery agent with Bn C. (Note 3). Scout corporal I Scout corporal 2 Signal sergeant Signal corporal I *Signal corporal 2 Telephone operator I Telephone operator 2 Telephone operator 3 Telephone operators 4 and 5 Switchboard opera- tors I and 2 Linemen I and 2 Linemen 3 and 4 **Bugler Ordcrly 1 Orderlies 2 and 3 Agent (corporal) Scout corporal I Scout corporal 2 Signal sergeant Signal corporal I Signal corporal 2 Telephone operator I Telephone operator 2 Tclephone opcrator 3 Telcphone operators 4 and 5 Switchboard opera- tors 1 and 2 Linemen I and 2 Linemen 3 and 4 Bugler Ordcrly 1 Agent (corporal) Scout corporal I Scout corporal 2 Signal sergeant Signal corporal I . *** - º . . . . . ; * -- Signal corporal 2 Telephone operator I Telephone operator 2 Telephone operator 3 Telephone operators 4 and 5 Switchboard opera- tors I and 2 Linemen I and 2 Linemen 3 and 4 Bugler Orderly 1 Agent (corporal) . Drivers, wagoners, and chauffeurs onitted. Notes: (1) Linemen are posted as the situation requires, usually one at the OP and one at the telephone central (firing battery). When the telephone system is established, the wireman on the reel used to lay the wire may act as the lineman at the telephone central (firing battery). This will leave one reel with its wir available to extend the wire or lay wire in a new position. eman and one lineman (2) Qrderlies, when used as horseholders, are located where necessary to hold horses of the detail. (3) Battery agent marches with the battalion detail. 5. Abbreviations. The following abbreviations are used in this part of the text: . . . . . . . . . . . Agent . . . . . . . . . . . Ammunition . . . . . . . . . . . Artillery a * * * * * * * * * * * * * 112 DUTIES OF BC DETAIL Asst . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Assistant Auto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Automobile BC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Battery commander BM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bugler-messenger Bn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Battalion Btry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Battery * C & R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Command and reconnaissance Cfr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chauffeur Clk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Clerk C of Det . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... Chief of detail C of Sec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chief of section Com O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Communication officer CP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Command post Cpl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Corporal CR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Crossroads Ex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Executive Gen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . General I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Instrument operator Mech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mechanic MG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Machine gun Mi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mile M Sgt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Motor sergeant OP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Observation post Rad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Radio operator RO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Reconnaissance officer Sb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Switchboard operator Sct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Scout Sec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Section Sgt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ‘. . . . Sergeant Sig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Signal SuP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Supply WC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Weapon carrier WT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wireman and telephone operator (W) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Winch - 6. A Method of Loading. A march formation and method of loading of the light or medium battery showing the personnel, vehicles and equipment is shown below. This formation is given as a guide only and should be varied when necessary to meet the requirements of a particular situation. Vehicles Personnel Major items of equipment BC I aiming circle BC Car RO Radio %-ton Rad I Cfr > f Sig Sgt I aiming circle § Signal Car Sc Corp I 2 telephones ſº %-ton Sc Corp 2 I reel, DR-4, with % mile wire W-11o O Cfr 1 axle, RL-27-A R I flag kit I Sgt 1 BC telescope © OP Car I Corp 1 set survey equipment %-ton command Rad 3 Radio Cfr Agt Car Agtº %-ton Cfr * The battery agent with his transportation normally accompanies the battalion commander's party. DUTIES OF BC DETAIL 113 Sig Corp I 2 reels, DR-5, empty L, I L3 I reel, DR-4, empty Wire Truck I T1, T3 I reel unit, RL-26-A (W) 2%-ton Sb I I reel unit, RL-31 ** 1 basic 4 reels, DR-5, 1 mi wire W-1 10, on each 'S Cfr I reel, DR-4, with % mi wire W-IIo •S 4 telephones Q I switchboard, BD-71 ‘S ‘S’ Sig Corp 2 Same as Wire Truck 1, less 1 telephone and I reel DR-4 § L2, L4 S Wire Truck 2 T2, T4 S (W) 2%-ton Sb 2 § I basic ſº Cfr Rad 4 1 BC telescope Detail Truck BM I range finder 2%-ton I basic Radio Cfr - Questions 1. What is the BC's chief duty? 2. Who is the BC's first assistant? 3. What jobs does the RO handle? 4. State the general formation of a detail and give its functions. 5. Why is it essential that every member of the detail know the duties of some other members? CHAPTER II ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS 7. General. This problem illustrates a normal procedure in the reconnaissance, selec- tion, and occupation of position by a light truck-drawn battery. The procedure is also applicable to a medium battery. The method outlined is suitable in general to meet the requirements of the average situation, but its specific application will vary with the circumstances of each particular situation. It should not be regarded as a set pattern which meets the requirements of all situations. 8. Situation. The 1st Field Artillery Battalion, organic light battalion of the 1st In- fantry Division, is marching to a rendezvous. The battalion commander has gone for- ward with certain members of his staff and party to learn of the situation and to re- ceive the orders of the division artillery commander; he left the battalion under the command of the executive. The battery agents are with the battalion commander. The battalion commander, having received the order of the division artillery commander, dispatches the following message to the battalion executive, who transmits it to the battery commanders: - “Our leading elements are in contact with the enemy and have been held up. The division attacks today. This battalion occupies position at once. Battery commanders report immediately to hill at xxx. Reconnaissance parties limited to three reconnais- sance vehicles per battery. Enemy attack aviation has been active over our lines.” 9. Battery Commander Goes Forward. Upon receipt of this message the battery com- mander of Battery A goes forward and, considering the tasks confronting him in the forward area prior to the entry of the battery into position, takes with him the following: BC Car . . . . BC Detail Car . Sig Sgt RO Car . . . RO C of Det Sct Cpl. 1 Rad 3 Rad 1 Sct Cpl. 2 I Cpl (Cfr) BM (Cfr) Cfr 10. Reports to Battalion Commander for Orders. Upon arrival in the vicinity of the hill at which he will report to the battalion commander, the battery commander 114 DUTIES OF BC DETAIL Battery A directs that the three cars be placed in concealment in the woods nearby (Plate 2). He leaves the signal sergeant and the chief of detail (with aiming circle) at the foot of the hill, and, with the reconnaissance officer, reports to the battalion commander. 11. The Battalion Commander's Order. Upon the arrival of the battery commanders and while the battalion commander is completing his preparations for issuing his order, a battalion staff officer explains the situation and orients the officers present. The battalion commander then issues the following order: - “Battalion base point: House on that hill (pointing). “The 1st Infantry Division attacks with 1st Infantry and 2d Infantry abreast, 1st Remainder of party º: © ºb.\\S. -- .** #3; §Bn mºves into Wissembly grºo here jº. Plate 2. BC and RO Receive Orders of Battalion Commander. {} is & §º DUTIES OF BC DETAIL 115 Infantry on the right, 3d Infantry in reserve. The 1st Infantry attacks with 1st and 2d Battalions in assault, 1st Battalion on the right, 3d Battalion in reserve. Boundaries: x x x x x. Line of departure: Line now held by our infantry. “This battalion supports the 1st Infantry. “Zone of fire: Right limit: x x x x, left limit: x x x x. “Zones of observation: “Battery A: Right limit: x x x x, left limit: x x x x. “Battery B: Right limit: x x x x, left limit: x x x x. “Battery C: Right limit: x x x x, left limit: x x x x. “OP’s: “Battalion and Battery A: Here. “Battery B: x x x x x. “Battery C: x x x x x. “Gun positions: “Battery A: In those woods to the right rear. “Battery B: x x x x x. “Battery C: x x x x x. “Batteries will register as soon as in position; use charge V. “Firing chart: x x x x x. “Minimum range line: Present front line. “Ammunition train: In woods near x x x x x. “Fifth sections unload and return to ammunition train. “Aid station: In woods along stream at x X x X x. “Circuits to switchboards at gun positions. “Wire and radio to liaison (officer) 1; radio only to liaison (officer) 2. “Battalion CP: Near 1st Infantry at x x x x x. “Batteries are at x x x x x, and are released. “It is now . . . . . . . . . . . . M. “Are there any questions? “That is all.” 12. Actions of the Battery Commander. a. At the observation post. (1) Before leav- ing the observation post, the battery commander summons the chief of detail and the signal sergeant and explains the situation briefly. In their presence he gives the fol- lowing orders to the reconnaissance officer: “You heard the battalion commander's order. Establish OP here. Set up aiming circle and BC telescope. Lay battery by compass and register on the base point as soon as battery is ready. Gun position is in those woods (pointing). Are there any questions?” (2) The battery commander returns to the vehicles of the party. He sends the radio operator 3 and the instrument corporal to the observation post. They take with them the radio and any instruments which are needed. (3) The battery commander then goes on reconnaissance of the gun position, tak- ing the BC car, detail car, the signal sergeant radio 1, and scout corporals 1 and 2. On the way to the gun position the signal sergeant reconnoiters for wire routes. b. At the gun position. After making a reconnaissance of the position area and routes thereto, the battery commander gives the following orders: (1) To scout corporal 1. “Take the detail car, return to the battery, which you will find at x x x x x, and guide the battery forward to this position along the route x x x x x. Repeat.” (The battery commander may send for the battery by radio and have scout corporal 1 meet the battery when it comes forward.) (2) To signal sergeant. “Switchboard there” (indicating). (3) To scout corporal 2. “Direction of fire, the direction of that tree. If no data have been received from the OP by the time the battery is in position, tell the executive to lay the battery on compass 200. Fifth section unload and return to ammunition train at x x x x x. Positions of pieces: No. 1 here; No. 2 x X x X x; No. 3 x x x x x; No. 4 x x x x x. Repeat.” (4) The battery commander then reconnoiters a suitable truck park, which he 116 DUTIES OF BC DETAIL should be able to do prior to the arrival of the battery. He gives its location to scout corporal 2. c. The battery commander is then free to go wherever he is most needed. In many cases the battery commander best can supervise the carrying out of his orders by remaining in the vicinity of the gun position until the pieces are in position. If he does remain at the position, he may give the executive any part or all of the informa- tion which scout corporal 2 is prepared to transmit; or he may give additional informa- tion. If circumstances require, the battery commander may return to the observation post to take over the preparation and conduct of fire. |AWN tº cºsº. ICpl eRod 3 § Plate 3. Disposition of Members of Party as Executive Approaches Battery Position. DUTIES OF BC DETAIL | 117 13. Actions of Other Members of Party. a. Immediately after receiving the battery commander's orders the reconnaissance officer starts the preparation of data to open fire, assisted by the chief of detail and the instrument corporal. Activity at the observa- tion post is kept at a minimum; instruments are set up only as needed. Communica- tion with the battery is established initially by radio; when established, wire becomes a principal means of communication. As soon as computed, initial fire commands are sent to the battery by the fastest means available, by visual signalmen or messengers, if necessary. If any survey work is required of the battery, the reconnaissance officer must promptly set about to accomplish it. To do this he utilizes the personnel of the instrument section (chief of detail and the instrument corporal). If necessary, scout corporals 1 and 2 may be used in survey operations. The reconnaissance officer must plan the accomplishment of his dual responsibilities—organization of the observation post and preparation of firing data—to meet the requirements of the situation. b. Wire communication is established under the supervision of the signal sergeant. Having reconnoitered the wire routes, he meets the remainder of the detail, places the vehicles under concealment or directs them to the truck park, and with one wire vehicle (or both if necessary) lays the necessary wire lines. 14. Battery Moves Forward. When scout corporal 1 reaches the battalion rendezvous area, he reports to the battalion executive (or officer in charge of the battalion) and explains his mission. The battalion executive directs him to the battery and releases it from battalion control. Scout corporal 1 thcn reports to the battery executive and gives him the instructions of the battery commander. The battery executive gives pertinent instructions to the assistant executive as to the movement forward of the firing battery. Accompanied by the four chiefs of section (gun sections) and the first sergeant, the battery executive is guided to the position by scout corporal 1. The re- mainder of the detail follows the executive. The driver of the detail car may serve as a guide for the assistant executive if a guide is needed. If necessary the detail marks the route for the battery. 15. Battery Arrives at the Position. a. Plate 3 shows a disposition of members of the party as the executive approaches the battery position. (The forward observer has not been sent out at this time.) b. When the executive arrives at the position, scout corporal 2, or the battery com- mander if present, gives him the direction of fire, method of laying, location of the truck park, routes into the position, amount of ammunition to be unloaded, location of ammunition train, and the positions of the pieces. The executive, who has preceded the guns by a few minutes, reconnoiters the position and determines how he best can bring the battery into the position. Each chief of section reconnoiters the position selected for his piece and prepares to mect the section and guide it to the position. Drivers of all vehicles habitually remain on existing roads or trails when approaching or when within the gun position. The pieces are unlimbered and rolled into position by hand if necessary in order to avoid the making of new tracks by the prime movers. When the battery is in position the vehicles are conducted to the truck park under the direction of the first sergeant. 16. Fifth Section. The vehicles of the fifth section are brought into the gun position only when ammunition is to be unloaded. Normally ammunition is unloaded as soon as the battery is in position, and the fifth section returns to the ammunition train or to an ammunition supply point for reloading. To reduce traffic and activity at the position, the entrance of the fifth section should be delayed a short time to permit the guns to be unlimbered and the prime movers moved out. When the fifth section is not hauling or unloading ammunition the vehicles are sent to the truck park. 17. Maintenance Section. The maintenance section is not brought into the firing position unless in emergency; it is halted in concealment in rear of the gun position until conducted to the truck park or to a rear echelon. 18. Truck Park. The battery truck park should be located so that shell fire directed at the gun position is not likely to cause damage to the battery vehicles. Its distance from the gun position depends upon the availability of concealment, the proximity of other troops, and the existing road net. The first sergeant is in charge at the truck park. 118 DUTIES OF BC DETAIL 19. Forward Observer. a. The battery sends out a forward observer who reports the locations of targets and adjusts and observes fire for the battery or the battalion. The time at which the forward observer is sent out depends entirely on the tactical situa- tion. The forward observer is responsible for observation in the assigned zone of observation, but he reports what he sees of importance in the entire zone of fire. The forward observer has communication either with the battery or with the battalion. The forward-observer radio operates on a single assigned frequency and the forward ob- server can transmit on this frequency with the radio at the battery or with the radio at the battalion. - b. The reconnaissance officer or the assistant executive is usually used as the forward observer, although frequently the battery commander may be the forward observer. Specially trained enlisted men must be available in the battery to make up forward- observer details. The forward observer should have with him a detail consisting of a noncommissioned officer, a radio operator, and messengers. His equipment includes a radio, field glasses, a compass, and a map or map substitutes. He communicates with the battery or the battalion by radio. Wire communication may be established in some situations, at least to the initial point of observation, but wire is difficult to maintain as the action progresses. c. Before leaving the position area, the forward observer obtains the following in- formation: (1) The situation. (2) Identification and location of the supported units. (3) Zone of action of the supported unit. (4) Zone of fire. (5) Zone of observation. (6) General locations of batteries. (7) Plans for displacement of observation. (8) Location of base point, check points, concentrations, and any special fires which have been planned. (9) Communication. d. Upon arrival in the forward area, the forward observer: (1) Selects a point from which he can observe, and plans an axis of observation based on the scheme of maneuver. (2) Gets in touch with local commanders of supported units and informs them of his operations. (3) Reports his location and field of observation to the battery, or to the fire- direction center if control of fire is centralized. (4) Reports targets and the situation in his area. (5) Observes and reports fires as directed. (6) Keeps the battery or the battalion informed of the location of the front lines. Questions 1. Why does the BC go forward with his party as soon as action is imminent? 2. Who rides in the BC's car? Why? 3. Explain “Zone of observation.” 4. At the end of his orders, why does the battalion commander ask, “Are there any questions?” g 5. Name 5 items the forward observer needs to know before he leaves for his post. 6. Discuss, briefly, 3 duties of the forward observer. CHAPTER III VARIATIONS IN PROCEDURE 20. General. Many conditions affect the manner in which the battery commander employs the battery detail in the reconnaissance, selection, and occupation of position. Certain important variations in the situation which influence the decisions and actions of the battery commander are given below. 21. Party Limited to One 3/4-Ton Command and Reconnaissance Truck. The recon- naissance party may be limited to one 4-ton truck. With the size of the party thereby limited to five people, including the chauffeur, the battery commander takes the mem- bers of his detail who will be the most useful to him in accomplishing the necessary tasks. The battery commander should have with him the chief of detail, the signal sergeant, and radio 1. With such a reduced party each member is required to perform duties in addition to his normal duties. The signal sergeant may plan his communica- tion and assist the battery commander at the gun position. The chief of detail may organize the observation post. The battery commander may remain at the gun posi- tion and, upon the arrival of the battery, indicate to the executive the positions for the guns and give him other pertinent information. The movement forward of the battery may be initiated by radio message from the battery commander to the executive. 22. Party Limited to One Vehicle. If the limitation as to the size of the reconnais- sance party is prescribed as one vehicle, the wire truck may be taken forward instead of a 34-ton truck. In this event, more personnel of the party can be taken, and the laying of wire started earlier. If the wire truck is taken, its use will expedite the laying of wire; radio may be used to send for the battery. 23. Party Limited to Two Vehicles; Inclusion of Wire Truck. If the limitation is prescribed as two vehicles, a workable plan is to take the BC car and the wire truck or lineman truck, thereby expediting the installation of wire communication. In the illustrative problem (Chapter II), a wire truck might have been permitted with the BC party. In that case the installation of wire could have been started immediately after the signal sergeant received his instructions. The inclusion of a wire truck in the reconnaissance party is highly desirable and should be allowed by the higher com- mander when the tactical situation permits. 24. Selection of Observation Post. The battalion commander may not always desig- nate the location of the battery observation post, or the one he designates may be at some point not visible to the battery commander at the place of issuance of the battalion commander's order. In that case the battery commander may reconnoiter the observa- tion post before he gives his orders to the reconnaissance officer, or he may direct the reconnaissance officer to reconnoiter and select the exact location of the observation post. 25. Inclusion of Executive in the Party. The executive may be included in the recon- naissance party in situations where the battery remains under battalion control, until released for the march to the position area, and attack on the battery in rendezvous or on the march is unlikely. The executive is better prepared to emplace the firing battery and lay the pieces if he has had sufficient time to carefully reconnoiter the position prior to the arrival of the battery. He also can assist the battery commander in selecting the location for each piece and in planning the occupation and organiza- tion of the position. If the executive is included in the reconnaissance party and any difficulty is expected to be encountered during the march of the battery to the position, either the battery commander or the executive should, if practicable, return and ac- company the battery on the march. The inclusion of the executive in the party is particularly desirable where the position is to be occupied at night. 26. More Deliberate Occupation. In the case of a more deliberate occupation of posi- tion, part of the detail may precede the battery by several hours or several days. In this event survey operations and wire communication, and sometimes camouflage and organization of the position may be completed prior to the arrival of the battery. The battery commander must be allowed sufficient personnel and equipment in the forward area to accomplish these tasks. 119 120 DUTIES OF BC DETAIL FAST MOVING SITUATION 27. General. In fast-moving situations, such as meeting engagements and for artillery with cavalry, motorized units, and advance guards and other security detachments, it is important that the battalion occupy position with considerable speed. To obtain speed, decentralization of reconnaissance, selection, and occupation of position is neces- sary. One method of accomplishing this is shown in the following illustrative problem. 28. The Battery Commander's Party. In order to meet the requirements of a situation where speed is essential the battery commander's party includes the executive with the personnel (radio operator and instrument operator) who normally ride in the execu- tive's car (%-ton truck, not to be confused with the executive's truck). The personnel in the BC car and the RO car constitute the observation-post group. The personnel in the executive's car and in the detail car constitute the gun-position group. Battery Commander's Party BC Car . . . . . . . . . . . . BC Ex Car . . . . . . . . . . . . Ex C of Det Rad 2 Rad 1 I (Cfr) Cfr Detail Car . . . . . . . . . Sig Sgt RO Car . . . . . . . . . . . . RO Sct. Cpl 1 Rad 3 Sct Cpl. 2 I Cpl (Cfr) Cfr t 29. Situation. The 1st Infantry, with the 1st Field Artillery Battalion attached, is marching as one of the columns of the 1st Infantry Division. The artillery battalion commander, with certain members of his staff and party, is marching with the column commander (Colonel “1st Infantry”). The 1st Battalion 1st Infantry constitutes the advance guard. Contact with the enemy is imminent. The column commander orders the artillery battalion commander to place his battalion in position to support the advance of the advance guard. The artillery battalion commander sends for his battery commanders and their parties and the remainder of the battalion detail to meet him at a designated place in the forward area. He then moves forward to consult with the advance-guard commander and to make his reconnaissance. The S-2 (RO) ac- companies the battalion commander on reconnaissance. 30. Fragmentary Orders. When the battery commanders, with their parties con- stituted as shown in paragraph 28, report, the battalicn commander issues orders as follows: “The advance guard will advance on a broad front (uncovered approach march). This battalion occupies position at once to support the advance. Battery executives and gun-position personnel go with the S-2 (RO) now; he will assign the battery position areas. Observation posts will be on that ridge (pointing).” 31. Position Assigned to Executive by Staff Officer. The S-2 (RO) and the battery executives with their parties (gun-position groups) depart immediately for the position areas. They arrive at the Battery A position first. The S-2 (RO) instructs the executive of Battery A as follows: “Battery A in these woods (pointing). Loy the battery on compass 200. Radio communication initially. Circuits to switchboard at gun position.” The S-2 (RO) and the other battery executives proceed to the other battery positions, where S-2 (RO) assigns positions to the executives. 32. Executive Sends for Battery. The Battery A executive hastily looks over the position, selects the route thereto, and gives the following instructions to scout corporal 1: “Take the detail car, return to the battery along that road (indicating). Guide the battery forward around the rear of those woods to this position. Repeat.” 33. Executive Reconnoiters and Selects Position. The executive completes his recon- naissance of the position. He instructs the signal sergeant regarding wire communica- tion to be established. He gives to scout corporal 2 the direction of fire and the DUTIES OF BC DETAIL 121 positions of the pieces. The executive reconnoiters and selects a truck park. He should return to the gun position prior to the arrival of the firing battery. He super- vises the emplacing of the pieces, directs the first sergeant to the truck park, and lays the battery. The instrument operator assists the executive by setting up and operating the aiming circle at the gun position. 34. Communication.. Initially, radio communication is established between the gun position and the observation post; radio set 2, carried in the executive's car, is set up at the gun position and can communicate with the other radio sets of the battery or with the fire-direction center. When established, wire communication becomes a principal means of communication. Initial fire commands arrive at the firing position by radio, wire, visual signalman, or runner, whichever is the fastest. 35. Battalion Commander Completes Orders. Meanwhile the battalion commander, from a point from which the target area is visible, or indicating from a map, completes his orders to the battery commanders: “Base point: That house at x x x x x. “Zone of fire: Right limit x x x; left limit x x x. (Delimits zone on the ground.) “Zones of observation: Right to left, A, B, and C. (Delimits on the ground.) “OP's on this ridge. “Gun positions: x X x X x (indicates to the battery commanders the general position areas designated to S-2 (RO)). (See par. 31.) “Batteries be prepared to register on battalion order. “Firing chart: x x x x x. “Minimum range line: x x x x x. “Battalion circuits to battery switchboards at gun positions. “Battalion CP in those woods. “Other details later. “It is now . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M. - “Are there any questions? “That is all.” 36. At the Observation Post. a. The battery commander of Battery A with the per- sonnel in the BC car and the RO car proceeds to the observation post. Data are pre- pared to register on the base point. The battery commander is free to go wherever his presence is most needed. He may remain at the observation post to register the battery and conduct fire or he may leave the reconnaissance officer to do that and, using the BC car, go to the battery position. b. The battery commander assembles a forward-observer party, orients the forward observer, shows him the base point and the zone of observation, and gives him other information needed (Par. 19). The forward observer with his detail moves forward with the advance guard, utilizing the terrain so as to obtain the best observation in his assigned zone of observation. 37. Executive Not Included in Party. In the event the situation is such that it is impracticable to take the executive in the party (Par. 25), the battery commander may go on to the gun position initially (he may elect to send the reconnaissance officer) and there perform the tasks prescribed for the executive in paragraphs 31 to 34. When the executive's car is not included in the party the executive's aiming circle should be carried in the detail car. The detail car may then be used by the battery commander (or reconnaissance officer) in establishing the gun position. NIGHT OCCUPATION 38. General. Maximum secrecy and surprise are obtained by the occupation of posi- tion during hours of darkness without the use of lights. Night occupation is the rule when the situation permits. The occupation of position at night and the delivery of effective fire therefrom without previous daylight reconnaissance presents certain diffi- culties. A high state of training is necessary to accomplish this difficult task. During darkness reconnaissance for positions and routes for wire is slow, difficult, and uncertain; survey is slower but no less accurate than in daylight. Intelligent advance planning will 122 DUTIES OF BC DETAIL generally provide opportunity for daylight reconnaissance and survey. This greatly facilitates the occupation. Daylight reconnaissance parties are normally limited in size; survey should be completed during daylight; wire is laid after dark over previously reconnoitered routes. The maximum use is made of guides. Normally all reconnais- sance personnel going forward during daylight are assigned duties as guides for specific elements of the battery. Guides must thoroughly familiarize themselves with the routes and terrain during daylight. Frequently it will be essential to move into a new area at night and open fire immediately therefrom, with no possibility of daylight recon- naissance or survey; it is essential that units be trained thoroughly in all phases of this difficult task. While the difficulties involved are considerable, there are compensating advantages in that personnel and vehicles can move more freely over exposed areas, and that the probability of secret occupation of positions is greatly enhanced. Dependence for firing missions will be, for the most part, placed on observation units, liaison per- sonnel with front line units, and on artillery forward observers; some missions may be received from higher authority. 39. Situation. a. The 1st Field Artillery Battalion, organic light battalion (105-mm howitzer) of the 1st Infantry Division Artillery is in bivouac. The division is in contact with the enemy. The battalion commander has gone forward with certain members of his staff and party to learn of the situation and to receive the orders of the division artillery commander. The battalion executive commands the battalion in the bivouac aſ C3. b. The battalion executive gives to the assembled battery commanders the following message from the battalion commander: “Our leading elements are in contact with the enemy along x x x x x line. The divi- sion attacks. This battalion occupies position tonight. Battery commanders report at Hill 180 at 3:00 P.M. Reconnaissance parties limited to three reconnaissance trucks per battery. Batteries move tonight under battalion control. One wire truck for each battery will move up at dusk under control of Com O. Radio silent prior to attack.” 40. Battery Commander Goes Forward. Before leaving on reconnaissance, the battery commander of Battery A instructs the assistant executive to take command of the bat- tery in the bivouac area and gives him any special instructions concerning mess and preparations for the night march. (The battery commander may elect to organize the party as shown in par. 6, and leave the executive in command of the battery in the bivouac area.) He decides to take the following reconnaissance party. BC Car . . . . BC Ex Car . . . . . Ex Detail Car . . Signal Sgt RO Rad 2 Sct Cpl. 1 C of Det I (Cfr) Sct Cpl 2 Rad 1 I Cpl. Cfr Cfr 41. The Battalion Commander's Order. Upon arrival of the battery commander on Hill 180 (Plate 4), the battalion commander, after orienting the battery commanders and briefly explaining the situation, issues the following order: “Battalion base point: House on that hill (pointing). “The hostile force to our front holds that line (indicating). “Our infantry holds that line (points out on ground). “The 1st Infantry Division attacks tomorrow morning with 1st Infantry and 2d Infantry abreast, 1st Infantry on the right, 3d Infantry in reserve. Time of attack will be given later. Boundaries x X x X x. Line of departure: Line now held by our infantry. “This battalion supports the 1st Infantry. “Zone of fire: x x x (as given by the division artillery commander). “Zones of observation: “Battery A: Right limit: x x x x, left limit: x x x x. “Battery B: x x x x. “Battery C: x x x x. DUTIES OF BC DETAIL 123 “OP's: “Battery A: That hill to right flank (pointing). “Battery B: x x x x x. “Battery C: x x x x x. “Positions: “Battery A: In those woods to the right rear (indicating). “Battery B: x x x x x. “Battery C: x x x x x. “No registration prior to attack, 124 . DUTIES OF BC DETAIL “Firing chart: x x x x x. “Battalion will establish battery place marks on orienting line. Each battery have two men report to survey officer at x x x to assist in survey. “Battalion marches tonight under battalion control to CR 150, where batteries will be released abcut 11:00 P.M. “Minimum range line: Present front line. “Service Battery (less ammunition train): In woods at x x x x. “Ammunition train: In woods near x x x x x. “Fifth sections unload and return to ammunition train. “Aid station: In woods along stream at x x x x x. “Battalion circuits to battery switchboards at gun positions. Wire trucks are released upon arrival at CR 150 about 7:30 P.M. Radio silent until H-hour. “Battalion CP: In woods southwest of CR 150. “It is now —(P.M.). “Are there any questions? “That is all.” 42. All Work During Darkness. a. Preliminary details. When this reconnaissance and issue of orders must all be done at night, it will be necessary to obtain detailed information on the front line and of the enemy from liaison personnel and from higher authority. Great care will be necessary to preserve correct orientation; the use of instruments for this purpose and for indicating zones of fire and observation will be normal since observation of and pointing out terrain features generally will be im- practicable at night. It will be necessary to initiate survey operations promptly and thus have all possible orientation data available at the earliest practicable moment. Forward observers must work well forward with the infantry units and report promptly and accurately upon friendly advanced elements and upon all located enemy elements. b. Other artillery in the area. When the mission involves moving additional artillery into an area at night, much informaticn can be obtained from artillery that has been in action in an area. In some cases, it will be practicable for this artillery to do basic survey work for the incoming artillery. 43. BC Party in the Forward Area. a. The battery commander directs the chief of detail and the instrument corporal to report to the battalion survey officer to assist 1n survey. - b. With the remaining members of his party the battery commander goes on recon- naissance of the gun position. - c. At the position, he selects the location of the switchboard, the position for each gun, the routes into and out of the area, and issues the following orders: (1) To the reconnaissance officer. “Take the detail car and the signal sergeant, reconnoiter and establish an observation post on that hill. Locate the base piece by traverse as soon as the place mark for the battery is established.” (The chief of detail and the instrument corporal will be available for battery survey when released by the battalion survey officer.) (2) To the signal sergeant. “Switchboard here (indicating). Go with the recon- naissance officer to the OP, and reconnoiter a route for laying wire tonight from the battery position to the OP. Meet the battery wire truck at CR 150 about 7:30 P.M.” d. The battery commander is assisted at the battery position by the executive. He may delegate to the executive the selection of the individual gun positions, the planning of ammunition storage, and the detailed organization of the position. In order to lay the battery in darkness the executive must set up his aiming circle at a point from which he has an unobstructed line of sight to the sight of each piece. e. Leaving the executive, with scout corporals 1 and 2 as assistants, to stake out the position and plan the occupation, the battery commander reconnoiters a truck park and route thereto. He returns to the gun position and points out the location of the truck park to the executive. f. The battery commander is now free to go to the observation post and look over the situation there, or he may go wherever his presence is most needed, DUTIES OF BC DETAIL 125 g. Plans must be made to send out a forward observer to observe for the battery or the battalion. The officer detailed as forward observer should make a reconnaissance during daylight when practicable of the points from which he best can observe and the routes thereto. He must remain in constant observation to become thoroughly familiar with the terrain and to furnish detailed information at all times for either attack or defense. The battery commander may direct the reconnaissance officer to be prepared to go out as a relief forward observer. 44. Movement of the Battery Into Position. The battery commander or the executive may return to the bivouac area to accompany the battery on the march (par. 25). When the battery in released at CR 150, the vehicles move into the position without halting. Guides are provided for as many vehicles as possible, and each guide recon- noiters in daylight the route over which he will lead the vehicles after dark. For this purpose the battery commander has available the reconnaissance officer, signal sergeant, chief of detail, instrument corporal, scout corporal 1, scout corporal 2, radio 2, and two chauffeurs, a total of ten people including himself (assuming the executive and one chauffeur returned to march with the battery). By the time the battery arrives at the position, the wire-truck personnel may have completed laying the wire and may be used as markers; however, as they have not been in the position in daylight, they are not so suitable as guides. The battery commander meets the battery at , the release point (CR 150) and guides it to the position. A route marker is stationed at the junction of the main road and the road leading to the position. Upon arrival at the position, guides meet each of the prime movers and lead them to the positions selected for the pieces. The other available guides lead the fifth section and the main- tenance section vehicles to the places designated for them. The vehicles are similarly guided to the truck park. The battery commander, having led the battery to the position and guided the executive's car or truck to a convenient place, is free to give the executive any additional instructions and to supervise the occupation of the posi- tion. Every precaution taken to minimize circulation and confusion at the gun position reduces difficulties of camouflage after the occupation. * > Questions 1. Give 3 important factors in the selection of an OP. 2. Who is responsible for the selection of an OP and the battery position? 3. How does the work of a detail in a fast moving situation differ from that in a slow deliberate action? 4. Why is a night occupation difficult? g CHAPTER IV DISPLACEMENTS 45. General. Displacement of observation or of the firing battery, or both, is neces. sary in order to maintain continuous fire support as the action develops. The displace- ment may be forward or to the rear. The battery commander must habitually plan and prepare for a displacement of the elements of his command in any direction. 46. Displacement of Observation. a. General. Forward observers are habitually sent out by the firing batteries of direct support battalions of the division artillery. These observers carry observation forward as the supported unit advances. Forward observers supplement other observation agencies and do not relieve the need for maintaining the battery observation post. The battery observation post must also be pushed forward as better observation posts are uncovered, and it displaces when better observation be- comes available; this displacement usually takes place independently of the displacement of the firing battery. The personnel of the forward-observer party are not available to the battery commander in the displacement of the observation post, and the situation may require the use of the old observation post until the new observation post is occupied. b. Forward displacement of observation. When the reconnaissance officer is the for- 126 DUTIES OF Bc DETAIL ward observer and the forward-observer party includes the instrument corporal and a radio operator, the battery commander may use his detail as follows: (1) When the old observation post is to be maintained until the new one is organized, the battery commander may go to the new observation post. A suitable complement for his party is the signal sergeant, scout corporal 1, radio 1, four wiremen and telephone operators, and a basic, with the BC car and lineman truck. The chief of detail and one wireman and telephone operator remain at the old observation post and observe until the new one is established. (2) When the old battery observation post is no longer of any value, the battery commander may move its personnel and equipment to the new observation post. However, the forward observer is available to adjust the fire of the battery during the displacement of the observation post. If there is not sufficient concealment and defilade it may be necessary that the move- ment forward be made dismounted and the wire laid by hand. The OP line may be extended or a new circuit may be installed from the switchboard or the gun position. c. Rearward displacement of observation. When observation is to be displaced to the rear all personnel and equipment not actually needed to operate the installations are sent to the rear prior to the displacement. The remaining personnel displace when ordered to do so. The wire may be picked up in advance and radio made the principal means of communication. A wire truck may sometimes be retained in the vicinity of the old observation post to recover wire when the observation-post personnel withdraw. 47. Displacement of the Firing Battery. a. General. A timely and orderly displace- ment of the firing battery to a new position requires advance planning and reconnaissance. If the displacement is forward, the battery commander and his party are brought to the new position area as early as possible. The battery commander must be accompanied by a reconnaissance party adequate to accomplish the tasks of reconnaissance and occu- pation of the new position. b. Forward displacement of the firing battery. When the forward-observer party consists of the reconnaissance officer, the instrument corporal, and a radio operator, the reconnaissance party for displacement of the firing battery may consist of the battery commander, the signal sergeant, a radio operator, scout corporal 1, the BC car, and lineman truck complete with personnel and equipment. This leaves the chief of detail in charge of the battery observation post. The party, upon arrival in the new position area, makes plans for the occupation of the new position, guides the battery forward to the new position, and establishes communication between the observation post and the new gun position. The battery commander may have the assistant executive and scout corporal 2 come forward to assist in the organization of the new position. c. Rearward displacement of the firing battery. When it is known that a displace- ment to the rear is to take place, all elements of the battery not needed to continue fire missions prior to the displacement are sent to the rear under the reconnaissance officer or the assistant executive. The battery commander remains at the observation post or with the battery, and the forward-observer party continues to observe and ad- just fire in support of the forward elements of the supported troops (the battery com- mander usually remains with the most forward firing elements of the battery during a retrograde movement). The reconnaissance officer or the assistant executive, assisted by the personnel, not needed in the forward area, reconnoiters, selects, and prepares the position to which the firing battery is to displace. 48. Displacement of Observation and the Firing Battery. When the observation post and the firing battery displace simultaneously, the battery commander employs the de- tail in a manner similar to that described for a displacement of the firing battery, except that in a forward displacement the chief of detail brings forward the remainder of the detail and both scout corporals 1 and 2 are included in the battery commander's party. CHAPTER V HEAVY ARTILLERY 49. Organization. The battery detail of a heavy artillery battery varies slightly in organization from that of the light or medium battery. The principal difference is the provision of additional survey personnel. The heavy artillery battery has no scout corporals. In the 155-mm gun battery there are two survey corporals and two survey privates. The 240-mm howitzer battery has some additional survey personnel. 50. Employment of the Battery Detail. The employment of the heavy artillery battery detail in the occupation of position is basically the same as that described for light and medium batteries. As time is normally available to heavy artillery for a com- paratively more deliberate occupation of position, the survey is usually completed prior to the arrival of the firing battery. A more detailed reconnaissance of roads and bridges is required because of the heavier materiel. It is desirable to have the chiefs of section reconnoiter the positions of the pieces during daylight; the direction of fire is accurately staked out prior to the arrival of the pieces. In the 240-mm howitzer battery each howitzer position is surveyed, the center line of the zone of fire established, and a platform pit dug; personnel for digging the pits usually are taken into the position area in advance of the battery. The movement of the battery into the position must be planned in greater detail; the battery usually marches in multiple columns or serials, either over separate roads or over the same road, the light vehicles moving in one column and heavy vehicles (tractors) moving in another column. The tracks made by the tractors and heavy materiel are difficult to conceal and the pieces rarely can be emplaced in position without the necessity of the prime movers leaving the existing roads; the chiefs of section guide the pieces into the position. 51. Individual Duties. Suggested list of duties and assignments of members of the detail in a tractor-drawn unit follows: . In charge of Btry detail. . Assists in organization of OP. . Calculates firing data. - . Responsible for care of instruments. Observer at OP. . Operates instruments. . Observer at OP. . Operates instruments. . Assists RO in survey work. . Operates instruments. . Operates signal lamps at OP. . Delivers, sets up, and operates aiming circle at post of executive. . Operates signal lamp at post of Ex. . Assists RO. . Guides battery to position. - . Member of visual team at OP. . Assists RO. . Gun marker. . Member of visual team at post of Ex. Establishes and maintains battery signal communication. . Responsible for care of signal equipment. . In charge of reel I. . Establishes and maintains telephonc circuits. . When at CP, in charge of messengers. . In charge of reel 2. . Fstablishes and maintains telephone circuits. . When at CP, in charge of detail vehicle position. . Installs and operates switchboard. . Assists Sb Opr 1. . Relief for Sb Opr 1. . Lineman at telephone central. . Messenger. . Operator for BC on command circuit. . Operator at post of Ex. . Operator at OP on conduct-of-fire circuit. Instrument sergeant Instrument corporal Range finder corporal Instrument operator I Instrument operator 2 Scout corporal I Scout corporal 2 Signal sergeant Signal corporal I Signal corporal 2 Switchboard operator 1 Switchboard operator 2 Telephone operator 1 Telephone operator 2 Telephone operator 3 127 128 DUTIES OF BC DETAIL Telephone operators 4 and 5 Lineman I Lineman 2 Linemen 3 and 4 Bugler Chauffeurs (6) Tractor driver I Tractor driver 3 Tractor driver 2 Tractor driver 4 Agent (Cpl.) . Relief operators. . Maintain telephone circuits. . Messengers. . Wireman on reel I. . Lineman. . Wireman on reel 2. . Lineman. . Assists Sig Corp 1 or 2 in laying telephone circuits. . Linemen. . Orderly for BC. . Drivers for motor cars and trucks. . Driver for tractor with reel I. . Assistant to Trac D 1. . Driver for tractor with reel 2. . Assistant to Trac D 2. . Btry agent with Bn. C. Questions 1. Why is it necessary to survey the position for each piece in the heavy artillery battery? 2. Wherein does the duties of SC Cpl. 1 and 2 differ? 3.Why is a very detailed reconnaissance of roads and bridges necessary in heavy artillery? Personnel and transportation BC party l Remainder K of detail f RO MS 1 Sct Cpl. 2 I 4) Sig Sgt Rad 1 T 3 MS I Rad Sig Cpl Reel 1 L 3 Sig Cpl. 2 D D Major items of equipment O O BC O O Bglr | 3 flag kits (Sct Cpls 1 and 2, I1) O O Sct Cpl. 1 & 2 aiming circles (ISgt, I 2 O O I 1 l 1 SCR-194 (Note 2) O O I Sgt O O O I Cpl O O MS 2 2 telephones (T 1, T 3) O O T 1 1 SCR-194 O O MS O 1 switchboard O 2 telephones O | 2 miles W-110 wire 1 range finder | O| L 1 1 BC telescope O O T 5 { 1 telephone (L 3) O 1 switchboard O 2 telephones O 2 miles W-110 wire | 1 set topographical equipment | O| L 2 (Note 3) O O O Wagr | 2 drums DR-4, with 2 axles, RL- O O T 6 27 (each drum with 3/4 mile O O Sb 1 of wire) O A 1 flag kit 2 telephones (Sb l, T 2) \. Reel 2 L 4 T2 T4 Sb 2 NOTES: 1. Battery agent (Cpl.) marches with the battalion commander's party. 2. Four radio operators with 4 SCR-194 sets belong to the battery. One operator normally marches with the BC party, one with the remain- der of the detail, and the other two with the firing battery. 3. The principal items of a set of topographical equipment are: 1 brass alidade, 1 plane table, 1 protractor, 1 plotting scale, 1 triangle, and 1 steel straightedge. Plate 5. March Formation. CHAPTER VI HORSE-DRAWN ARTILLERY 52. Comparison With the Truck-Drawn Battery Detail. Exactly the same functions must be performed by both groups and individuals in the horse-drawn battery detail as described above for the truck-drawn battery detail. The battery commander should have no difficulty in making the necessary adaptations. The fact that detail members are individually mounted increases the flexibility of formations; the battery commander can make up reconnaissance and communication groups to suit the requirements of any situation. The addition of four SCR 194 sets to the battery equipment increases the detail and adds materially to the flexibility of signal communications. 53. March Formation. The formation given in Plate 5 indicates an appropriate posi- tion for each member of the detail. However, when reasons therefor exist, the battery commander may change the distribution of individuals. FA2 (1) 129 CARE OF ANIMALS AND STABLE MANAGEMENT CONTENTS Paragraphs Chapter I. Regions and Structure of the Horse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-8 Chapter II. Conformation . . . . . . . . . . . * . . * * * * * * * * * * * 9-30 Chapter III. Prevention and First-Aid Treatment of Common Disease and Injuries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 31–39 Chapter IV. Age Determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . • * - e - - - * * - - - - - - 40–47 Chapter V. Stable Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48-71 Chapter VI. Feeding and Watering . - - - - - - - * * * * - - 72-87 Chapter VII. Field Management - - • * * * * * * * * * * * * 88 Chapter VIII. Fitting of Equipment . º ... • * * * * * * * * - - 89-93 Chapter IX. Basic Shoeing . - - • * * * * * * * * * a * * - - - - - 94-103 CHAPTER I REGIONS AND STRUCTURE OF THE HORSE 1. General Structure. The body of the horse, like that of man, is made up of a skeletal system, a muscular system, a digestive system, a respiratory system, a circulatory system, a nervous system, a urinary system, a reproductive system, and an outer body covering of skin and hair. a. Skeletal system. The skeleton of the horse is made up of about 205 bones. Bones give the body form and rigidity and form cavities for the protection of vital organs. The bones and their joints together form a system of levers and pulleys which through muscular action gives the body power of movement. Joints are of special importance, for they are fre- quently injured and are the seat of many unsoundnesses. b. Muscular system. The muscles of red flesh make up most of the bulk of the body, and by their action produce all movements. The body of the muscle is usually attached to some bone while the muscle is continued as a fibrous band called a tendon, which may pass one or more joints and attach to some other bone. Muscles are seldom injured, but the tendon of the muscle is more liable to injury. c. Digestive system (par. 72a). The digestive system is really a long tube beginning at the mouth and ending at the anus. Its function is to receive and digest the food. The digested part of the food passes into the blood stream as food for the muscles, and the undigested portion is passed as dung. As the horse naturally eats grasses and not grains, he must be supplied with bulky food. The droppings should be formed in pellets and flatten slightly on striking the ground. d. Respiratory system. The organs of the respiratory system are the nasal passage, the pharynx, the larynx or voice box, trachea or windpipe, the bronchi, and the lungs. The purpose of this system is to supply the blood with oxygen and to throw off the waste gases. Breathing should be free, soft, and noiseless. After fast work the breathing is heard as a rushing sound of air but there should be no harsh, fluttering, whistling, or roaring sound. After cessation of exercise the breathing rate should subside quickly to normal. Cinching too tightly or placing the cinch too far to the rear will interfere with normal breathing. e. Circulatory system. The heart pumps the blood out through the arteries and small capillaries to all parts of the body. The blood returns to the heart through the veins. The blood passes through the lungs where it gives up its waste gases and receives its supply of oxygen. The blood circulating in the walls of the stomach and intestines absorbs the digested food and makes it available for the tissues of the body. The arteries, as a rule, lie deep in the tissues and are well protected from injury. When the horse is at rest the pulse rate should be 36 to 40 per minute. The rate increases with exercise. The rate will be about 60 to 70 after a 5-minute gallop. f. Nervous system. The nervous system consists of the brain, the spinal cord, and the 13] 132 CARE OF ANIMALS AND STABLE MANAGEMENT nerves running to all parts of the body. The nerves are of two kinds; those which carry messages from the brain and those that carry sensations to the brain. Nerves usually lie close to arteries in their course. g. Urinary system. The function of the urinary system is to remove from the body waste products extracted from the blood by the kidneys. The horse passes urine several times daily in quantities of a quart or more, 3 to 6 quarts being passed in 24 hours. During the act of urination the horse spreads and extends the hind legs to the rear and stands on the toes of the hind feet, grunts, and assumes a very awkward position. 7 9 6 5 33 38 2 1. Lips 14. Breast 27. Flank 2. NOStril 15. Elbow 28. Abdomen or belly 3. Face 16. Forearm 29. Sheath 4. Eye 17. Knee joint 30. Croup 5. Forehead 18. Cannon 31. Thigh 6. Ear 19. Fetlock joint 32. Stifle 7. PO11 20. Pastern 33. Tail 8. Throat, 21. Coronary band 34. Buttocks 9. Crest of neck and mane 22. Hoof 35, Leg 10. Neck 23. Back 36. Hock 11. Withers 24. Ribs or costal region 37. Chestnut 12. Shoulder 25. LOins 38. Muzzle (includes lips, mouth, 13. Arm. 26. Point of the hip nostrils, and nose) h. Reproductive system. The function of this system is the bearing of young. The stallion will breed at all seasons of the year but the usual active season of the mare is from January to July, when the mare usually comes in “heat” for a period of 3 to 7 days every 18 to 21 days. During the “heat” period the mare is nervous, restless, urinates frequently and, during this peroid, trains or works less satisfactorily. With reference to age and sex, horses are described as follows: Foal—Either sex under 1 year of age. Yearling—Over 1 year but less than 2 years of age. Filly—A female horse under 4 years of age. Example: Filly foal, yearling filly. Mare—A female over 4 years. Gelding—A male horse which has been castrated. Stallion or horse—A male horse over 4 years. CARE OF ANIMALS AND STABLE MANAGEMENT 133 Colt—An unaltered male under 4 years. Ridgling—A male with but one testicle removed the other being retained in the belly. i. Skin and hair. The skin forms the outer protective covering of the body, throws off waste products through sweating, assists in regulating the body temperature, and produces the hair of the body coat and the horn of the hoof, chestnut, and ergot. The ergot is the small horny growth on the back of the fetlock joint. The base of the ears is the first place in the horse where sweating takes place; the neck, the flank, the side of the chest, the back, and the croup follow in order. All hair except the mane and tail is shed in the fall and in the spring. During shedding, especially spring shedding, the vitality and condition of the animals are somewhat lowered and the skin is more susceptible to infections. 2. Temperature. The normal body temperature of the horse at rest is about 100°F., but may vary 1° in either direction. The temperature varies with exercise, excitement, and air temperature. Hard, fast, or prolonged work under a hot sun may build the body heat up to 104° to 107° F. When the temperature reaches this reading, the horse is ap- proaching “overheat.” The temperature is taken with a clinical thermometer in the IſeCturn. 3. Posture. The standing posture is the most common posture of the horse. Normally both front feet will be on the same transverse line and bear weight equally. Any other posture of a forefoot is spoken of as “pointing” and is an indication of trouble. The hind limbs are rested alternately; rarely does the horse stand with both hind feet squarely to- gether on the ground. The horse can maintain the standing position without tiring and can sleep standing. The horse lies down either obliquely on the chest with the legs somewhat folded under the body and head extended with the chin or teeth on the floor, or flat on his side with the legs and head extended. 4. Age. The average duration of life of the horse is about 20 years. Horses are capable of reproducing at about 1% years of age but they are not bodily mature until about 6 years of age. The period of usefulness will average about 10 or 11 years. Horses 10 years of age or over are better able to stand the hardships of campaign than younger horses. The age of a horse may be estimated by the appearance of the front teeth by those experienced in such judgment. (See Chapter IV.) 5. Measurement. a. The height is the vertical distance from the ground to the highest point of the withers and is expressed in hands and inches, a hand being 4 inches. b. The girth measurement is the circumference of the body in inches measured at the juncture of the withers and back. Size in girth is desirable as it indicates heart and lung space. A well conformed horse 16 hands in height should have a girth measurement of about 78 inches. c. The bone measurement is the circumference in inches of the fore cannon midway be tween the knee and fetlock. This measurement will vary between about 7% and 8% inches in riding horses standing 15 to 16 hands in height. 6. Gaits. The walk, trot, and gallop are the only gaits desired for military animals. a. The walk is marked by four beats. The feet are raised successively and planted in the order in which raised; for example, right fore, left hind, left foré, right hind. The regulation walk in marching is 117 yards per minute or 4 miles per hour. b. The trot is marked by two beats and a period of suspension. The horse springs from one diagonally disposed pair of feet to the other; between the beats all feet are in the air. The right fore and left hind are called the right diagonal, and the opposite diagonal is the left diagonal. The regulation marching trot for cavalry is 9 miles per hour, for ar. tillery 8 miles per hour. The slow trot, used for equitation instruction, is 6 miles per hour. c. The gallop is marked by three beats and a period of suspension. For example, the horse is galloping with the right lead. The first beat is marked by the left hind foot striking the ground, the second by the nearly simultaneous planting of the right hind and left fore, and the third by the planting of the right fore. The regulation gallop is at a rate of 12 miles per hour. The extended gallop is at a rate of 16 miles per hour. 134 CARE OF ANIMALS AND STABLE MANAGEMENT 7. Colors of the Horse and Mule. Herein are recorded in a concise manner the most prominent and permanent characteristics by which an animal may be identified. Black (blk) is applied to the coat of uniform black hairs. Jet Black (jet blk) is a black of a brilliant luster. Rusty Black (rusty blk) is the coat nearly black but lacking sufficient pigment to be termed black. Chestnut (ch) is a medium golden color, with mane and tail of like color. Light Chestnut (lt ch) is a chestnut of yellowish tint. Dark Chestnut (dk ch) is a cinnamon shade bordering on brown. Bay (b) is a reddish color of medium shade, with black mane and tail. Light Bay (lt b) is a light red shade bordering on yellow. Dark Bay (dk b) is a dark red shade bordering on brown. Brown (br) is the color of the coat almost rusty black and distinguished therefrom by the reddish coloration around the nostrils, elbows, flanks, etc. : Gray (gr) is applied to a coat of mixed white and dark colored hairs, about equal in numbers. Light Gray (lt gr) is a shade of gray in which the white hairs predominate. Dark Gray (dk gr) is a dark shade of gray in which the dark hairs predominate. Iron Gray (ir gr) is a bluish shade of gray resembling a freshly broken piece of iron and includes the “blue” and “grayish blue” coats. Flea Bitten Gray (fb gr) is a dark gray coat intermixed with small patches of whitish hairs. Mouse (m) is an ashy gray shade resembling the color of the mouse. White (w) is an absence of pigment. Roan (r) is applied to a coat composed of red, white, and black hairs, usually red and white on body with black mane and tail. Strawberry Roan (st r) is a shade of roan in which the red hairs predominate. Buckskin is applied to a coat of uniform yellowish colored hairs. Piebald (pd) is applied to the coat divided into patches of white and black only. Pied Black (p bl), Pied Bay (p b), and Pied Roan (p r), are terms to be used to designate the patched coats of white and black, white and bay, or white and roan. If the color other than white predominates, the term pied should follow the predominating color, as black pied (bl p), bay pied (b p), or roan pied (rp). Dapple (d) is prefixed to the designation of any color when spots the size of a silver dollar, or thereabout, and lighter or darker overlay the basic color. 8. Markings of Horses and Mules. The following are the principal white or other con- trasting hair markings. White Hairs is a term used to designate a few white hairs on the forehead, at the junc. tion of the neck and withers, on the shoulders, the coronet, over the eyes, etc. Star designates a small, clearly defined area of white hairs on the forehead. Race designates a narrow stripe down the face, usually in the center and further described as “short” when it does not reach the nose. Snip designates a white mark between the nostrils. Blaze designates a broad splash of white down the face. It is intermediate between a race and a white face. White Face means that the face is white form forehead to muzzle. Silver Mane and Tail designates the reflection of white in these appendages. White Pastern means that the white extends from coronet to and including the pastern. Quarterstocking means that the white hairs extend from coronet to and including the fetlock. Halfstocking designates that the leg is white from the coronet to an inch or two above the fetlock. Threequarterstocking means that the white hairs extend to midway between fetlock and knee or hock. Full Stocking designates the leg white to or including the knee or hock. Cowlick is a term applied to a tuft of hair presenting an inverse circular growth. Cow- licks are found on the forehead, breast, axillae, flank, on the lateral surface of the neck, CARE OF ANIMALS AND STABLE MANAGEMENT 135 between the ears, on the cheek, withers, internal surface of the thigh, and point of buttock. They are permanent distinguishing characteristics, which should be recorded. Black Points means black mane, tail, and extremities. Ray designates the dark line found along the back of some horses and many mules. Cross designates the dark line over the withers from side to side. Zebra marks designate the dark, horizontal stripes seen upon the forearm, the knee, and the back of the metatarsus and metacarpus. Questions 1. How many separate bones make up the skeleton of the horse? 2. Beginning with the croup, name the regions of the horse downward through the hind leg. 3. What is a filly? Gelding? Colt? 4. What is the normal body temperature of the horse? 5. How is the height of a horse determined? 6. Describe the following colors of horses: a. Strawberry roan. b. Chestnut. c. Bay. d. Brown. CHAPTER II CONFORMATION 9. General. The word conformation as applied to animals refers to the structure of the parts as regards their external form or outline and the arrangement and relationship of the various parts as a whole. Good conformation of a part or region implies that the part is so constructed that it is best mechanically adapted for the performance of its intended function. The term good conformation as applied to the animal as a whole implies that his component parts are of good conformation and that these parts are so arranged and of such relative size and strength with relation to each other that the animal is best adapted to perform the particular work for which he is intended. It is obvious that conformation is an index of utility and that any serious deviation from the essential points of good conformation can but lead to unsoundness or imperfect perform- ance when the animal is put to work. From an asthetic standpoint good conformation may not always infer a body of beauty within the artist's conception of beauty but good con- formation cannot exist without symmetry or harmonious arrangement and symmetry or good proportion is the basis of useful beauty. What may be considered as perfect conform- ation in a horse for some particular use may be imperfect conformation in a horse intended for a radically different type of work. Within certain individual parts the criterion of good conformation may be identical for both purposes but in other unit parts there may be wide differences. As an example a large, clear, soft and kindly eye is desirable in both the massive draft horse and the race horse, but the short, wide, sloping heavily muscled croup of the former would be very ill suited for the purposes of speed. This leads us to the matter of “type” which in horses may be defined as a division or group based upon the gen- eral purpose of the horse. The general types are draft, driving or light and heavy harness types and riding type. Within each of these general types there are several less distinct sub- divisions as to type such as in the riding type we find the military riding type, the hunter, the polo horse and the race horse in which the distinction as to conformation is often rather indefinite. As in this text we are primarily concerned with the riding type. The discussion of conformation will be confined chiefly to the riding type and more especially to the mili- tary riding type. As will be learned later, each general type is represented by several breeds as are also some of the secondary types. As we have considered conformation, it is apparent that as have often been said, a good horse is one with many good points, few indifferent points, and no bad points. Any number of good points cannot compensate for one really bad point. The body as a whole can be no 136 CARE OF ANIMALS AND STABLE MANAGEMENT stronger than its weakest part, although we cannot lose sight of the fact that nature does much to compensate for deficiencies and we must always accept some undesirable with the good. Perfection is always to be sought for but seldom attained. 10. Head. As a general rule the head of a riding horse should be small. A large head acts like a heavy weight at the end of a long lever, and has a tendency to make the horse heavy in hand; although much depends on the obliquity or otherwise of its setting upon the neck. A small and well-formed head is usually a sign of good breeding although a long but lean and well-shaped head is often found in horses of good breeding. The ears should be relatively small, pointed, set well apart and not high on the head. When the horse is alert and at attention the ears should be carried evenly erect. Flop ears or lop ears frequently go with under breeding and are often associated with a phlegmatic, dull, stubborn or indifferent temperament. The forehead should be broad and flat. A bulging or narrow forehead is undesirable and especially a bulging between the eyes. The eyes should be large, bright, clear and kindly and set far apart. A horse with a small eye rather deeply set is said to be pig-eyed. Eyes that are very prominent are apt to be strongly convexed which is often associated with near-sightedness and the habit of shying. The face should be of moderate length, lean and finely chiseled, especially just below the eyes. The face as viewed from the side should be straight or very slightly concaved. A horse with a convex face is said to be Roman-nosed while one with a strongly concaved face is said to be dish-faced, both of which are undesirable for obvious reasons. The mostrils should be thin, mobile and of ample size. The lips should be thin but of moderate size and firmly and neatly held. The lips should be free from coarse hairs other than the natural tactile hairs. The jaw should be broad and flat but well muscled, the depth from the forehead to the angle of the jaw should be great; normally this distance is equal to one-half the total length of the head. The space between the angles of the jaw should be wide to give plenty of room for the air and food passages which pass through this region. The juncture of the head and neck should be lean and muscular and possess definition without weakness or coarseness or a meaty appearance. The most pleasing carriage of the head is one where the long axis of the head is carried at an angle of about 45 degrees to the horizontal when the horse is at attention without restraint. 11. Neck. The neck should be long and of a thickness only commensurate with its length. In the riding type, the neck cannot be too long if its substance is developed propor- tionately. A thin and spindly neck indicates immaturity or general weakness or want of vigor. The top line of the neck should present a slight dip in front of the withers and then a slightly convex curving line flowing into the poll. When the top line of the neck is dis- tinctly concaved the horse is said to have a ewe-neck, or his neck is “on upside down,” es- pecially if the underline is curved downward. A horse with such a neck is likely to carry the head unduly high, especially the muzzle, and is often referred to as a “star-gazer.” When the top line of the neck is strongly arched the horse is said to be “heavy-crested” or “bull-necked.” This defect appears in necks that are too short and heavy, and result in a horse likely to “bore” on the bit. The under line of the neck should be nearly straight from the point where it flows out of the smooth curve of the throat to where it curves slightly downward to blend smoothly with the breast. The neck should be lean along its lower border with the outline of the trachea and large veins standing out sharply. The neck should be carried at a good angle which in natural carriage is slightly less than 45 degrees to horizontal. There is no part of the horse's body that has greater influence on the way of going than the length, shape and carriage of the neck. 12. Withers. The withers should be moderately high and neither very thin nor bulky muscle. There can be no objection to height of withers if their shape is such that injury by the saddle can be avoided. Good height of withers goes with a good length of neck and shoulders, both of which are desirable. Very low and flat or meaty withers are spoken of as “mutton-withers.” The convexity of the top line of the withers should not be too acute but should flow smoothly into the line of the back. The withers must not carry so far back as to interfere with proper placement of the saddle. The withers increase in com- parative height until the horse reaches full maturity. A nearly mature horse with low CARE OF ANIMALS AND STABLE MANAGEMENT 137 withers will often develop with work a much higher and better withers. As the horseman says, his withers have come up with work. 13. Shoulder. The shoulder can hardly be too long or too sloping and it should be well but not bulkily muscled. A thick shoulder gives a horse a constrained and lumbering action. A long and sloping shoulder is most advantageous for the mechanical action of the muscles and bones in the elevation and forward movement of the foreleg. A long and sloping shoulder puts plenty of horse in front of the rider, the action is good and the horse is pleasant to ride. A short and upright shoulder shortens the action and stiffens the gait of the forelegs and places the rider forward where he unduly weights the forehand. 14. Arm and Elbow. The arm should be short and muscular and inclined toward a vertical rather than a horizontal position. The elbow should be large, long, clean and stand prominent and clear of the chest. 15. Forearm. The forearm should be long and broad, when viewed from the side with the width carrying down well into the knee. The forearm should be well muscled with the muscling extending well down. The direction of the forearm should be vertical when viewed from any side. 16. Knee. The knee should be straight, broad, deep and angular or well defined with no suggestion of roundness. The front of the knee should be broad and flat with this flattened surface facing toward the front as much as possible instead of too obliquely out- ward. The bone forming the prominence on the back of the knee should be large and prominent for only by good development in this part can the lower forearm be broad or width in the upper cannon region possible. 17. Cannon. The cannon should be short and strong. From the front the cannon bone should be of good width and well formed at its ends to enter into the knee and fetlock joints. Viewed from the side the cannon region is broad and flat. Breadth is gained by the amount of separation of the tendons from the bones and by their size rather than by front to rear diameter of the cannon bone. The tendon outlines should be clear and sharp. The back line of the tendon should be parallel to the front line of the cannon bone, or at the most should but very lightly tend to converge as they approach the knee. If these lines noticeably converge, the horse is said to be “tied-in,” a serious defect. The direction of the 4 5 ! 6 7 : \|\\//W) ſ2\ N/ / \%/ N A- \ s % § Plate 2. Front View of Fore Limbs. A line drawn perpendicularly downward from the point of the shoulder should fall upon the center of the knee, cannon, pastern and foot. 1: Represents the correct conformation. 2 to 7 inclusive, represent common defects. 2: Slightly bow-legged. 3: Close at knees and toes out 4 : Toes in. 5: Knock-kneed. 6: Base narrow. 7: Base wide. cannon should be vertical when viewed from any side and in a line of continuation of the forearm. If when viewed from the side the line of the forearm and cannon is bent back- ward at the knee, the horse is said to be “calf-kneed,” while if the opposite be true he is “buck-kneed” or “over in the knees.” The terms “knock-kneed” and “bow-legged” are self-explanatory. 18. Fetlock. The fetlock should be broad, deep and angular and not rounded in appear- ance. Particularly should it be broad when viewed from the side. The joint should be 138 CARE OF ANIMALS AND STABLE MANAGEMENT > * > X > / / / Z / A / A A / ( \ & ( / Y \ N N \ N \ N | | \ \ | | | \ | | \ 4. | \ / / * & / * A Z A e Plate 3. Side View of Fore Limbs. A line drawn perpendicularly downward from the center of the elbow point should fall upon the center of the knee and pastern, and back of the foot, and a perpendicular line drawn downward from the middle of the arm should fall upon the center of the foot. 1: Represents the right conformation. 2: Leg too far forward. 3: Knee sprung. 4: Calf kneed. 5: Foot and foreleg placed too far back. 4– &L Plate 4. Side View of Hind Limbs. . A line drawn perpendicularly downward from the hip point should fall upon the center of the foot and divide the gaskin in the middle; and a perpendicular line drawn from the point of the buttock should just touch the upper rear point of the hock and fall barely behind the rear line of the cannon and fetlock. The correct position of the leg from this view point is most important in a horse. 1: Represents the correct conformation. 2: Leg too far forward and hock crooked. 3: Entire leg too far under the weak below hock. 4: Entire leg placed too far backward. * Plate 5. Rear View of Hind Limbs. A line drawn perpendicularly downward from the point of the buttocks should fall in line with the center of the hock, cannon, pastern and foot. 1: Represents the correct conformation. 2: i. 3: Base narrow. 4: Base wide. 5: Cow-hocked and toes out. This is a very serious fault, CARE OF ANIMALS AND STABLE MANAGEMENT 139 clean and well-defined with no tendency to appear puffy or meaty. In well bred horses there will be a minimum of long coarse hair on the back of the fetlock. 19. Pastern. The pastern should be of moderate length. Very long pasterns are weak and likely to be too sloping, placing a great deal of strain on the tendons. If, due to very sloping or weak pasterns, the fetlock is depressed and the pasterns assume a horizontal position as the foot bears weight, the horse is said to be “coon-footed.” If the pasterns are short they will be upright and the horse is said to have “stumpy pasterns.” Such a pastern conformation is usually associated with a short and upright shoulder. In addition to giving the horse a short, stiff, and stilted gait, this conformation increases the possibility of joint injury because of the increased concussion absorbed in the bony column. The slope of the fore pastern to horizontal is about 50 degrees to 55 degrees. 20. Foot. The foot should be of medium size and in proportion with the size of the horse. In small feet the horn of the hoof is often brittle, the base of support is insufficient and the size is inadequate to properly absorb the concussion. If the foot is unduly large, the gait is awkward and clumsy and stumbling and interfering are likely to occur. The heels should be broad and of moderate height. Low, weak heels are always a source of trouble. The hoof or foot should never be narrow and elongated like the foot of the mule. The sole should have a moderate degree of concavity and the frog prominent and elastic. When viewed from the front a perpendicular line from the point of the elbow should bisect all the regions of the leg. If the mid-line of the toe is outside of this line, the horse is “toed-out” or “splay-footed.” If the opposite be true, he is “pigeon-toed.” The former “wings-in” and interferes while the latter “wings-out” or “paddles.” Both are defective but the former is more serious. In the normal standing position the space between the fore feet should approximate that between the forelegs as they leave the body, and is about equal to the width of the foot itself. If the feet are placed more closely together, the animal is said to stand “base-narrow,” or “base-wide” if the opposite be true. If the forefeet are so placed that the legs are directed downward and forward the horse stands “camped” while if they are downward and backward, they are said to “stand under.” Most horses not at attention or if cold incline to “stand-under,” unless there is soreness in the tendons or feet, in which case they will stand “camped.” 21. Back. The back should be straight and not too long. Greatest strength goes with straightness and shortness, but some degree of length is necessary for suppleness and speed. A horse with a short back is apt to over-reach if the legs are inclined to be long. The back should be well muscled for strength and because of the cushioning effect of the muscles between the saddle and the underlying bones. If the top line of the back and loin is strongly arched, the horse is said to have a “roach-back” or a “hog-back.” Such a back is strong but it causes the saddle to ride forward on the withers and is often associated with a crooked hind leg and a too-sloping croup. A hallowed or “sway-back” is weak and always becomes more accentuated with weight-carrying and age. 22. Chest. The chest should be of moderate breadth and cannot be too deep; ample room must be provided for the vital organs of breathing and blood supply and a deficient chest means also a deficient belly. The ribs should have good curvature and great length. Strong curvature without length makes the animal “barrel-chested.” A horse with such a conformation lacks lung expansion capacity and length of shoulder, while the too wide chest places the shoulders far apart and makes the gait wobbly and rolling. The ribs should have stronger curvature back of the saddle and rib out well back toward the flank. A horse that lacks curvature of his back ribs is said to be “slab-sided” and will be lacking in belly, stamina, and easy-keeping qualities. In the riding horse of good conformation the distance from the summit of the withers to the underline at the girth is approximately equal to distance from the under line to the middle of the pastern region. 23. Loin. The loin should be of moderate length, broad and well muscled. It should be straight or slightly arched but never concave. A moderate degree of length, if sufficiently wide and well muscled, is desirable for speed and suppleness, but the length and small size must not make the horse weak in this part and “long-coupled.” 140 CARE OF ANIMALS AND STABLE MANAGEMENT 24. Belly. The belly should be large but not pendulous. The size of the belly is very largely determined by the length and spread of the back ribs. A belly of good size is an indication of stamina and easy-keeping qualities. Above all things the military horse must be able to do well on rather short rations at times and a good belly provides room “to carry his lunch with him.” The horse with a small belly and an underline that cuts sharply upward is said to be “herring-gutted” or “shad-bellied.” The flank should be narrow and well let down. 25. Croup. The croup should be of good length and of moderate width and slope. A long rather narrow and flat croup is mechanically best adapted for speed while the rather short, wide, sloping and heavily muscled croup is best suited for draft purposes. The weight-carrying military horse lies between these extremes but approaches more closely the former. The absolute length of the croup is the measurement of the line from the point of the hip to the point of the buttocks and the slope of the croup is determined by the inclination of this line to horizontal. The top line of the croup should carry back well. If the croup is very sloping the horse is said to have a “goose-rump” or a “rainy day croup.” The points of the hip should be defined but not unduly prominent or “ragged.” Prominent buttocks, which indicate length of pelvis and croup from the hip joint backward, are much to be desired. 26. Thigh. The femur or thigh bone should be relatively short and well-directed for- ward, downward and outward, so that in motion the stifle joint will be free and unimpeded in its range of movement by striking the belly. If the stifles are turned inward, it will cause the points of the hocks to turn outward. The thighs should be heavily muscled and only separated between their inner surfaces by sufficient space to prevent serious friction. If the space is wide and extends high between the thighs the horse is said to be “split up Behind.” 27. Leg. The tibia or bone of the leg should be proportionately long. It extends down- ward and backward to enter the hock at an angle of 65° to 70° to horizontal. The more nearly the leg and gaskin approach the perpendicular position, the straighter will be the appearance of the hind legs. Length from hip to hock and straightness of the hind leg are factors that make for speed and give the form of conformation that the horseman speaks of as “well let down hocks.” A horse with very straight hind legs, while usually capable of speed, may have some difficulty in readily engaging the legs forward under the body to check forward movement or execute about movements on the hindquarters. The lower part of the leg, or part known as the gaskin, when viewed from the side should be as broad and strong as possible, with muscles well down on the part and the tendon Achilles or “hamstring” clear and prominent. Width in this region is made possible by the point of the hock being long and prominent. If the leg and gaskin are deficient in muscling the leg has a cut-in appearance on its back line and the horse is “cat-hammed.” 28. Hock. The hock should be clean and well defined and giving the appearance of great strength. The bones entering into the joint should be large and prominent, yet the region should present definition and leanness with no appearance of roughness or puffiness. The oscalcis, or point of the hock, should be long and prominent. The back line of the hock in profile should be a straight line from almost the summit of the point of the hock to the fetlock joint. Especially must the lower part of the hock have great width and breadth and meet an equally strong hind cannon. If this region is deficient, the horse is said to be “tied in below the hocks.” If the points of the hocks are turned in toward each other, the horse is “cow-hocked” and is likely to “wing-in” behind and interfere. 29. Cannon of the Hind Leg. The same general qualities of comformation are desired for hind cannon as described for the fore cannon. Differing from the fore cannon, the hind cannon is not quite vertical but its direction is downward and forward. The forward direction should be very slight. If the cannon is considerably inclined it makes the hind legs appear crooked and the horse is said to be "sickle-hocked.” This conformation renders the hock more susceptible to strain. Such a conformation is sometimes spoken of as a “curby-shaped” hock because it is more susceptible to unsoundness known as curb. The hind cannons are about one-sixth longer than the fore and show from one-half to one inch greater bone measurement. CARE OF ANIMALS AND STABLE MANAGEMENT 141 30. Fetlock, Pasterns and Feet. The same desirable qualities are looked for in the hind fetlocks, pasterns, and feet as described for the corresponding regions of the fore leg. The hind feet normally tend to toe-out slightly but the degree should not be sufficient to cause interfering. A horse seldom toes-in behind but it is a defect of conformation and is almost always associated with an outward bowing of the hind legs and a turning outward of the points of the hocks. The hind pasterns have slightly less slope than the fore. Questions 1. What is meant by the term 'good conformation,’ in discussing the appearance of a horse? 2. Why is the size of the head, length of neck, and general position of head and neck with respect to the body of the riding horse, a particularly important portion of the well conformed horse? 3. In looking over a group of horses, would you pick those with pronounced and narrow withers, in preference to those with low, broad and muscular withers, for use as riding horses? If so, why? 4. In this same group of horses, would you seek to find long sloping shoulder, or would you deliberately choose heavy muscled, upright and short shoulders, in choosing suitable riding horses? Why? 5. You have chosen two horses from this group. Both are about the same as to 'good points' of head, neck, shoulder. One has decidedly a longer forearm, and correspondingly a shorter ‘cannon’ than the other. Which horse do you choose? 6. Another pair of horses are before you. One horse has a noticeably longer and more sloping pastern than the other. Other points are about on a par. Which horse do you choose, and why? 7. One of the horses of the group you have examined is known to be a thoroughbred. You examine it for conformation, and note that he is slightly over in the knees.” Explain what is meant of this term. Would this influence you in not picking this horse for riding purposes? 8. Two other horses of the group are being examined, both are facing you. One has the front legs much farther apart at the junction of the legs with the breast than the other, in fact to such extent that he has the appearance somewhat of a bull dog, although the legs are firm and straight. The other horse has an average width of breast, and equally firm and straight legs. Which horse do you prefer and why? 9. Why is it mechanically sound for the riding horse to have a comparatively short back? 10. In measuring the girth of two horses of comparatively the same general conformation, one horse measures 73", and the other 66". Which horse would you want, providing other ‘points' were about the same? Why? CHAPTER III PREVENTION AND FIRST-AID TREATMENT OF COMMON DISEASE AND INJURIES 31. General. The treatment of disease and injuries among animals, as well as prevention of disease, is the function of the Veterinary Corps. Most diseases and injuries are pre- ventable if all concerned are vigilant, intelligent, and untiring in the application of simple preventive measures. Frequently the development of serious disease or injury may be prevented by prompt first-aid measures and early treatment. In this section the causes, prevention, symptoms, and first-aid treatment of some of the more common diseases are briefly discussed. 32. Symptoms of Disease. The most common indications of disease are partial or complete loss of appetite; temperature of 101° F. or more; accelerated breathing; increased pulse rate; listlessness; dejected countenance; profuse sweating; stiffness; nasal discharge; cough; diarrhea; constipation; pawing; rolling; lameness; inflamed mucous membranes; 142 CARE OF ANIMALS AND STABLE MANAGEMENT unhealthy coat of hair; loss of hair; itching; or unnatural heat or swelling in any part of the body. 33. Inspection for Sick Animals. The best times to inspect animals for evidence of sickness or injury are while being fed and at time of grooming. One of the first and most important symptoms of sickness is impairment of appetite. Take the temperature of animals that refuse their feed. Sick animals in a corral are inclined to stand by them- selves. Move each animal around and look for lameness and nasal discharge and listen for coughs. On the march, animals are inspected after arrival in camp by the veterinarian. 34. Nursing. The chief points to consider in nursing are: a. Ventilation. Allow plenty of fresh air but protect from drafts. Avoid extremes of temperature and in the field provide shelter from wind and rain. Utilize grass lots and corrals whenever possible. b. Clothing. The amount of clothing must be regulated by the climate. In winter woolen bandages on the legs are useful, and as many as three or four covers may be used. In summer fly sheets are extremely comforting. c. Bedding. A good clean bed induces an animal to rest more and produces a soft springing surface for foot cases. It should be shaken up several times daily and be kept free of urine-soaked straw. d. Stalls. A roomy box stall, well bedded, should be used whenever possible. Keep a bucket of water in the stall and change the water frequently. e. Shoes. The shoes may be removed and the feet leveled if the animal is to remain in a stall for more than a few days. * f. Exercise. Convalescent patients should receive just as much exercise as each individual case permits. However, absolute rest is one of the very best treatments. g. Grooming. (1) Animals that are weak and depressed should not be worried with un- necessary grooming. Such animals should be carefully hand-rubbed at least once a day, and their eyes, nostrils, and docks should be wiped out with a sponge or soft cloth. The feet should also be cleaned. (2) Animals that are only slightly indisposed should be groomed in the usual way. (3) Animals with tetanus should not be cleaned at all. h. Food. Some sick animals retain a good appetite. The principal things to observe in their cases are that they are not overfed, that droppings are kept soft, and that they have plenty of water. Sick animals with impaired appetites require special attention. They often relish a change of diet, such as a bran mash, steamed oats, chopped alfalfa, grass, roots, and apples. Feed small amounts often; do not allow uneaten portions to remain in front of them; keep mangers and feed boxes clean; sprinkle a little sweetened water over the hay and grain. 35. Stable Sergeant's Veterinary Kit. For use in treating animals in the absence of veterinary service or for first-aid treatment, small quantities of medicines, bandages, and instruments may be issued to stable sergeants. The doses and uses of drugs are as follows: a. Boric acid powder. For external use only. May be used as supplied as a drying powder for dusting on a wound or applied under a dressing. For eye or mouth wash, dissolve two mess-kit spoonfuls (level) in one mess-kit cupful of warm boiled water. b. Iodine and potassium iodide. Issued in tubes for making iodine solution; for external use only. Add contents of two tubes to special bottle and fill with water. Antiseptic and disinfectant on wounds. May be painted on skin over sprains, strains, or swelling. Do not use in eye. c. White lotion tablets. For external use only. To be used only in solution. Make solution in proportion of three tablets dissolved in one mess-kit cupful of water. Useful on swellings or sprains, either rubbed on several times daily or as a wet dressing under a bandage. Drying lotion on irritated skin, such as “scratches.” Do not apply as a wet pack over wounds. d. Cresolis solution. Antiseptic and disinfectant for external use only. Use only in solutions as indicated. For wetting antiseptic pack to bandage over wound, add one-half mess-kit spoonful to mess-kit cup brimful of water. For washing wounds, add one mess- CARE OF ANIMALS AND STABLE MANAGEMENT 143 kit spoonful to mess-kit cup brimful of water. For disinfecting wood, leather, cloth, metal, etc., add one and one-half mess-kit spoonfuls to mess-kit cup of water. e. Pine tar. For external use only. Applied over or around the edges of wounds, it is useful to repel flies. Applied to hoof as tar and oakum pack. f. Aloin capsules. Laxative and purgative for internal use only. One capsule acts as laxative or mild purgative. Two capsules at one dose act as a purgative. Not more than two should be given. Administer by putting far back in the mouth with the hand or with a short piece of hose. May be given by emptying contents of capsule in one-half cupful or more of water, mix well, and give with the dose syringe. 36. Classes of Diseases and Injuries. a. Diseases are divided into two classes; communi- cable and noncommunicable. (1) Communicable diseases are diseases that are transmitted or spread from animal to animal either by direct contact or indirectly through the medium of infected stables, water troughs, corrals, stock cars, food, etc. These diseases deserve more attention than non- communicable diseases because some are incurable, some may be transmitted to man, and all may cause great losses if not held in check. The general measures for controlling this type of disease are considered in paragraph 37. (2) Noncommunicable diseases include all diseases that are not transmissible, either directly or indirectly, from one animal to another. Examples: Colic, azoturia, heat ex- haustion, thrush, etc. b. An injury is a break in the tissue of the body resulting from external violence or from muscular activity of the body itself. The more common injuries of animals are roughly classified as wounds, bruises, strains, sprains, and fractures. 37. Communicable Diseases. a. Prevention and control. (1) General health. Maintain animals in good condition, feed well, groom well, keep in clean surroundings, do not overwork, protect from undue exposure, and they will resist many forms of infection. Animals in run-down condition are very susceptible to disease. (2) Segregation. Animals should be divided into three groups; affected, suspected and healthy. The suspected animals include all those which have been in contact with the diseased. Attendants, watering and feeding arrangements, and all equipment should be included in the separation and should be kept separate until the outbreak is over. Once an animal is placed in the affected group it should remain there until all danger is over. To avoid possible introduction of communicable diseases all animals are quarantined at least 21 days upon arrival at any new station. . (3) Disinfection. Strict cleanliness of picket lines, equipment, water troughs, feed boxes, and feed bags is a good safeguard against the spread of disease. Stables, equipment, etc., which have been in contact with diseased animals should be disinfected with cresolis solution (par. 35d). Articles that can be boiled may be thoroughly disinfected in this manher. (4) Inspections. Inspection of all suspected and healthy animals should be carried out daily. In cases where it may serve as a guide, the temperature of suspected animals should be recorded. b. Influenza. This is a very communicable disease, also known as shipping fever. affecting chiefly the respiratory system. It is spread by both direct and indirect contact. (1) Cause. Influenza is caused by the animal's eating or breathing some of the body discharges of a diseased animal, particularly the nasal and bowel discharges. (2) Prevention. Cleanliness of surroundings and good condition of animals. Quar. antine of newly acquired animals for 21 days. Segregation of diseased animals. Disin- fection of stall and equipment. (3) Symptoms. The first symptoms noticed are depression, great weakness, loss of appetite, rapid breathing, hacking cough, and possibly a slight watery nasal discharge. At this stage the temperature is elevated (101.5° to 106° F.), and the mucous membrane of the eyelid will have a brick red color tinged with yellow. Later the nasal discharge becomes more profuse and usually thick and yellow. Pneumonia is often a complication. Young animals frequently develop strangles at the same time they have influenza. (4) Nursing and first-aid treatment. Isolate the diseased animal. Absolute rest and 144 CARE OF ANIMALS AND STABLE MANAGEMENT good nursing are very important. Allow plenty of sunshine and fresh air but protect the body from drafts. Keep the animal warm with blankets and leg bandages during cold weather. Induce the animal to eat, as the disease is very wasting and it is important to maintain the strength with food. Give plenty of water. Do not give cathartics. c. Coughs and colds. Animals suffer from coughs and colds quite similar to the same conditions in man. They are mildly infectious inflammations of the membranes of the nose and throat. (1) Causes. Exposure to wet or cold, particularly when tired and heated; damp or poorly ventilated stables; sudden changes in weather. (2) Symptoms. Dryness and redness of the nasal membranes followed by a watery discharge which in a day or so becomes grayish and thickened, later yellow in color. If the throat is affected, the cough is at first dry and later moist. The nasal discharge is odorless. In the early stages the animal is somewhat listless and may run a slight tem- perature, 101° to 102° F. (3) Nursing and first-aid treatment. From early symptoms it is difficult to tell whether the condition is a simple cold or the beginning of influenza or possibly strangles. For this reason the animal should be handled as if he had influenza (par. 37b). Simple colds will usually respond to rest and a mild, laxative diet. The animal must be pro- tected from cold and drafts or overheating. d. Tetanus. Tetanus is a disease which affects the nervous system. (1) Cause. The germ that causes tetanus is found in the ground and gains entrance to the body through wounds. Nail punctures of the hoof or deep wounds of the legs are most likely to be infected. (2) Prevention. This disease is entirely preventable by giving the animal a dose of tetanus antitoxin immediately after the wound is inflicted. (3) Symptoms. Stiffness and spasms of some or all of the muscles usually develop within 5 days after infection. The first symptom is muscular stiffness interfering with movement, mastication, swallowing, and drinking. As the disease progresses the gait becomes stilted, with little bending of the joints and the head is carried stiffly extended. There is little increase in temperature in the early stages. (4) Nursing and first-aid treatment. Isolate the animal in a quiet, darkened stall where he will be free from anything that may excite him. All wounds should be thor. oughly disinfected with tincture of iodine. Feed gruels of thin mashes and keep water in front of the animal at all times. Anti-tetanus serum is of little value after symptoms have developed. Diseased animals that live as long as 10 days usually recover. e. Mange. Mange is a communicable parasitic skin disease spread by both direct and in- direct contact. (1) Cause. A very small animal parasite or mite which lives on or in the skin. It may be spread by immediate contact with diseased animals or by infected equipment, stables, cars, etc. (2) Prevention. Immediate segregation of diseased animals and disinfection of all stables and equipment that may have become contaminated. Avoid interchanging of equipment among animals. Use individual grooming equipment. (3) Symptoms. Patchy loss of hair associated with intense itching. The surface of the affected areas is likely to be moist and raw or scabby, due to the activity of the parasite and scratching or rubbing by the animal. Later the skin becomes much thickened and tends to lie in ridges. (4) Nursing and first-aid treatment. Segregate diseased animals. Clip and burn hair. For small areas, scrubbing the skin with cresolis of strength recommended for wash- ing wounds may be of some benefit. Routine hand treating or dipping with lime and sulphur or arsenical dip is the usual method of treatment employed. f. Ringworm. Ringworm is a communicable skin disease spread by direct and indirect COIltaCt. (1) Cause. Caused by a fungus quite similar to ordinary mold. The causative fungus will remain infected in stables, corrals, and on equipment for long periods. (2) Prevention. Good grooming. Use only clean equipment. Avoid interchange of CARE OF ANIMALS AND STABLE MANAGEMENT 145 grooming and other equipment in contact with animals. Segregate infected animals. Dis- infect all horse equipment, stables, etc. Clipped animals are less frequently infected. (3) Symptoms. On the affected patch, the hair becomes erect and dull. After a few days, this hair, with a dry scab, falls off leaving a bare, circular patch varying in size from a penny to a dollar. (4) Nursing and first-aid treatment. Segregate diseased animal and disinfect equip- ment. With a brush scrub the affected area with cresolis solution of the strength of one mess-kit spoonful to a mess-kit cup brimful of water. Loosen and remove scabs. There- after apply tincture of iodine about every second day after rubbing off the loose scabs or scales. g. Lice. A small parasite that lives on the skin. (1) Cause. Spread by direct contact between animals and infested stables or equip- ment. Usually contracted from stables which may remain infested from year to year if not disinfected. (2) Prevention. Good grooming, clipping, isolation of infested animals, and disin- fection of stables and equipment. (3) Symptoms. Scratching, loss of hair due to rubbing, presence of lice, presence of small white eggs (nits) stuck to shafts of some of the hairs. Neck, mane, and back are regions most frequently infested. (4) Nursing and first-aid treatment. Segregate infested animals. Clip the animal and burn the hair. Wet the entire body with cresolis in the strength solution of one mess- kit spoonful of cresolis to a mess-kit cup brimful of water. Bathe the body again in this solution at the end of 5 days. Disinfect stables and equipment. 38. Noncommunicable Diseases. a. Heat exhaustion; overheating; sunstroke. These are noncommunicable disturbances of the nervous system due to heat, (1) Cause. Caused by long continued hard or fast work during hot or very humid weather, especially among animals not in good condition or having heavy coats. (2) Prevention. Do not overtax the strength of the animal. Watch animals for early symptoms. Clip animals that have heavy coats. Water frequently on hot days. (3) Symptoms. Thumps, a condition described in b below, often precedes overheat- Ing. The animal that has been sweating freely will cease to sweat and will be dull and require urging. The gait is staggering or wobbly, especially in the hind-quarters. If halted, the animal stands with the legs spraddled; breathing very rapid and shallow; nostrils dilated; expression drawn and anxious; nasal membranes bluish red in color; and trembling of body muscles. The body feels hot to the hand and the temperature will be from 103° to 109° F. - (4) Nursing and first-aid treatment. Prompt first-aid treatment is of utmost im- portance. Stop the animal at once and in the shade if any is nearby. Remove the equip- ment and apply large quantities of cold water to all parts of the body but especially to the head, sides of the neck, groins, and flanks. Inject cold water into the rectum with a syringe. Wash out the mouth and nostrils with cold water. Give the animal three or four swallows of water every few minutes. Under this treatment the temperature will drop quite rapidly, and as improvement is noted move the animal about very slowly and rub the body to prevent chilling. As soon as the temperature is near normal the animal may be moved slowly on into camp. b. Thumps. Thumps are spasms of the diaphragm. (1) Cause. Overwork or fast work during hot weather especially among animals not properly conditioned. (2) Symptoms. General symptoms of fatigue with spasmodic jerking noticeable in the belly and flanks; frequently a distinct thumping sound will be heard. (3) Nursing and first-aid treatment. If marching, halt the animal and if the tem- perature is elevated reduce it by sponging the body with cold water and then have the animal ridden or led into camp at the walk. c. Exhaustion. (1) Causes. Overexertion; excessive or prolonged heavy work; lack of condition. (2) Symptoms. After the animal arrives in camp, he may lie down and refuse his 146 CARE OF ANIMALS AND STABLE MANAGEMENT feed, especially his grain, yet drink considerable quantities of water. The temperature may be slightly elevated and the pulse may be weak and thready. Sweating may be quite noticeable and possibly patchy, yet the body feel cold and clammy. (3) Nursing and first-aid treatment. Make a comfortable place for the animal to lie. Cover the body with a blanket to prevent chilling. Hand rub the legs. Give small amounts of water frequently. A period of rest is all that is needed to recuperate from excessive fatigue. º - d. Colic. A general term applied to abdominal pain caused by digestive disturbance either spasmodic and flatulent or gas colic. (1) Causes. The causes of both forms of colic are very similar, but gas colic is more frequently caused by foods fermenting in the digestive tract. General causes are in- digestible or spoiled food, sudden changes in food, overeating, eating while fatigued, working too soon after feeding, watering while exhausted or hot, bolting the feed, over- eating of green feed, and watering too soon after feeding. Windsucking is frequently a cause of gas colic. Collections of sand in the bowel may result in repeated attacks of colic. (2) Prevention. Close attention to the principles of feeding and watering will pre- vent most cases of colic. (3) Symptoms. Pain as indicated by restlessness, pawing, stamping of the feet, look- ing around. at the flanks, kicking at the abdomen, lying down, rolling, sweating, and fre- quent attempts to defecate usually resulting in the passage of but a few pellets of dung or a discharge of gas. In spasmodic form, the attacks are often intermittent with short periods of a few minutes of apparent freedom from pain. In the gas type of colic, the digestive tract is filled with gas, the belly is distended, and breathing is difficult. (4) Nursing and first-aid treatment. Place the animal in a well-bedded box stall or, if in camp, bed down a section of the picket line and have an attendant hold the animal's tie rope. Get a veterinarian at once, if possible. Do not attempt to keep the animal from rolling, etc., unless he is throwing himself to the ground so violently that it is evident he may rupture some organ. Give the animal two aloin capsules. Give fre- quent rectal injections of 2 or 3 gallons of warm soapy water. Wring blankets out of hot water and wrap around the belly and flanks as hot as can be borne without burning the hands or animal. Water may be given in small amounts. Withhold all food until at least 12 hours after all pain has disappeared and then feed light for 2 or 3 days. e. Diarrhea. (1) Causes. Spoiled food, overfeeding of “washy” feeds, sudden changes or diet; and nervousness. (2) Prevention. Careful attention to kind, quality, and quantity of feed and methods of feeding. Exclude “washy” feeds from the diet of animals which tend to scour. (3) Symptoms. The droppings are frequent and of semi-fluid nature. If the con- dition continues long, the animal loses flesh and appetite is wanting. (4) Nursing and first-aid treatment. Correction of diet in mild cases will be suffi. cient. Give one aloin capsule and give the animal absolute rest while witholding all food and limiting the amount of water for a period of 24 to 48 hours. f. Azoturia. (1) Cause. Caused by violent exercise following idleness. (2) Prevention. When conditioned animals accustomed to regular work are given a period of complete rest for longer than a day, reduce the grain ration by at least one- half. When animals are exercised after a period of rest, they should be walked for at least 20 minutes after leaving the stables and not called upon to do more than a very small amount of fast work the first day. (3) Symptoms. Increased excitability, profuse sweating, and rapid breathing are the first symptoms. Very soon the animal begins to stiffen in his hindquarters, drag the hind legs and knuckle over in the hind fetlocks. If continued in work the animals will become completely incapable of supporting weight on the hind legs and fall to the ground, and in such cases the chances of recovery are remote. The urine is scanty and red or coffee- colored. (4) Nursing and first-aid treatment. Stop the animal immediately when the first symptoms are observed. Remove the saddle or harness and cover with three or four blankets. Keep the animal standing, if possible; if not, provide a good bed. Heat some A CARE OF ANIMALS AND STABLE MANAGEMENT 147 oats or common salt, place in a sack and spread over the loins to relieve the pain. If hot water is available, a hot blanket wrung out, placed over the back and loins, and covered with dry blankets is very beneficial. After a few hours the average case can be moved slowly to the stable, provided the distance is not too great. At this time he should be given a purgative (aloin capsule) and be fed on bran mashes, grass, and hay for a few days. g. Laminitis (founder). (1) Causes. Overeating grain, eating improper or spoiled food, colic, exhaustion, overexertion, long continued work on hard-surfaced roads, and drink- ing cold water while overheated. (2) Symptoms. Intense lameness, which appears quickly. In mild cases the animal moves stiffly, taking short, rapid steps with the forefeet and with the hind legs carried well forward under the body to relieve the forefeet from the weight of the body. Usually only the forefeet are affected. The affected feet are very hot. The pulse and respiration are greatly accelerated and temperature may reach 105° F. (3) Nursing and first-aid treatment. Remove the shoes from the affected feet and place the animal in a well-bedded box stall. Cover the affected feet and legs as high as the knees and hocks with several layers of burlap and keep saturated with cold water. If running water is available, place the animal in it and allow him to stand for 24 to 36 hours. In this case the shoes need not be removed. Laxative diet is indicated. Give one or two aloin capsules. Feed bran mashes and a little hay. Early treatment is an im- portant factor. Cases that are not cured in 4 or 5 days are likely to develop into chronic laminitis which is practically incurable. As soon as the acute pain has diminished, moder- ate walking exercise each day is beneficial. Following the attack, shoe with a bar shoe over a leather pad covering a tar and oakum pack. h. Scratches. An inflammation in the back of the pastern region. (1) Causes. Wet, muddy, and filthy standings; failure to dry legs that have become wet from slush, rain, or washing; pasterns not thoroughly cleaned while grooming; short clipping of the hair on the back of the pastern. Most prevalent during wet, cold weather. (2) Symptoms. Redness, heat, pain, and swelling of the skin on the backs of the pastern. Later the surface of the skin becomes moist and raw, and dust and dirt dry with the secretions to form a scabby mass sticking to the skin and hair. The skin may crack. Usually there is lameness. (3) Nursing and first-aid treatment. With soap and warm water carefully soak off all accumulated dirt and dried secretion. Rinse with clean, warm water and dry. Apply a white lotion pack under a bandage twice daily. Rest the animal on clean, dry stand. ings and feed laxative foods. . After the moistness of the skin has decreased, apply dry powdered boric acid held in place by cotton in a loose bandage. Avoid the use of water after the first cleansing. i. Thrush. (1) Causes. Failure to clean out the depths of the commissures and cleft of the frog, lack of frog pressure, filthy standings, dryness of the feet, and cuts or tears in the horny frog are all contributing causes. (2) Prevention. A hoof that is properly groomed once each day will not develop thrush. A thorough washing of the under surface of the hoof once a week will materially assist in prevention of this disease. (3) Symptoms. Cracks, depressions, or fissures in the horn of the frog in which is found a thick, dark colored discharge with a very offensive odor. The cleft of the frog and the sides of the frog at the depths of the commissures are the parts usually diseased. (4) Nursing and first-aid treatment. Clean and wash the hoof. With a sharp hoof knife, trim away all diseased and under-run horn and all ragged pieces. With cresolis solution (one and one-half mess-kit spoonfuls to mess-kit cupful of water) and a stiff brush thoroughly scrub the horn. After it has dried, paint the area with iodine. Repeat the washing and iodine treatment daily until the horn begins to appear dry and then apply pine tar. j. Tendinitis. This is an inflammation of the large tendons on the back of the leg in the cannon region. - (1) Causes. A strain of these tendons; long toes and low heels; violent efforts and 148 CARE OF ANIMALS AND STABLE MANAGEMENT sudden checks, as in jumping or galloping over rocky, uneven ground; long-continued exertion in which the muscles tire and are more easily strained; lack of fit condition; tight bandaging. (2) Prevention. Proper balance and shoeing of the feet. Have the animal in good, fit condition. Avoid other causes of the injury. (3) Symptoms. Lameness; heat and swelling in the tendon; sensitiveness of the ten- don to pressure. The tendons of the forelegs are far more 'frequently affected than are those of the hind legs. The tendons in the cannon region may be affected their entire length or only in a part of their length. (4) Nursing and first-aid treatment. Absolute rest is most essential. Shower the leg with cold water from a hose or apply cold or ice water packs throughout the day, and for the night apply a white lotion pack over the injured tendon. After the acute swelling and tenderness have disappeared, bathe with hot water and massage, then rub the tendon briskly with tincture of iodine once daily. 39. Injuries. a. Rope burn. This is an injury usually occurring on the back of the pastern. (1) Causes. Tying with the tie rope too long is the most frequent cause. Often caused by the animal getting his foot, usually a hind foot, over his own or an adjacent horse's tie rope or entangled in a picket line guy rope. An improperly made or improperly used slide line or casting rope often results in rope burns. (2) Symptoms. A simple chafe or abrasion of the skin. It may involve the under- lying tendon. Lameness is usually a symptom. (3) Nursing and first-aid treatment. General methods of treatment same as for scratches (par. 38h) except that white lotion packs should not be used if the injury is more than a surface one. b. Lameness. Lameness may best be detected at the trot. When an animal is lame it takes as much weight as possible off the injured leg and places it on the opposite one. If lame in a foreleg, the animal will be seen to nod its head every time the sound foot comes to the ground. If lame behind, the hock of the sound leg comes higher and dips lower than that of the lame one, and the head may nod as the lame foot strikes the ground. Animals lame in both fore and hind legs take short strides with both; they idle along instead of striding out. c. Sprains. A sprain is a joint injury usually without any break or injury of the over- lying skin. (1) Causes. Twisting or pulling of the joint or bending the joint beyond its normal range of action resulting in stretching or tearing of the ligaments. (2) Symptoms. Marked lameness; heat and swelling over the joint; tenderness on pressure or manipulation. (3) Nursing and first-aid treatment. Treatment should be the same as that outlined for tendinitis (par. 38; (4)). d. Wounds. (1) Classification. Wounds are divided into: (a) Incised wounds or cuts. (b) Lacerated wounds or tears. (c) Punctured wounds or holes. (2) Treatment. (a) Cleanliness. Cleanliness of the wound itself, of the dressings, and the dresser is of the greatest importance. (b) To stop bleeding. Stoppages of bleeding is the first point to be attended to. Tight bandaging above and below the wound or a pad on the wound is usually sufficient to control the flow. If a large blood vessel is cut and the end exposed, it should be tied around with clean thread which has been soaked in antiseptic. (c) To clean. Cut the hair from the edges of the wound and remove all dirt, clots of blood, splinters, and foreign bodies of all kinds. This may be done by carefully syringing the parts with clean warm water or a warm antiseptic solution. (d) To close. Sutures and bandages are used for this purpose, but no wound that has been dirty must ever be entirely closed. Sutures may be used in parts where there is little flesh, such as around the forehead, eyelids, and nose. They are less useful in the CARE OF ANIMALS AND STABLE MANAGEMENT 149 fleshy parts, because the movements of the muscles and swelling cause them to pull out. In applying sutures the borders of the wound must be brought together in their natural position. The needle and thread are passed through the skin at one side of the wound and out at the other. The sutures should be from 4 to 9% inch from the edge and about 34 of an inch apart. They should be drawn just tight enough to bring the edges of the skin together. As a rule, they should be removed in about 8 days. (e) Drainage. Drainage at the lowest part of the wound is necessary for the removal of pus. In horizontal wounds a small vertical opening must be made below the line of the stitches. (f) Dressings. Wounds should be dried carefully with gauze or cotton, treated with an antiseptic, covered with dry gauze or cotton, and a bandage applied; or cotton soaked in antiseptic may be put on and held in position by a bandage, care being taken to avoid undue pressure. If the location will not permit bandaging, the injured parts may be treated with an antiseptic and covered with a clean piece of cloth or gunny sack, the inside of which may be lined with a piece of gauze large enough to cover the wound. Bandaging for too long a period may prevent the area from covering itself with skin, resulting in proud flesh. After a wound has begun to granulate (fill in with repair tissue), it will often heal much better if no dressing or bandage is placed in contact with the wound, provided it is not irritated by flies. (g) Rest and restraint. If the injury is slight the animal may continue at work; otherwise he may be kept in a box stall, cross-tied, or subjected to some other form of restraint. (h) After care. All wounds should be kept dry and dressings should be changed only often enough to keep the wound clean. As little washing as possible should be done, and the parts should be sopped instead of rubbed. (i) Flies. The healing of wounds that cannot be covered is sometimes retarded by the presence of flies. The edges of such wounds, and also the surface if not too moist, may be covered lightly with pine tar. (j) Maggots and screwworms. Wounds sometimes get fly-blown and maggots ap- pear. Their presence is recognized by a thin, bloody discharge from the wound and the red, angry appearance of its edges. If the bottom of the wound is carefully examined, movement of the worms may be seen. With forceps pick out all the worms and wipe out the cavity with a swab of cotton that has been saturated with tincture of iodine. (k) Excessive granulations (proud flesh). In sluggish, slow-healing wounds small, rounded fleshy masses which protrude beyond the edges of the wound are often formed. These fleshy masses are called proud flesh. The growth may be kept down by removing with scissors to the level of the skin and treating with boric acid or tincture of iodine, or by searing to the level of the skin with a heated iron, care being taken to see that the surrounding skin is not burned. e. Contusions (bruises). A contusion is an injury of a part without breaking the over- lying skin. (1) Causes. Blow from a blunt object. Being kicked is a common cause. (2) Symptoms. When over a muscle, they produce soreness and lameness and, if severe, may rupture a blood vessel which will result in a fluctuating swelling caused by an accumulation of blood usually just under the skin. Such injuries are most common on the thigh and buttocks. Contusions over a joint may be mistaken for a sprain of the joint. (3) Nursing and first-aid treatment. Rest and general method, of treatment as out- lined for tendinitis (par. 38; (4)). In bruises where a fluctuating swelling results that does not reduce in a week or ten days, the swelling may be opened with a knife at its lowest point to allow the fluid contents to escape. After opening, the external parts should be kept clean and the external wound painted with iodine once daily. f. Summer sores. (1) Cause. Apparently due to the effects of irritation of an ordinary wound by flies. They invariably occur during hot weather when flies are most prevalent. (2) Prevention. Protect all wounds from flies by appropriate dressings or medicinal application. (3) Symptoms. The wound tends to form proud flesh rapidly, and the surface of the area is porous and exudes a considerable amount of thin discharge. Near the surface 150 CARE OF ANIMALS AND STABLE MANAGEMENT of the proud flesh and in its depths may often be found small, hard grayish or yellowish bodies having much the appearance of crackcd corn. (4) Nursing and first-aid treatment. Remove pronounced growths of proud flesh. Thereafter treat as other wounds with special protection from flies. g. Treads and overreaches. (1) Causes. Defective conformation, such as toeing out, cow-hocked, and narrow breasted; defective shoeing; and traveling over uneven footing. Fatigued animals are more likely to interfere behind. (2) Prevention. Corrective shoeing, etc. If not correctable, use leather or felt inter- fering boots, or pad the part with oakum held in place with a bandage. (3) Symptoms. The injury may vary from a slight roughing of the hair at the cor- onet or inside of the fetlock to a deep wound causing marked lameness. At the moment of interfering an animal will often carry the leg for a few steps without putting weight on it, then go very lame for a few steps and soon proceed without lameness. (4) Nursing and first-aid treatment. Treat the same as other wounds (par. 394 (2)). Apply a thick, padded dressing to avoid further injury. h. Corns. A corn is a bruise or an inflammation of the sensitive tissues underlying the horn in the region of the heels. (1) Causes. Caused by external bruising such as by overreaching or by bruising due to concussion within the foot incident to the foot striking the ground while the animal is in movement. Fast or long-continued work on hard-surfaced roads which increases the normal concussion may cause corns or general foot soreness. Lack of frog pressure, dry feet, high or unduly low heels, leaving shoes on too long, and contracted heels are all possible causes of corns. (2) Prevention. Shoe for maximum frog pressure, avoid loss of horny frog by thrush, maintain the normal moisture content and elasticity of the horn of the hoof, avoid unneces- sary hard or fast work on unyielding surfaces, prevent contraction of the heels by proper hoof care and corrective shoeing, and avoid the unnecessary use of calked shoes. (3) Symptoms. Lameness is a symptom. With mild corns in both forefeet, lame- ness may be evidenced only by a slight stiffness and shortness of gait in the forelegs. One or both forefeet may be affected or only one heel of a foot. The affected heel and quarter may be hot, and the animal will flinch when pressure is exerted on the affected area with the hoof testers or tongs. (4) Nursing and first-aid treatment. Remove the shoe. Reduce the inflammation by cold packs on the hoof or by standing in cold water. Lower the wall at the buttress and quarter to relieve that part from bearing on the shoe. Shoe with a bar shoe and a pad to get increased frog pressure. If pus has formed, the under run horn should be removed and free drainage established. General treatment is used for wounds until dry, then tar and oakum dressings and corrective shoeing. i. Penetrating wounds of the foot (nail pricks, etc.). (1) Causes. Most penetrating wounds of the foot are caused by the animal stepping on nails or screws or by a misdirected shoeing nail. (2) Nursing and first-aid treatment. If the nail is still imbedded in the horn, before removing it, clean all dirt from the bottom of the foot by washing and then wash with cresolis solution. Remove the nail or other object, and with a knife thin the horn over a fair-sized area surrounding the penetration and make a final opening about 9% to ¥4 inch in diameter through the horn to the sensitive tissue. Saturate a rather small pledget of cotton with tincture of iodine and place it on the wound. Over this place a pad of oakum covering part or all of the bottom of the hoof and hold in place with strips of tin or light sheet metal of such length and width that their ends can be engaged between the hoof and the shoe on the inside at both sides of the shoe. Do not probe the wound in the sensitive tissue and do not compress the dressing so tightly that the secretions are dammed back into the wound. Dress daily with iodine until the wound appears to be dry and healing and then apply a tar dressing under an oakum pack about every 3 days until no further dressing is necessary. j. Sore backs. Sore backs are probably the greatest cause of disability among cavalry mounts. Sore backs can be prevented. (1) Causes. Improper saddling, poorly fitted saddles, dirty or improperly folded CARE OF ANIMALS AND STABLE MANAGEMENT 151 saddle blankets, careless riding such as lounging in the saddle, unevenly placed loads, and poor conformation. (2) Prevention. (a) The individual rider must be held strictly responsible that the adjustment of his saddle, arms, and pack is correct; that his blanket is clean and accurately ſolded; and that he reports at once to his immediate superior the slightest injury of any kind discovered on the back of his animal. Officers and noncommiss Yned officers must prevent men from slouching in the saddle. Riders must sit erect in the saddle at all times. Riding on the cantle or standing in one stirrup is sure to bring saddle sores. dº (b) Intelligent application of the principles of correct saddling can usually overcome poor conformation or poorly fitted saddles. Small pads made from old blankets or strips of felt tacked on the bars take the place of lost flesh. (3) Treatment. (a) Ascertain and remove the cause. In fresh cases where the skin is not broken, apply cold irrigations or baths with gentle hand rubbing. This should be followed by the application of packs saturated and kept wet with cold water and held in position by means of a surcingle or bandage. (b) Injuries to the withers and ridge of the spine should be irrigated or bathed with cold water but without pressure and without massage. (c) Slight galls, chafes, or abrasions are treated with white lotion or powdered boric acid. (d) Sitfasts are patches of dry dead skin and may involve deeper tissues. They are caused by continuous pressure of the saddle, cinch, or collar. When sitfasts appear, apply warm baths or warm poultices until the dead skin becomics loose. Then remove all dead and bruised tissue with forceps and a knife and treat with iodine and boric acid (e) If it is necessary to continue to ride an animal with a sore back, means must be devised to relieve pressure from the affected part. Questions . What agency of the Army is responsible for the treatment of disease among animals? . When is the best time to inspect animals for sickness and injuries? What are the measures for prevention and control of communicable diseases? What wounds are most likely to become infected with tetanus germs? . How is ringworm prevented? What are the causes of diarrhea? . How is thrush prevented? . At what gait may lameness be best detected? . How are wounds classified? . How is the flow of blood controlled in minor wounds? 1 CHAPTER IV AGE DETERMINATION 40. Age Determination. General. The age of all horses or mules in the military service can be ascertained by referring to the animal’s Horse (Mule) Record Card, but every mounted officer should be familiar with methods of age estimation to at least the degree that he can, by examination of the animal, make an approximate estimate of the animal’s age. The changes in the shape of the muzzle and face, the appearance of gray hairs about the eyes and temples, the depressions above the eyes, and appearances of “wear” of the legs are all general indications of the changes incident to increasing age, but it is only by an examination of the teeth that a reasonably accurate estimate of age can be made. There are so many outside influences that may cause digressions from the accepted rules that, even though the practice is based on the anatomy of the teeth, that the basic knowledge must be augmented by the diligent study of animals of various ages and from the various parts of the country. The art of estimating accurately the age of a horse is something that cannot be learned from a book, and can only be perfected by much practice and experience. 41. Number and Kinds of Teeth. a. Two sets. The horse has two complete sets of 152 CARE OF ANIMALS AND STABLE MANAGEMENT teeth during his life. The first set of teeth are known as milk teeth, or temporary teeth, and as the foal develops to maturity these are shed and replaced by the permanent teeth. The temporary teeth are easily distinguished from the permanent teeth by their small size, pearly white color, distinct neck and small fang. The permanent teeth are much larger, stronger, darker in color, and have a large and strong fang. b. Incisors. The incisor teeth are 12 in number, six in the upper jaw in both the tem- porary and permanent sets of teeth. In estimation of age our attention is almost entirely con- fined to the changes appearing in these teeth. Going either way from the mid-line outward, these teeth are known in order as centrals, laterals and corners. The incisors erupt and are shed in pairs as indicated by their names. Back of the incisor teeth in each jaw is a space on either side extending back to the molar teeth which is free of teeth, except for a single pointed tooth known as the canine or tush. The entire space is known as the interdental space, and that part of the space back of the canine is known as the “bar.” There are four canine teeth but they appear only as permanent teeth and are fully developed only in males. A considerable number of mares will have small, undeveloped canine teeth, usually barely extending above the surface of the gums. The molar teeth or grinders are six in number on each side of each jaw. The first three back of the interdental space are both temporary and permanent, but the last three appear as permanent teeth only. At times a very small pointed tooth may appear just in front of the first molar tooth and is commonly known as a “wolf tooth.” One may be present in front of each of the four first molars. There is no truth in the once popular fallacy that these additional teeth often caused eye troubles or blindness. 42. Anatomy of the Incisor Tooth. (See Plate 6). a. Crown. Portion exposed above the gum. b. Neck. Portion covered by the gum. c. Fang. Portion imbedded in the alveolar (bony) cavity. d. Roots. Small projections on the end of the fang. e. Table surface. Grinding or contact surface. f. Infundibulum. Inverted cone shaped cavity formed by the invagination of the enamel from the table surface. Lower portion is filled with cement. g. Cup. Upper unfilled portion of the infundibulum. h. Pulp cavity. A cavity within the fang of the tooth containing the nerves and blood vessels. In the young tooth this cavity extends upward to above the lower end of the infundibulum. As the tooth grows this cavivty fills from its upper end with tooth sub- stance of a lighter color, and when the wear reaches this level it appears on the table surface as the dental star appearing in front of the enamel ring of the infundibulum. 43. Wear of Incisor Teeth. a. Principles. The principles of age estimation from six years upward are based primarily on the changes of the appearance of these teeth re- sulting from wear on the table surfaces and the receding of the gums and bony tooth socket to expose more of the tooth and compensate for the wearing away of the table surface. The entire tooth has reached its maximum growth at about the second year after it comes through the gum and from that time onward the tooth is continually dimin- ishing in size as it wears away on its table surface and the tooth is pushed slowly out of its bony socket by the receding of the gums and bone. b. Wear from mastication. When the tooth comes in wear, the enamel wears off the table surface leaving two rings of enamel, the outer ring surrounding the tooth and the inner ring surrounding the infundibulum. The shape of the inner ring is oblong at this time, and the cup is very deep. As the tooth wears down, the cup becomes shallow and finally disappears, the infundibulum becomes rounder and smaller and approaches the posterior border of the tooth. The upper filled portion of the pulp cavity appears as a yellow line in front of the inner enamel ring and is known as the dental star. The table surface gradually changes from oval in shape to triangular and ther rounded, approaching rectan- gular. As a general rule, the cup disappears about three years after the eruption of the tooth. CARE OF ANIMALS AND STABLE MANAGEMENT 153 c. Table surface. As the tooth wears away on its table surface, the gums and bone surrounding the tooth recede exposing more of the tooth to wear. These changes cause the appearance of the crown or exposed portion of the tooth to change greatly as the tooth becomes older. When the tooth first comes into wear, its crown is short and broad from side to side, and the sides of adjacent teeth nearly parallel to each other and in contact. -- amº 8 (W) TS : * # 3 s º * Q) 3. *; O o 5 9 O) g g : Ö z US t; # 5 ———y *— – 3 tº ºn. | Uſ) S. § Q | | | | C) 3 a | G # i – , | # Q) º à e º – # Ç gº. 9 Q) g 6 : £ 3 : º sº Cy © t § O) C ‘º sº # Q -- 3: A. & Q) B ă ă 5 L es O º 5 § J - - w) O ss= QD Q KT §: -G 5 § E £ Tº * + š 5 g £ S S + § O ~5 § 9 O) — 5 § 5 & S- * 5 § & CL As age increases the crown becomes narrower and longer with the exposed portion of the tooth being decidedly narrower at the gum margin than at the table surface. And in aged horses adjacent teeth may have a distinct space between them throughout their length. In the young mouth the opposing incisors meet each other at an angle approaching 180°. The angle of meeting of the teeth is known as the angle of incidence. As the animal 154 CARE OF ANIMALS AND STABLE MANAGEMENT becomes older, this angle becomes more acute until in the aged horse the angle may be less than a right angle. 44. Principal Means Used in Age Estimation. a. Eruption of temporary teeth. b. Loss of the temporary teeth and their replacement by permanent teeth. c. Shape and disappearance of the cups. d. Appearance and position of the dental star. e. Shape, position, and disappearance of the enamel ring of the infundibulum. f. Shape of the table surfaces and crowns of the teeth. g. Length of the crown. A. Angle of incidence. i. Galvayne's Groove or the cement groove, a groove which appears at the gum margin of the upper corner incisor at about 10 years of age, extends half way down the tooth at 15 years, and reaches the table margin at 20 years. j. The seven year notch, a notch usually appearing on the upper corner incisor where it overlaps the lower corner incisor. This notch usually persists for a variable number of years after its appearance. 45. Procedure in Determining the Age. The horse is approached gently from the left side, and the lips parted with the thumb and forefinger, jaws closed. The angle of in- cidence and the length and size of the crowns is noted first. In case the animal is below 5 years of age, the progressive eruption, the loss of the deciduous teeth, and the eruption of the permanent teeth can be determined without opening the mouth. After the examiner has obtained all the information possible by these means, the mouth is opened and the age further determined by examination of the cups, infundibula, and table surfaces. The lower incisors present much more constant guides to the age than the uppers, al- though consideration of Galvayne's Groove, the seven year notch, the angle of inci- dence, and, at times, the eruption of the upper permanent teeth are equally important. In fact, before making a final estimate all “marks” should be examined and averaged. 46. Appearance of Teeth at Various Ages a. The development of the teeth of horses may be conveniently divided into periods that are based on the principal determining factors used in arriving at the approximate age. The eruption and loss of teeth, the dis- appearance of cups, the changes in shape of table surfaces, the length of crowns, etc., are all variable guides. In this text for example, when the central permanent are said to erupt at three years, it is understood that approximately three years of age is meant; when a tooth is said to erupt, it should be understood that the teeth of each pair do not erupt simultaneously, and that the process of eruption is in effect until the tooth comes into wear on one border at least. b. 1st period (from birth to two and one-half years). (1) At two to four days, the central incisors erupt. (2) At six weeks, the lateral incisors are well through. (3) At ten months, the corner incisors are well through and are in wear at about sixteen to eighteen months. ; (4) From one and one-half to two and one-half years, the exact age is difficult to ascertain, except by consideration of the degree of wear of the temporary teeth. c. 2d period (from two and one-half to five years). This is the most accurate of all periods. * (1) At two and one-half years, the centrals are loose. (2) At three years, the central permanent erupt. (3) At three and one-half to four years, the lateral permanents erupt. (4) At four and one-half to five years, the corner permanents and the canines erupt. (5) At five years, the corners have a short crown and do not come in contact with the uppers on the posterior border. They have a large, deep cup. The cups of the cen- trals are becoming shallow. A horse is said to have a full mouth at five years of age. d. 3d period (from six to nine years). Age is now determined principally by changes in the size and shape of the cups of the lower incisors, the cup disappearing at quite regular intervals beginning with the centrals. CARE OF ANIMALS AND STABLE MANAGEMENT 155 (1) At six years, the table surface of the corners comes into wear all around and the central cup disappears. (2) At seven years the cup in the laterals is shallow or has disappeared. The seven year notch appears in most horses on the upper corner incisor. (3) At eight years the corner cup is shallow and rounded but may remain as a shallow cup until about 11 years of age. The centrals are triangular in shape, with the apex at the back of the tooth. The enamel ring in the centrals is back of the center of the table surface, and the dental star usually appears in front of the enamel ring as a rather long transverse faint yellow line. (4) At nine years the enamel ring or infundibulum is triangular and well toward the back of the tooth in the centrals and becoming triangular in the laterals. Galvayne's Groove may appear in the upper corners. The crowns of the teeth are longer and the angle of incidence is noticeably narrowing. The dental star appears in the laterals. e. 4th period (aged). After nine years of age the accurate estimation of age becomes more difficult for the changes in the appearance of the tooth because of wear becomes less COInStant. (1) At 10 to 12 years Galvayne's Groove is distinct and the teeth are becoming more triangular and the enamel rings are becoming smaller and circular in shape and approaching the back border of the table surface while the dental star, which is narrower but more distinct, occupies a more central position. (2) Usually, between 13 and 17 years of age the enamel rings disappear successively from the centrals, laterals and corners. The exact time of their disappearance is very variable. Galvayne's Groove is moving down the upper corner incisor, extending half way from the gum margin to the table surface at 15 years of age. The crowns are longer and narrower and the angle of incidence more acute. (3) From 17 to 20 years of age the enamel rings have entirely disappeared and the dental star is large and distinct and occupies the central position of the table surface. The angle of incidence is pronounced, and at 20 years Galvayne's Groove extends the length of the tooth. The table surfaces of the teeth are flattened from side to side and rectangular in shape. There is at about 20 years quite noticeable spacing between adjacent teeth at the level of the table surfaces. (4) Beyond 20 years the preceding changes become more pronounced, except that the length of the crowns become less. Galvayne's Groove begins to disappear at the gum margin at slightly past 20 years, and has entirely disappeared at about 30 years. 47. Dental Variations and Abnormalities. At times horses will be found that present certain variations or abnormalities that influence the normal signs of tooth wear and make age estimation difficult. a. Parrot mouth. A condition in which, due to the length of the upper jaw, the upper incisors overhang and do not properly oppose the lower incisors. In such cases the upper incisors are often very long and the wear of the lower incisors is uneven and irregular. b. Undershot jaw. Exactly the opposite of the preceding condition. c. Cribbers. In horses that are cribbers or wind-suckers, the outer edges of the table surfaces of both the upper and lower incisors are rounded off, due to gnawing on hard objects. The rounding of the upper incisors is usually most pronounced. Questions 1. Are there any positive means of determining the age of a horse, prior to nine years of age? Are there any positive means of determining ages, after nine years of age? 2. How many sets of teeth does the horse have during life? 3. Give in general terms the methods of age determination of a horse by examination of the teeth. 4. At what age does the horse have a ‘full mouth,’ and what does this mean? 5. What is a fairly positive indication of a horse having reached its seventh year? 6. What is a fairly positive indication that a horse has reached its tenth year? 7. What is meant by a ‘parrot mouth'? Are age indications of the teeth of the parrot mouth horse as reliable as those of normal mouth? 8. What is meant by a ‘cribber'? What indications are usually present on the teeth of a ‘cribber?” CHAPTER V STABLE MANAGEMENT 48. General. a. The organization commander is responsible for the proper performance of stable duty in his organization. He should see that the men on duty at the stables are properly instructed and that the stable routine prescribed by him is faithfully carried out. An officer should habitually be present during stables. b. The animals are assigned to stalls and to places on the picket line by platoons or sections. During the day, except in very cold, very hot, or stormy weather, they should stand at the picket line or be at liberty in the corral. 49. Floors. a. Cleaniness. The floors and aisles of stables should be thoroughly cleaned daily. During warm weather, brick, cement, and stone floors are best cleaned by scrubbing with water, using the hose and stable brooms. Earthen floors at all times and hard-surfaced floors in cold weather are cleaned by scraping with a shovel or hoe and sweeping with a stable broom. b. Slippery floors. If the floors wear smooth and become slippery, the surface should be roughened by chipping with a cold chisel and a mallet. If slippery from ice, the surface should be sprinkled with sand or sifted ashes before the bedding is put down. Likewise, when necessary, the aisles are covered temporarily with bedding and the approaches with sand and cinders to prevent the animals from slipping. c. Maintenance of earthen floors. Earthen floors require continual work to keep them clean and smooth. As soon as wet depressions occur they should be dug out and filled with fresh clay bound with cinders or crushed rock. The floor at the front of the stall for a dis- tance of about 2 feet from the rear edge of the manger should be level in order that the animal's front feet may rest on a level surface. Back of this space the floor should slope gently to the rear to provide drainage. A drop of about 2 inches is sufficient. 50. Mangers. a. Cleanliness. Feed boxes and mangers should be brushed out daily, care being taken to see that all particles of food are removed from them and from the wood- work surrounding them. Advantage should be taken of exposure to sunlight and fresh air to keep feed boxes clean. In addition to the daily police, a monthly cleaning of feed boxes and the woodwork immediately surrounding them should be made by scraping and scrubbing with soda ash and hot water. Feed pans or boxes should be washed immediately after each bran mash feeding. g b. Cleaning solution. A solution of 5 pounds of soda ash to 12 gallons of water is used. To clean feed boxes this mixture should be placed in a receptacle large enough for the purpose and brought to the boiling point. After being cleansed and all food particles re- moved, the feed boxes should be placed in the boiling solution for a period of from 3 to 5 minutes and then removed and thoroughly rinsed. This is best done by the use of a hose. None of the soda-ash solution should be allowed to remain upon a feed box. Care should be exercised by those handling the solution to prevent its coming into contact with the skin or mucous membranes, particularly of the eye. 51. Woodwork. a. There should be no sharp or rough projections in the woodwork of the stables on which animals might injure themselves. All fittings should be flush with the surface to which they are attached. When used, kicking bars should be adjusted to such height that they are level with a point midway between the hock and stifle. The rear end of the bar should be equipped with a release which will operate when an animal gets a leg over the bar. The top bar of the manger should be wide enough that an animal cannot readily grasp it with his teeth. The top bar of the manger and other exposed edges of wood should be covered with metal of moderate thickness to prevent gnawing of woodwork or “cribbing.” Woodwork about the manger can be cleansed best if the wood is left unpainted. Woodwork about manger and front of the stall should be cleansed by scrubbing as fre- quently as may be necessary to maintain the wood free of stains or incrustations of dirt. Woodwork of that part of the stall which the animal cannot reach with his mouth may be left natural or painted and should be washed frequently to remove dust and stain. White- wash is not suitable for use in stables. b. Three tablespoonfuls of lye in a bucket of warm water makes a good solution for cleaning the coating of dirt from the mangers and woodwork of the stalls and improves the 156 CARE OF ANIMALS AND STABLE MANAGEMENT 157 appearance of the stables. Care should be exercised when using this solution that none of it gets on forage or bedding. º 52. Water Troughs. Water troughs should be emptied and thoroughly cleaned each morning. A water trough placed in a corral should be kept plentifully supplied with water at all times when the animals are in the corral. Strange animals should not be permitted to drink at the water troughs or be fed in the stables. One animal with a contagious disease may affect all the animals of the organization. Animals suffering from contagious disease should be watered from buckets. 53. Corral. a. The corral should be cleaned at least once a day. Thorough drainage should be provided and all depressions kept filled so that pools of water will not form after ſal IlS. b. The corral fences should be of sufficient height and stoutness to restrain animals and should be kept in a thorough state of repair at all times. They should be entirely free of all rough or sharp projections. c. The picket line and corral should be sprinkled to keep down the dust. Crude oil or used oil drained from crankcases of motors may be used to advantage. If there is no shade, shelter from the sun should be improvised, as animals lose condition rapidly if forced to stand in the hot sun for long periods of time. & 54. Picket Line. a. In garrison or permanent camp the picket line should be elevated about 5 feet above the ground on heavy posts. The picket line may be made of 1%-inch rope or small wire cable. It must be kept taut at all times. The length of the line should provide 4 feet of standing space for each animal. If necessary to locate the line on a considerable slope, the line should run up and down the slope instead of on a contour around it. b. A second line below the first, breast high, is excellent for keeping the animals all on one side. It prevents fighting across the line and the tangling of animals. c. The standings along the picket line should receive the same attention and care as stable floors. A foundation of stone should be provided with a covering of finely crushed rock, gravel, or cinders, well-bound and rolled firm. In wet climates the standings should be raised above the ground level. 55. To Secure Animals. a. The proper length of rope for tying an animal in a stall is such as will permit him to reach all parts of his manger and to lie down with ease. The length of the permanently installed tie rope should usually be such that the snap hangs 2 or 3 inches above the floor. Permanently installed tie ropes of proper length will prevent many injuries due to soldiers tying too long or too short or so insecurely that animals get loose. Ropes and not chains should be used for this purpose. The rope is best fastened in the tie ring by splicing. b. If animals are to be fed hay while on a picket line, the length of rope should be no more than enough for them to reach the ground comfortably. If animals are not to be fed on the line, a much shorter length of rope should be used. c. Any knot which is perfectly secure and capable of being untied rapidly may be used for securing animals. 56. Fire Prevention. a. All stables must be provided with fire equipment and knives for cutting tie ropes. An extra tie rope for each horse, for use only in case of fire, should be conveniently available. Periodic fire drills should be held. Smoking in stables must be strictly prohibited. b. Animals will not leave a burning stable of their own volition. Each horse must be led to safety and secured in some nearby stable or corral or tied on a picket line at a safe distance. * 57. Ventilation. Animals rarely suffer from cold air, provided there is no draft. They do however, suffer greatly from foul air. Ventilators and louver boards in the stable roof carry off the warm, tainted air. Fresh air is obtained through windows and doors. Windows should hinge at the bottom and open inward, thus forcing the incoming fresh air up and over the animals instead of directly on them. Doors should be closed on the windward side in stormy weather. 58. Bedding. a. A good bed induces animals to lie down, and it also prevents injuries 158 CARE OF ANIMALS AND STABLE MANAGEMENT to elbows and other parts in contact with the stable floor. The bed should be level, dry, warm, and elastic and have a clean surface for the animal to lie upon. Clean straw is the best material for bedding. b. In the morning the bedding should be removed from stalls and well shaken out, and only the dung and short or badly soaked refuse taken to the stable dump. That part of the bedding that can be used again should be spread out in the aisle to dry. The floors of stalls should be thoroughly cleaned each morning and allowed to dry out during the day. c. As late as possible in the afternoon, the dried bedding is mixed with such new bed- ding as may be necessary and the stalls bedded. The bedding should be evenly spread over the bedded portion of the stall. As horses usually lie well back, the bedding should not be laid right up to the front of the stall. 59. Grooming. Grooming is essential to the general health, condition, and appearance of animals. The value of grooming depends upon the thoroughness and speed with which it is done. Men should be encouraged to work hard and rapidly and to do a thorough job in a minimum time. Each man's grooming should be inspected upon completion and, if satisfactory, the man dismissed. Grooming by squads is an efficient method and develops leadership in squad leaders. Efficient grooming is best obtained when the individual soldier takes a personal pride in the appearance of his mount or team. a. Time to groom. (1) Every animal should be groomed thoroughly at least once each day. Before leaving the stable for work or exercise, horses are brushed off; mane, if any, neatly arranged; tail brushed out; eyes cleaned; nostrils and dock wiped out; and feet cleaned. (2) On return from work or exercise, grooming should be done immediately after equipment is wiped off and put away. Heated, wet, or sweating animals should be cooled out before being groomed. In the case of such horses the equipment should be removed and quickly put aside, then the horse given a brisk rubbing with drying cloth to dry the coat partially. He should then be blanketed and walked till cool. b. Equipment. (1) Contents of kit. Each mounted man should have a grooming kit equipped with the following: n (a) Currycomb. The currycomb is used to remove caked mud, to loosen matted scurf and dirt in the hair, and to clean the horse brush. It produces the best effect when applied gently in small circles. It should never be used on the legs from the knees or hocks down nor about the head. (b) Hoof hook. The hoof hook is used to clean out the feet. (c) Horse brush. The horse, brush is the principal tool used for grooming. When properly used it reaches the skin, the bristles or fibers of the brush penetrating through the hair of the coat. (d) Grooming cloth. The grooming cloth is used to clean out the body orifices and to polish the coat. It is made from old toweling or condemned blankets, about 2 feet square. (2) To wash and disinfect tools. Grooming tools should be washed and disinfected occasionally as a precaution against the spread of skin diseases. Clean in soda-ash solution (mess-kit cupful to two-thirds of a galvanized iron bucketful of water). Immerse in a 3 percent cresolis solution (15 mess-kit spoonfuls of cresolis to two-thirds of a galvanized iron bucketful of water) for 30 minutes. To stiffen the bristles of brushes after disinfec- tion, soak in strong salt solution (add salt to water until no more salt can be dissolved) for a few minutes and stand with bristles down to dry. Grooming and drying cloths should be washed with soap and water once a week. c. Process of grooming. (1) Clean out the feet thoroughly, working from the heel toward the toe. A thorough cleaning out is necessary to the bottom of the commissures or depressions between the frog and the bars. The deepest part of these depressions is near the heels and is the usual seat of thrush. Care should be exercised in cleaning the clef. It should not be deepened by cutting the horn of the frog. Inspect the feet for thrush, torn frog, loose shoes, etc., reporting defects at once to the stable sergeant. (2) Take the currycomb in the right hand, fingers over the back of the comb, and the brush in the left hand; first use the currycomb on the left side of the animal, beginning on CARE OF ANIMALS AND STABLE MANAGEMENT 159 the neck, then breast, withers, shoulders, foreleg down to the knee; then back, side, belly, croup, and hind leg to the hock. Strike the currycomb against the heel frequently to free it from dirt. e (3) Brush entire left side of the animal in the same order as when the currycomb was used except that in brushing the legs brush down to the hoof. After every few strokes clean dust and hair from the brush with the currycomb. In using the brush the man should stand well away from the animal, keep his arm stiff, and throw the weight of the body against the brush. In grooming the belly apply the brush the way of the hair. (4) Pass to the right side of the animal, change the brush to the right hand and the currycomb to the left hand, and groom in the same order as above. (5) Brush head, mane, and tail. In cleaning mane and tail begin brushing at the ends of the hair and gradually work up to the roots, separating the locks with the fingers so as to get out scurf and dirt. Tails require occasional washing with warm water and soap. (6) With grooming cloth wipe the eyes, nostrils, and lips; rub the head, ears, and muzzle; clean the dock and outside of the sheath, and give a final polish to the coat. 60. Hand Rubbing. a. Hand rubbing is restful to tired muscles, stimulates the circula- tion, removes loose hair, and helps to produce a glossy coat. The hands are slapped down briskly on the coat, one after the other, with the weight of the body behind them, then moved over the skin with firm pressure. b. Upon unsaddling after a march, rub the back with a circular motion to restore circulation. c. After hard work or at the end of a march the legs below the knees and hocks should be hand rubbed and carefully examined for evidence of injury. 61. To Clean the Sheath. The sheath requires occasional cleaning with warm water, a sponge, and a mild soap to remove accumulated secretions and dirt. Form a lather with the sponge and carefully remove the accumulated secretions. The ball of waxy secretion called a “bean” which develops in a depression in the head of the penis should be removed with the fingers. 62. To Pull Manes and Tails. a. Manes and tails should be pulled thin and even by grasping a few hairs at a time and sliding the hand up close to the roots, then giving a quick jerk so as to pull the hairs out by the roots. Always work on the longest hairs and on the under side of the mane and tail. b. Tails should be shortened to about 4 inches below the hocks. 63. To Trim Manes and Fetlocks. a. Fetlocks should be neatly trimmed, and that part of the mane on which the crown piece rests should be closely clipped. The hair on the back surface of the pasterns should be clipped or trimmed shorter than one-quarter inch. b. Clipping manes is strongly recommended, especially for field service. When manes are clipped, the clipping should be done close all the way up. 64. Clipping. a. As a rule the clipping of working animals is recommended. Whether clipping is advisable depends upon the nature of the coat, the climatic conditions, the amount and character of the work to be performed by the animal, the character of the stables, the amount of clothing, the availability of personnel, time for grooming, etc. Clipping is not recommended under field conditions during moderately cool or cold weather. During the severe weather in colder climates it is not advisable to clip the legs. Where animals are to receive considerable work under the saddle it is advisable to leave a saddle patch the size of the blanket under the saddle. b. If clipping is practiced, it should begin in the fall before the winter coat becomes heavy. Animals should be reclipped during the winter as often as the length of the coat warrants it. Clipping under most conditions should cease as soon as spring shedding begins. Clipped animals should be warmly clothed and not exposed to low temperatures in corrals or stables. When animals are reclipped during cold weather it is advisable to exercise the animals immediately after clipping until a light sweat appears and then dry, groom thoroughly, hand rub the body, and blanket. Clipping lessens the labor of groom- ing but the clipped animal needs the same thorough and vigorous grooming as an animal in full coat. c. Power clippers are best for clipping animals, though hand clippers will serve the 160 CARE OF ANIMALS AND STABLE MANAGEMENT purpose. Clipper heads and blades must be used with care, as they are easily dulled and broken. They can be resharpened and should be as often as necessary. Grooming should precede clipping, as many blades are broken by sand and dirt in a dirty animal's coat. While using power clippers a small pan of kerosene oil should be at hand and the clipper head immersed frequently with the machine running. 65. To Wash Animals. Washing of animals is strongly condemned. When necessary to wash the lower leg or other parts of the body to remove stains, thorough drying of the wetted hair and skin is necessary to prevent scratches or chilling. 66. Blankets. a. Blankets are used for the following purposes: (1) As a protection against cold and storm. (2) To cool out wet or heated animals. (3) To improve the coat. (4) To protect thin-skinned and clipped animals from flies. (5) As a protection against chill in the case of sick animals. b. Both lined and unlined blankets are issued. A serviceable fly sheet can be made from grain sacks. Horse blankets should be worn while at rest only. c. Blankets must be properly adjusted and secured. Otherwise they are likely to slip off and become torn. All straps and fastenings must be kept in good repair. Blankets must be kept clean. Those used on animals suffering from communicable diseases must be thoroughly disinfected before being used on other animals. To assist in the prevention of possible spread of skin diseases or parasites, it is advisable to stencil on the blanket the name or Preston brand number of the horse and confine its use to that animal only. 67. Exercise and Conditioning. a. Animals are considered to be in fit condition when the body and muscular organs perform without injury the work required. Fit condition is accomplished by systematic exercise and feeding, which must be continued even after the condition has been attained. Endurance, stamina, a good state of flesh, and resistance to disease are necessary. These qualities can be attained only by intelligent feeding and long periods of conditioning work at the slower gaits, largely the walk. The riding animal must be conditioned to carry the weight of full field equipment. b. The exercise must be regular and graduated and always within the limits of the animal's strength. Working tired animals when unfit is very likely to cause accidents or disease. c. If animals are not worked for any considerable time the process of conditioning must be repeated. The minimum amount of systematic exercise necessary to maintain animals in working condition is 2 hours daily. It is not desirable to maintain animals at all times at the peak of condition for field duty, but rather to have them in such con- dition that a relatively short period of carefully scheduled work will put them in fit con- dition for the anticipated duty. d. The kind and amount of exercise given to animals depend upon the work they are to perform, the condition of the animals, and the number of men available to give the exercise. When there is one man available to exercise one or two animals, the most satis- factory exercise may be had by organization under the supervision of the troop officers. But when there are many animals and few men, special means must be adopted. e. Exercise tracks or rings are probably the most economical means of exercise, con- sidering man power, but there is more danger of accidents than when riding one animal and leading another. A circular or oval track about 15 feet wide and inclosed between fences 5 or more feet high is all that is necessary. Animals should be admitted to the track in groups of not more than 24 at a time. There must be a rider to lead and one to follow each group. By this means the gait can be regulated and stampeding or crowding eliminated. Turning animals loose in corrals and driving them around is not recom- mended, as too many accidents may occur. f. Any form of exercise should begin with a period of 10 or 15 minutes at a walk so that good circulation may be established. It should end at a walk in order that animals may be returned to the stables dry and breathing normally. Dirt roads should be used habitually for exercise, with only enough work on hard roads to accustom the animals to traveling on them. When one man is exercising two horses he should ordinarily ride CARE OF ANIMALS AND STABLE MANAGEMENT 161 one out and the other in, and he should lead each horse alternately on his right and left. Playful or vicious animals should be led with a very short rein to prevent accidents. g. The walk is the prime conditioning gait. Walking develops muscle, while trotting and galloping develop wind, but if either of the faster gaits is used to excess the animal will lose rather than gain condition. The troop horse gets enough fast galloping during the training of men and maneuvering, and his exercise should be carried out at the walk and trot. The length of trot periods must be suited to the condition of the animal but in no case should they exceed 7 minutes. h. The routes selected for exercises should be varied from day to day to avoid monotony. It is best to return by a different route from the one taken going out so that animals do Ilot fret when they are headed toward stables. i. Draft and pack animals should do a considerable part of their exercise drawing loads and carrying packs so that their muscles may be hardened to the work. 68. Care of the Feet. Every officer in charge of animals must continually watch the con- dition of the animal’s feet and see that they receive proper care. Every man who rides or drives an animal must do the same, reporting promptly to his squad leader or the stable sergeant any need for attention. (See also Chapter IX.) 69. Stable Vices and Their Prevention. Stable vices are objectionable habits of animals, practiced while idle in the stable or on the picket line, and are caused usually by insufficient work or exercise. As a general prevention to their contraction, animals should be kept out of the stables as much as possible during the day, either at work, on the picket line, or loose in the corral. a. Weaving. This is a nervous habit in which the animal rocks on his forequarters, constantly shifting his weight from one forefoot to the other, and swaying the head and neck from side to side. Many horses stop this habit when receiving sufficient work and when stabled so that they are in close company with their stable mates. b. Cribbing and windsucking. These two habits are closely related; in fact, they are but variations of the same condition. Both habits are caused largely by idleness and are incurable, but the practicing of the habit in many cases may be prevented. The cribber catches some stationary or resisting object with his incisor teeth and pulls or bites while arching the neck and drawing the muzzle in toward the breast. As animals become more confirmed in this habit, while practicing the act, they will give a sort of gulp associated with a distinct grunt and pass air into the stomach. Such animals are called “wind- suckers.” Cribbing or windsucking may be prevented by stabling in a stall without pro- jecting fittings. Another method is to pass a narrow strap just in front of the ears and around the throat just back of the jaw and buckle it in this position quite tightly so that when the head is flexed downward the animal is uncomfortable. Chronic indigestion, general debility, and colic frequently result from these vices. . c. Biting. Biting is usually the result of animals being teased by men in a playful way, but once acquired is a dangerous vice. As a prevention, teasing must be stopped and, if the animal is dangerous, only one man should handle him. The danger may be lessened by use of a muzzle, a thick wooden bit, or a side stick. Swift, painful punishment will often stop the habit. d. Kicking against stall. This habit is usually acquired through lack of work. It may be cured by using a short chain, one end of which is fastened to a hobble around one rear pastern, the other end attached to a small wooden ball. Padding the stall will prevent the animal from injuring himself and will very often stop the habit, for many animals kick the stall for no other reason than to hear the sound produced. e. Gnawing woodwork. This is a restless habit acquired by animals kept tied up with- out work or when deprived of hay. The cure is work and plenty of hay. The prevention is to wrap the woodwork with wire or cover it with heavy sheet metal. f. Eating dung. This habit is a morbid appetite resulting from poor condition, caused by chronic indigestion. Animals in fit condition seldom form the habit. The only pre- vention is to keep the animal in good condition, well-fed and exercised, and tied so that he cannot reach his own or other animal's droppings. g. Greedy feeding. A greedy feeder eats as fast as he can, grasping huge mouthfuls FA2 (1) ió2 CARE OF ANIMALS AND STABLE MANAGEMENT at a time and throwing his fed with his muzzle out of the box on the ground, and later eating the dropped grain. This results in indigestion, the bolting of feed, eating dirt and trash, and is wasteful on account of the amount of forage lost. To prevent this vice, place several large stones in the feed box, feed the grain with chop, place a wire screen with half-inch mesh inside of the box and resting on the grain, or feed in a wide-bottomed feed box. If solid bottomed mangers are used, the best solution is to feed the grain on the manger bottom instead of out of separate feed boxes. h. Tearing blankets. The only prevention of this habit is the use of a leather muzzle or side stick. i. Halter pulling. This vice is usually contracted by the use of weak halters or ropes which permit the animal to break away when frightened. Tying with the reins has the same effect. As a prevention use a very heavy neck strap and tie rope. The vice is some- times cured by tying a piece of rope around the animal's body just in rear of the forelegs, from which the tie rope is run between the legs through the halter ring and to the manger or picket line. After a few attempts to pull away, the animal will probably give up. This should be applied for several days and then just a light cord tied around the body as a reminder. Another method often successful is to pass the free end of the tie rope from the halter through the manger tie ring and secure to a hobble placed on one fore pastern. 70. Restraint and Control of Animals. In the management of animals, restraint is some. times necessary. Always select the mildest and least dangerous method that will ac- complish the end sought. Kindness, perseverance, and tact will often accomplish the desired purpose without resort to special means of restraint. a. Twitch. (1) The twich is the simplest, handiest, and most common method of re- straint. As it shuts off circulation in the lip, it should never be used continuously for an extended period of time and never with greater force than is actually necessary. (2) A twitch is made by running a small piece of rope or rawhide through a hole in the end of a rounded piece of wood 2 to 5 feet long, such as an ax handle, and tying it into a short loop. (3) The loop of the twitch is passed over the upper lip, which is seized by the hand and drawn forward, care being taken to turn the edges of the lips in so as to prevent injury to the mucous membrances. The cord is then twisted by turning the stick until sufficient pressure is obtained. * b. Side stick. This method of restraint is used for vicious animals to prevent them from biting men while grooming or to prevent an animal from doing injury to a wound. The side stick is made from a stout wooden rod from 3% to 4 feet long, with a cord or strap at each end, one for attaching to the noseband of the halter, the other to the surcingle. c. Muzzle. This means of restraint is useful to prevent an animal from eating bedding or chewing or tearing the dressing from a wound. Muzzles are best made of leather. They should be provided with attachments for fastening to the halter rings or with straps which are sewed to the muzzle and fastened over the poll. d. Cross tie. The cross tie consists of tying the head in an elevated position with two tie ropes. The ropes extend from the tie ring in the halter to opposite sides of the stall. The cross tie is useful to prevent an animal from chewing a wound or dressing and from lying down when it is desired to keep him standing. e. Blinds. Blinds are used to restrain nervous or vicious animals by depriving them of sight. A blind may be made in the form of a hood or of a piece of leather broad enough to cover the eyes and provided with strings for fastening to the halter. f. Knee straps. In shoeing an animal or when operating on him it may be necessary to fix a foreleg. A strap or rope is used to fasten the pastern of the foreleg. The leg is first well bent at the knee. A rope or strap is then attached to the pastern by means of a loop and the free end passed over the forearm and back to the pastern, drawn tight, and tied or buckled. 71. Records. a. The following records are kept at each stable by the stable sergeant: (1) List of public animals by Preston brand number or a file of copies of the Horse Record Cards (W. D., Q. M. C. Form No. 125). The original W. D., Q. M. C. Form No. 125 for each animal is kept in the unit supply office. CARE OF ANIMALS AND STABLE MANAGEMENT 163 (2) Record of stable properly. (3) Forage record. (4) Shoeing record. (5) Morning report of animals. (6) Sick report of animals. b. Descriptive cards of public animals are made out, one for each animal, on W. D., Q. M. C. Form No. 125. The form gives the name and number of the animal, age, sex, color, and markings. It should contain a complete record of the service of the animal from the time of purchase until finally disposed of. c. All stable property and equipment are listed in a property record book, showing each class of tool or equipment separately. d. An accurate record of all forage received, on hand, and consumed should be kept posted accurately from day to day. The form shown below may be used for this purpose: Forage Record (Organization) (Month)---------------------------- -------- (Year) ...? # rö ſ: Qt) G3 à | # É § | 3 || 3 # .c. P- ſº cº Ó 8 $5 g É .º. .E. .P. ; ſº Date ſ: gº) O dº § ſº .º. Remarks $– O º © º º © O cº 3. ſ: ſº ſ: ſº O § { © .C. 5 º '3 's º P, P, P, P, -3 !- $– !- $– cº cº cº & 2. Co CD Co Ço ;I, *I. ;I ;I, •= sº, as sº see s = = * * * * * * = <= * = * * | | e. An animal sick report is kept at each stable. The following form in a book is recommended: Animal Sick Report (Organization) From-- (Date) To (Date) Diagno- Date Brand Name Sis Status Remarks Morning Report of Animals (Organization) Sick in Being Duty Hospital stable Shod Public horses Private horses Mules Stable Sergeant. † i * : e i f Shoeing Record (Organization) (Year) Animal's Animal's Janu- Febru- Sep- Octo- Novem- Decem- No. In 8 Inne ary ary March April May June July August tember ber ber ber Remarks /IN-Z | N-ZIN-Z N-Z IN-ZIN-ZIN_/IN_/ Tºº Murak G} | 3 || @ | Q) || @ (35) || @ (3) | @ (6) * * * * * * * * * * * * * Hind Shoes removed /TN H / N |/| N// N] / N]/ N and not replaced March 11. All S h O e s removed May 15, sick in N t N tºº.” . 15 - as sº gº tº sº. -- - - - - - - - - - - * * * * * * º ºsº gº ºn gº * * * * * * * - º * * * * * | * * * * sº - * j9. ſº * EXPLANATION.—The circle appearing in the rectangle for any month represents the body of the horse. The lines out- ward from the circumference represent the legs of the animal. The number in the circle represents the day of the month. Thus, in the case of T-10, “Murat,” this horse lost the shoe from his right fore on January 5 and the record shows that it was replaced that date. On January 10 his other three feet were shod. On February 9 he was shod all around. On March 11 he was shod in front and the remark shows that his hind shoes were pulled and left off. On April 10 he was shod in front. On April 30 he was shod behind. On May 15 all Shoes were removed and not replaced. On August 25 he was again shod all around, etc. É. CARE OF ANIMALS AND STABLE MANAGEMENT 165 4. What is the best material for bedding? 5. How often should horses be groomed? 6. For what purposes are horse blankets used? 7. What is the usual cause of biting? CHAPTER VI FEEDING AND WATERING 72. General. The health and condition of animals depend largely upon the kind of food received and the hours of feeding. To feed so as to obtain the best results requires a knowledge of the digestive system of animals, the food elements required for their sus- tenance, the correct proportions of these elements, the proper methods of preparation, and the best hours of feeding. a. The organs of the digestive system form the alimentary canal and consist of the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestines, and large intestines, consisting of the caecum, large colon, small colon, rectum, and anus. The large glands, such as the salivary glands, liver, and pancreas, are accessory organs. b. The stomach is the principal organ of digestion. Its capacity is from 3 to 4 gallons. The intestines are also organs of digestion and have a much greater capacity than the stomach. c. Food is taken into the mouth and masticated. It passes through the pharynx and esophagus into the stomach, where it is partially digested and prepared for complete digestion in the intestines. In the intestine, digestion is completed and the nutriment and moisture extracted. The residue is discharged through the anus as dung. d. The time required for stomach digestion varies with the class of food. Grain re- quires approximately twice as long as hay. For this reason hay should precede the grain ration or else follow it by an hour or two. The latter is best when a large hay feed is given, as in the evening. A small feed of loose hay shortly before the grain takes the edge off the appetite and prevents bolting. It greatly stimulates the saliva and stomach secretions and is an aid in digestion by furnishing the bulk necessary for proper stomach digestion. e. Water remains in the stomach for only a short time, passing quickly into the intes- tines, where it is collected in a part of the large intestines called the caecum. If given soon after feeding, it flushes a considerable portion of the food from the stomach and into the intestine before it is digested. In general, watering should be done before feeding or not until an hour or two afterward. Animals drink very little or none if watered very early in the morning and for that reason, the morning water is best given shortly before the drill period or marching. 73. Food Constituents. a. Food constituents are classified according to the function they perform in the animal system as follows: (1) Flesh making; such as linseed meal, oats, peas, beans, bran, etc. (2) Fat, heat, and energy producing; such as corn, hay, oats, etc. (3) Bone making; such as grass, hay, bran, bonemeal, milk, etc. (4) Bulk supplying, necessary to digestion (fibrous and woody material); such as hay, grass, bran, etc. (5) Watery; such as carrots, potatoes, green grass, etc. b. There is no one food containing all of the required constituents, hence two or more must be combined to obtain the desired ration. Natural grasses come nearer to serving this purpose than any other food. 74. Proportions of Various Food Components in a Ration. The components of any ration depend upon the class and condition of the animals, the work required of them, the variety of available foods, the kind of shelter afforded, the climate, the season, etc. The food must be selected in such proportions as to form a balanced ration and fed in such quantities at such hours as to enable the animal to obtain the greatest possible amount of nutrition from them. The forage ration with its permissible substitutes as given in paragraph 82 furnishes a ration which is sufficiently balanced for service use. 166 CARE OF ANIMALS AND STABLE MANAGEMENT 75. Oats. a. Oats are the safest of all grains for animals and are standard for issue in the Army. All other grains are regarded as substitutes. b. Oats may be safely fed in quantities up to 16 pounds per day, provided the animal is performing heavy work. However, because of the small size of their stomachs, they should be fed no more than 4% pounds at one feeding. Under ordinary conditions the amounts given in paragraph 82 are sufficient. Horses and mules, when rested for a length of time, should be given no more than 6 pounds daily. 76. Corn. a. Corn is less desirable than oats by reason of its tendency to produce heat and fat. It is best fed during the colder months of the year and combined with oats and hay, as indicated in paragraph 82 it forms a well-balanced ration. b. Corn should, when practicable, be fed on the cob. One feed consists of from 6 to 12 ears, depending on the size of the ears, the amount of work performed, and the in- dividual animal. When necessary to feed shelled corn, mix with dry bran or oats, or both, to prevent bolting. c. Change from oats to corn should be made gradually, substituting about 2 pounds of corn for 2 pounds of oats each successive week. 77. Bran. a. Bran is an excellent food for animals. As an adjunct of a ration consisting largely of grain, it is most useful on account of its mild, laxative effect. It helps in build- ing bone and muscle without tending to flatten and adds to the general tone and condition of animals. b. If dry bran is fed daily, mixed with oats or other grain, about 2 pounds is the proper amount. Feeding bran produces more thorough mastication of the grain, adds bulk to the grain ration, and supplies slightly laxative and tonic properties. The quantities should be reduced when animals are grazed or fed alfalfa or other foods that have a laxative aCtlon. c. An occasional feed of bran in the form of a mash is relished by most horses and it is quite beneficial. In this form bran has a more pronounced laxative action. Bran mashes are best given the night before a day of idleness or light exercise. d. A bran mash is made by placing 2 or 3 pounds of bran in a feed pan, sprinkling a mess-kit spoonful of salt over the top, and then adding boiling water while stirring until the mixture is well-dampened but not sloppy. Cover or wrap the container in a horse cover and allow it to stand until cool enough not to burn the mouth. 78. Salt. Horses show great fondness for salt and thrive best when regularly supplied with it. It should always be available in the form of cake or rock salt placed in or con- veniently near the manger. Feed pans for grain should not be used as salt containers. Under field conditions animals should be given salt about twice a week in the form of rock salt, one heaping mess-kit spoonful mixed with the grain in the feed bag. 79. Hay. a. Hay cannot be wholly dispensed with for any considerable time unless it is replaced by a similar article, such as straw, as bulk is necessary for the proper performance of digestion. Oat straw is the best substitute for hay. The use of barley or rye straw is not recommended. Under field conditions, when issues of hay are diminished or entirely suspended, it is important that animals be grazed or fed such roughage as can be gathered. b. All classes of hay, with the exception of alfalfa, are of practically equal feeding value. c. Clover hay makes a good forage for draft animals. It has a laxative effect and when fed alone may make animals “washy.” Clover frequently appears mixed with timothy, and when it does not comprise over 50 per cent of the mixture it is an excellent hay for general use. d. Alfalfa is quite laxative in its effect on animals unaccustomed to its use. In feed- ing properties alfalfa is more like the grains than like other hays, and combines especially well with a grain ration of corn. The change to a ration containing alfalfa should be made gradually beginning with 2 or 3 pounds daily. Alfalfa should not comprise much more than one-half of the hay allowance. As the most nutritious part of alfalfa is the leaves which shatter easily, great care should be exercised in feeding to see that this part is not wasted. Small amounts of alfalfa, 2 or 3 pounds, are most economically fed as “chop.” Alfalfa is not a good feed for use during hot weather. e. Chop is hay cut in short lengths. It is best fed mixed with grain and insures more CARE OF ANIMALS AND STABLE MANAGEMENT 167 thorough mastication of the grain. A pound or more of chop may be mixed with each grain feed. As chopped hay is likely to be dusty it is well to dampen it by sprinkling shortly before feeding. f. Hay that is very dusty should be sprinkled about one-half hour before feeding. sprinkling with salted or sweetened water will often tempt the appetite of shy feeders. 80. Grazing a. Grazing is very beneficial to the animal. b. In turning animals out to graze for the first time, care must be taken that they do not overeat. Flatulent colic is almost sure to result from grazing on wet or frosted alfalfa or clover. When grazing is sufficient and regular, the feeding of bran should be dis- continued. c. In order to augment the possible scanty ration, animals in the field should be allowed to graze at every opportunity. 81. Compressed Forage. a. The compressed forage ration is primarily for field service. Present specifications cover three types of varying compositions of alfalfa meal and cane molasses with other ingredients. Two types may be used as substitutes for hay only, while the third type may be substituted for hay and grain. b. Where possible the change from the usual ration to the compressed ration should be made gradually. c. Special precautions must be taken to prevent this compressed ration from becoming damp as it molds very easily and,” when fed in this condition, causes intestinal disorders and diarrhea. 82. Forage Ration. a. Classes. (1) Garrison ration. Issued at permanent or semi- permanent camps. (2) Field ration. Used in the field, on marches and maneuvers. b. Division of horses for rationing purposes. (1) Small horses, issued to foreign stations. (2) Light horses, 1150 pounds in weight and less. (3) Heavy horses, more than 1150 pounds in weight. . c. Allowances; components. The following tabulation shows the allowances prescribed in each class of ration for each division of horses mentioned in b above and for mules: (1) Garrison ration. Small Light Heavy horses horses horses Mules Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Grain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * - - 7 10 12% 8 Hay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 14 15 14 Straw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 5 5 5 (2) Field ration. Small Light Heavy horses horses horses . Mules Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Grain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 12 14 10 Hay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 14 16 14 d. Substitutes and equivalents. (1) Not to exceed 3 pounds of bran may be substituted for a like weight of grain, or one-half pound of linseed meal for 1 pound of grain. (2) In foreign possessions the substitution of palay, copra meal, or any native product for the grain ration, and native grasses for hay, is authorized where a saving can be effected. (3) In the issue of forage, 10 pounds of hay is considered the equivalent of 15 pounds of corn fodder or grain sorghums. 83. Feeding in Garrison or Camp. a. Grain is fed about first call for reveille. This early morning feed should be small; 2 or 3 pounds per animal is ample. Just before saddling, harnessing, or packing, the animals may be watered. During the time the animals are out, feed boxes and hayracks should be thoroughly cleaned and 3 or 4 pounds of fresh hay 168 CARE OF ANIMALS AND STABLE MANAGEMENT put in the latter. After morning stables the animals should be watered and then tied in their stalls. At noon their second grain may be given. Assuming that 9 pounds is to be fed an animal, the division of about 2 for morning, 3 for noon, and 4 for evening is correct. With 12 pounds, 3 for morning, 4 for noon, and 5 for evening is correct. When the grain is more than 12 pounds it is better to feed four or five times than three. b. Upon completion of the noon feed the animals are tied outside, except in very hot or inclement weather. After evening water call they are again tied in and should find the remainder of their hay ration in their hayracks. About supper call the evening feed of grain should be given. g c. The advantage of feeding in this way is that a small feed of grain is given in the morning, which the animal will thoroughly digest before going to work. Feeding the hay before the other grain feeds keeps the horses from being greedy and bolting their grain without masticating it. d. In camps where feed boxes are not available feed bags should be used. Grain is fed by issuing the proper amount to each man who feeds his horse individually. Feed bags must be adjusted so that the animal can reach his grain easily; otherwise, tossing of the head and loss of grain will result. Any grain left in the feed bags should be spread on a paulin to dry and be used for the next feed. Under no circumstances should such grain be scattered on the ground in front of animals. To do so invites serious dirt or sand colic. Any grain spilled out of a feed bag by an animal should be swept up for similar reasons. * e. In the field, hay should be fed by breaking up the bales, distributing it along the picket line in small quantities, and frequently renewing it. A detail of men should be kept with the animals to prevent the hay from working back beneath the feet and being trod upon and wasted. To avoid undue waste, bales of hay should be carried to the picket line and broken only as actually needed. 84. Feeding Rules. a. Water before feeding or not until at least one hour afterward. b. Never feed grain to heated animals; hay will not harm them. c. If expecting hard work immediately after feeding, give only a half feed. d. Do not work the animal immediately after a full feed. e. Use feed bags when feed boxes are not available. f. Give a small feed of hay before each grain feed. g. Feed a bran mash occasionally as the general condition of the animal or the condi- tion of the droppings may indicate; or feed daily from 1 to 2 pounds of dry bran mixed with the oats. h. Feed salt. i. Never feed hay on the ground if it can be avoided. j. Remove feed bag as each animal finishes feeding. k. Keep feeding utensils clean. l. Feed clean food. m. Watch your horses feeding and know which are the slow and the shy feeders. n. Watch their condition and fix the ration for each horse according to his needs. o. Graze whenever the opportunity occurs. p. Encourage men to bring handfuls of grass or other food to their horses. q. Be economical in feeding; waste nothing; let the horse get the full value of his ration. r. Feed most of the ration, especially the hay, at night. The animal then has plenty of time to eat and digest food before working again. s. Feed at regular hours each day. t. Feed grain at least three times daily and to thin horses four times. u. Feed grain in small amounts and often. 85. Feeding Schedule. The times of feeding and watering should be definite and regular and organization commanders should prepare a schedule for this purpose. The amounts of grain to be fed at each feeding should be marked on a suitable card or blackboard on the heel post in the rear of each horse. 86. Watering. a. General. (1) Under average conditions animals reuqire about 8 gal- lons of water per day. Excessive heat and heavy work will double ordinary requirements. CARE OF ANIMALS AND STABLE MANAGEMENT 169 (2) Animals suffering from communicable diseases should always have a separate watering place. When practicable, such animals should be watered from individual buckets. (3) During watering there must be no shouting or confusion of any kind. (4) Restless and kicking animals should be watered separately. (5) Never allow an exhausted animal to drink his fill at once, especially if he has gone long without water. Give him a little at a time at 5- or 10-minute intervals until he is satisfied. b. In camp or garrison. (1) In camp or garrison, animals should be watered at least three times daily. At work, especially when the weather is warm, four times daily should be the rule. Water should be given previous to feeding. (2) Animals should not be watered for at least an hour after feeding, but they may be allowed to drink freely while at work, even though sweating. If brought in hot, they may be given a few swallows at intervals, but should be kept moving until they have cooled down. (3) Water only such number of animals as the trough will accommodate. They should be allowed ample time to drink their fill and not be led away the first time they raise their heads from the water. Animals should be led to and from water at a walk and, if possible, not more than two animals per man. e (4) If a stream is the source, care must be exercised not to foul the water for succeeding units. (See c (3) below.) c. On the march. (1) Animals should be watered within reason whenever opportunity occurs, especially on hot days. The usual method of watering before feeding will be adhered to, but if a stream is crossed an hour after feeding they may be allowed to drink if circumstances permit the delay. Bits, especially the curb, should be removed when it is intended to give a full watering. To prevent chilling or digestive disturbances, animals watered on the march, especially if sweating, should continue to march at once at the walk for a period of 10 or 15 minutes before halting or taking up the increased gait. (2) When water is scarce its issue must be carefully regulated to avoid waste. Animals can drink from a very shallow vessel if their bits are removed. A very small quantity will revive overtaxed animals; this should be given in small rations rather than one long draft. When the amount is very scanty it is best to offer the exact quantity to each animal in turn. (3) While watering, overcrowding of the animals should be prevented (normally about 2% yards of water space per animal) and plenty of time allowed for each animal to drink his fill. Groups of animals should come up together and leave together. 87. Care of Forage. Dampness decays forage in storerooms. Hay and grain rooms must be kpet dry and ventilated at all times. Forage should not be piled on floors nor in contact with walls. Boards properly spaced so that the air may circulate under the pile should be used as a foundation for each pile. Spaces to be left between piles and between each pile and the walls and ceiling in order that air may circulate freely around them. Grain should be protected from mice and rats. Questions 1. What is the capacity of the horse's stomach? . 2. Why should horses be watered not less than one hour after feeding? 3. What grain is standard for issue in the Army, and what is the maximum amount that should be fed: a. Per day? b. At one feeding? 4. What precaution must be taken when horses are grazed for the first time? 5. What are the classes of forage ration? 6. What is the maximum amount of bran that may be substituted for a like weight of grain in the prescribed ration? 7. At which feeding should most of the hay be fed? CHAPTER VII FIELD MANAGEMENT 88. Care of Animals in Camp. a. Camp site. The camp site should be on well-drained high ground with shelter from cold winds or in summer with shelter from the sun. Con- venience to watering places and grass must be considered. Level standings are essential. b. Water supply. (1) When water is obtained from a stream, the watering place for animals should be located below that designated for drinking water for men and above the place prescribed for washing clothes and bathing. (2) The principles of watering are given in paragraph 86. c. Restraint. A field picket line may consist of a single long rope or cable or of several platoon picket lines. The ends should be securely pegged down or tied to wagon wheels or trees. If the line is on the ground, animals must be tied short. If the necessary materials are on hand, picket lines should be raised 3 or 4 feet from the ground. Where aerial attacks are probable, the animals must be tied on lines in groups no larger than platoons and preferably squads, and the groups should be separated from each other by at least 60 or 70 yards. Full advantage must be taken of woods, single large trees, bushes, the shadows of buildings, banks, etc. * d. Feeding. The general principles of feeding as shown in section II should be adhered to as far as field conditions allow. See paragraph 83 d and e, concerning feed bags and feeding of hay in the field. Grazing should be afforded at every opportunity. e. Protection of forage. Paulins, if obtainable, should be used to cover the forage piles. The guard over animals is made responsible for the safety of all piles at the picket line. In the absence of such guards the stable sergeant is responsible to the organization com- mander for the protection of such forage as pertains to his organization. f. On arrival. (1) Animals should be walked the last 10 or 15 minutes before arrival at the camp site so that they may arrive cooled out. Dismounting and leading with loosened cinches the last 5 minutes are desirable. Immediately upon arrival in camp, after unbridling and tying on the picket line, the arms and cantle rolls are removed from saddles and the pack loads from the pack saddles. The saddles are then removed, and the blanket (without unfolding) is turned over and replaced on the back so that the dry side of the blanket is next to the back. Secure the blanket firmly in position by the use of the surcingle. The animals are allowed to eat hay placed on the picket line while shelter tents are pitched. The blanket is then removed, the back thoroughly rubbed dry and massaged with the hands, and the lower legs rubbed. The animal is then thoroughly groomed and all injuries promptly reported. Swellings resulting from saddle, cinch, or other injury should receive first-aid treatment by the rider or driver as soon as discovered. Apply a cold wet pack made from a folded grain sack or grooming cloth soaked with cold water and held in place with a surcingle. Wet packs should be resoaked frequently with cold water. By the time grooming is completed, 45 minutes or more will have elasped since arriving in camp and the animals may be watered. After return from watering, they are fed grain, and more hay is placed on the picket line in small amounts as needed. (2) Blankets, saddles, pack saddles, and harness should be carefully examined and, where they have caused injury, the necessary readjustments should be made to protect the injured area and to prevent repetition of thinjury on the next day's march. CHAPTER VIII FITTING OF EQUIPMENT 89. Fitting of Horse Equipment. a. Proper fitting of bits and saddles should receive systematic, continuous attention. Habitual attention to the ordinary measures for the prevention of sore backs, and adjustments for avoidance of unnecessary irritation to the animal are indispensable to the efficiency of a mounted organization. b. The following principles are of general application in saddle fitting: (1) The withers must not be pinched nor pressed upon. 170 CARE OF ANIMALS AND STABLE MANAGEMENT 171 (2) The central line of the back must have no pressure upon it. (3) The shoulder blades must have free and unhampered movement. (4) The weight must be evenly distributed over a surface which extends from the rear of the shoulders to the last true rib. c. The bits should be of proper width to fit the horse's mouth, the branches of the curb touching lightly the outer surfaces of the lips. 90. To Fold the Saddle Blanket. a. The blanket, after being well shaken out, should be folded into six thicknesses, as follows: (1) Hold up by two corners, so that long edge of blanket is up and down. (2) Double lengthwise, folded corner between thumb and forefinger of right hand, thumb pointing to left. (3) Slip left hand down folded edge two-thirds its length and seize with thumb and second finger. (4) Raise hands to height of shoulders, blanket extended between them. (5) Bring hands together, double fold falling outward. (6) Pass folded corner from right hand into left hand. (7) Slip second finger of right hand between folds and grasp double-folded corners. (8) Turn left (disengage) corner in and grasp with thumb and forefinger of right hand, the second finger of right hand stretching and evening the folds. (9) Grasp corners and shake blanket well in order to smooth the folds. (10) Raise blanket and place upper edge between the chin and breast. (11) Slip hands halfway down blanket, first two fingers outside, other fingers and thumb of each hand inside. (12) Grasp blanket and let the part under the chin fall forward. (13) Hold blanket up, arms extended, even the lower edges, then flip outside part over right arm. (14) Hold blanket thus until ready to place it on the horse. b. The description given in a above is the normal method of folding the saddle blanket. Departure from this method may be resorted to, however, in order to prevent undue wear on the bearing surface and along the folded edges of the blanket and, on occasion, for the relief or prevention of sore backs. 91. To Adjust Length of Stirrup Straps. To approximate the correct length of stirrup straps, before mounting, they are adjusted so that the length of stirrup strap, including stirrup, is about one inch less than the length of the arm, fingers extended. 92. To Adjust Single or Double Snaffle Bridle. The bridle should be adjusted so that the snaffle bit will touch lightly the upper corners of the lips and so that the throatlatch . will admit four fingerbreadths between it and the throat. 93. To Adjust Bit and Bridoon. a. (1)The snaffle should touch lightly upper corners of lips. (2) The curb should rest just below the snaffle. It should not be placed so low as to strike the teeth. (3) The curb chain should lie flat in chin groove and be of such length that when the reins are stretched the shanks of the bit form an angle of approximately 45° with lower jaw. b. When the noseband is used, it should be adjusted to 1 inch below the prominent point of cheekbone. CHAPTER IX BASIC SHOEING 94. General. a. The purpose of horseshoeing is to protect the feet from breaking and wearing away without interfering with the normal functions of the feet. b. The serviceability of riding, draft, and pack animals depends largely on the condi- tion of the feet. The officer responsible for the serviceability of the animals should possess a knowledge of the construction and functions of the various parts of the foot. He should know when the feet are in need of shoeing, the shoes best suited for the work the animal must perform, the preparation of and balance of the feet, the fit of the shoes, and the securing of them to the hoof with the minimum amount of interference with the natural functions. c. The horseshoer, in order to shoe correctly and intelligently, must have a working knowledge of the anatomy of the horse, and particularly the construction of the feet and legs. d. A record of shoeing should be kept by each organization having animals. The actual period of time between shoeings should be governed by the needs of reshoeing in each individual case. 95. Parts of the Foot. The horse's foot is composed of four parts: a. The bones. b. Certain elastic structures of cartilage and fibrous tissues (lateral cartilages and plantar cushion). * C. º corium, a layer of highly sensitive flesh or quick, which covers this bony and elastic framework. d. The box, or case of horn, called the hoof, which incloses and protects the sensitive parts. 96. Frequency of Shoeing. a. The shoeing periods should be governed by the rapidity of the growth of the wall, the wear of the shoe, and the character of work done by the animals. Normally shoes remain on the feet from 3 to 7 weeks. The shoes should be removed and the surplus horn cut away whenever a growth of horn sufficient to affect adversely the natural functions of the various parts of the foot has accumulated. b. In some cases animals are shod too frequently thereby causing injury to the wall of the hoof by the increased number of nail holes in the wall. Riding horses used for gar-. rison duty may go without hind shoes in the majority of cases. The unshod feet require trimming once a week to remove broken edges of horn and to level the foot. c. (1) Suggestions for inspecting the feet and shoes for needs of reshoeing: (a) Is the shoe worn out (unserviceable)? * (b) Are the clinches rough (projecting beyond the surface of the wall)? (c) Is there any evidence of interfering (the inner side of the limbs cut or bruised)? (d) Are the corresponding feet the same size, the toes the same length, and the heels the same height? (e) Are the toes too long compared with the height of the heels (broken back)? (f) Are the heels too high compared with the length of the toe (broken fowrard)? (g) Is the wall of the hoof (from the coronet to the lower border) greater on the outside half than on the inside (broken in)? (h) Is the wall of the hoof (from the coronet to the lower border) greater on the inside than on the outside (broken out)? (i) Does the lower border of the wall extend over the shoe laterally (no provision for expansion in outline of the shoe)? (2) The troop commander should personally inspect the feet of each animal in his command at least once weekly. 97. Normal Shoes. By a normal shoe is meant a shoe for a sound foot of a 'horse with proper gaits. The normal shoe may be used plain or with calks. The size of shoe required is determined by inspection, being careful not to take a shoe in which the last nail hole is in rear of the bend of the quarter of the hoof. Each size is made in five different weights: extra, extra light, extra light, light medium, and heavy. 172 CARE OF ANIMALS AND STABLE MANAGEMENT 173 For draft animals in both garrison and field service, the medium weight. 98. Preliminary Examination. Before shoeing or reshoeing a horse, a careful preliminary examination of the gaits, the conformation of the legs, and the condition of the feet should be made in order to determine the correct method of shoeing to be used. a. The animal should be examined to determine whether there is anything abnormal in his gait. b. #. the animal on a level standing, view the feet and legs from a position in front of the animal and note the following: (1) Are the bones of the pastern and foot in prolongation of the upper bones of the leg, or do they deflect inward (toe in)? (2) Do they deflect outward (toe out)? (3) Are the corresponding feet the same size in width of quarters and length of toe? (4) Are the feet balanced laterally (length of the wall from the hair line to the lower border equal on both sides of the foot)? -- Plate 7. Ground Surface of Foot. 1. Bearing surface of wall 5. Horny sole 1. Point of frog 2. Horny laminae 5. Angle of sole 8. Cleft of frog 3. Angle of wall or buttress 6. White line or junction of 9. Commissures 4. Bar wall and sole 10. Bulbs of frog (5) Are the feet circular or narrow with pointed toes? c. View the animal from the side and note the following: (1) Are the feet balanced from toe to heel (the length of toe and height of heels in accordance with the conformation of the pastern)? (2) Are the heels the same in height? (3) Is the angle of the wall at the front part of the hoof (from the hair line to the lower border) parallel with the slope of the pastern)? d. Examine the wear of the old shoes as a check on accuracy of previous examination to determine balance of the foot and its position at the moment of breaking over and leaving the ground. If there is any malformation of the foot or evidence of irregularities in the gait, the type of shoe and fitting should be such as to correct the irregularity. 99. Preparation of Foot and Shoe for Shoeing. a. Cut the clinches of the nails and re- 174 CARE OF ANIMALS AND STABLE MANAGEMENT move the old shoe, using care to avoid breaking away the wall. With the knife pare away the dead horn over the white line and particles of ragged horn on the frog. With nippers remove the surplus horn from the wall, then level the foot with a rasp. A covering of dead horn is essential to protect the sensitive sole against bruising. Some classes of work, such as marching over hard roads, require a greater amount of hoof than for ordinary work. To cut away the bars or open the heels weakens the foot and usually results in contraction of the quarters and heels. Plate 8. Preparation of the Foot for Shoeing. Appearance of the foot after the old shoe Foot ready for the new shoe, 1. Toe 2. Quarters. has been removed. 3. Buttress. 4. Bar. b. The shoe should be fitted to afford the greatest protection to the hoof, minimum interference with the functioning of the foot structures, and to aid the feet to break over and leave the ground with correct position and rapidity to insure proper elevation and stride during flight. The shoe should be fitted with roundness (width) at the toe to give lateral support to the foot at the moment of breaking over and leaving the ground. A shoe pointed at the toe may cause the animal to interfere, stumble, or forge. The outline of the shoe at the quarters and heels should be sufficient to allow for expansion of the hoof and growth of horn between shoeing periods. The heels of the shoe should be of sufficient length and width to cover the buttresses, and finished smooth leaving no sharp edges. The upper and inner surface of the shoe should be concaved, as pressure of the shoe on the horny sole will cause lameness. The shoe should rest evenly on the bearing surface of the hoof. 100. To Secure a Fitted Shoe. a. The shoe is placed on the bearing surface of the foot and held firmly in position with the left hand, back up. A nail is placed between the thumb and forefinger of the left hand, the flat side of the nail faced outward. The nail is held squarely in the center of the most convenient nail hole, usually the third hole on the right side of the shoe. The nailhead is tapped lightly with the driving hammer. The nail should be held firmly to determine the feel, and the thumb and forefinger should not be removed until the nail needs no further guidance. The shoe is then grasped firmly and the nail is driven with slightly increased force. After the point of the nail emerges, turn it with the claw of the hammer until it stands at right angles to the wall. With the claw of the hammer engage the nail point and by quick half turn wring off the point close to the wall. CARE OF ANIMALS AND STABLE MANAGEMENT 175 b. The second nail should be driven on the side opposite the first nail. When these two nails have been driven the foot should be allowed to rest on the floor, and the foot and shoe should be examined from all sides to see that the nails are properly placed and that the shoe is properly set. The shoer then drives the remaining nails, the fourth nails on either side being driven first. As each is driven it is promptly wrung off. When all nails have beeen driven the heads are forcibly hammered well into the crease. c. The clinching block is now placed under one of the nail points and the nailhead is struck with the hammer. This bends the nail point over toward the bottom of the foot, and the nail is drawn up into the wall, thus tightening the shoe. d. In seating the nailheads into the crease and in drawing up the nails and turning the clinches, the shoer begins on either side of the foot and takes the nails in the following order: the toe nail on one side, the heel nail on the same side, the toe nail on the opposite side, the heel nail on that side, and then the quarter nails. e. After the clinches have been formed, the foot is brought forward upon the knees. With thee rasp the clinches are made of equal length, being in length about the width of the nail at this point. The end of the nail is brought to a thin edge by filing off the corner of the underneath side. The clinches are then tapped lightly with the driving ham- mer until they are pressed against the hoof, then the outer edges are smoothed with the rasp. 101. Suggestions for Inspection of a Newly Shod Animal. a. Are the corresponding feet the same size (toes same length, heels same height)? Has enough horn been removed? Has too much horn been removed? b. Note the balance of the foot in relation to the limb, viewing from the front: Is the axis of the foot in prolongation of the axis of the upper leg bones? Viewing from the sides: Is the angle of the wall from the coronet to the toe parallel to the angle of the pastern? c. Note the height and strength of nailing: Do the nails come out of the wall at a sufficient height and in sound horn to hold the shoe securely? Are the nails driven to a greater height in the wall than necessary? Was the proper size of nail used? - d. Note the strength and finish of the clinches: Are the clinches of sufficient thickness to insure strength? Are the clinches smooth and not projecting above the surface of the wall? e. Note the size, weight, and type of the shoe: Is the quarter nail hole in the shoe at the bend of the quarter? Does the shoe conform in weight to the nature of work the animal performs and his ability to carry weight on the feet? Does the foot require a corrective type of horseshoe? f. Note the outline of the shoe: Is the shoe fitted with sufficient fullness at the toe to give lateral support to the foot at the moment of breaking over? Are the branches of the shoe from the bend of the quarter to the heel fitted fuller than the outline of the wall to provide for expansion of the foot and normal growth of horn between shoeing periods? Do the heels of the shoe cover the buttress? Is the shoe finished smooth (no sharp edges)? Does the shoe rest evenly on the bearing surface of the hoof (wall, white-line, and buttress)? Is the shoe concaved (so that it doese rest upon the horny sole)? Are the nailheads properly seated? g. Note the rasping of the lower outer border of the wall (if much rasping is in evi- dence): Do the conformation of the foot and type of shoe used warrant the amount of rasping? h. Note whether or not the ragged particles of the horny frog have been removed: Is there any evidence of improper use of the knife on the horny sole, horny frog, or bars? Is there sufficient frog pressure? If the toe clip is used, note whether it is in the center of the toe. Is it of sufficient strength, height, properly finished and seated? i. Observe for lameness or faulty action of the horse at the various gaits. 102. Fitted Shoes for Road Marches. Organizations should maintain one front and one hind shoe for each animal, fitted and suitably marked, for use in the field. . These extra fitted shoes should be kept in the shoeing shop, used at the next reshoeing of the animal, and replaced by newly fitted shoes. 103. Important Field Measures. a. Troops should start into the field with animals freshly 176 CARE OF ANIMALS AND STABLE MANAGEMENT shod. One front and one hind fitted shoe with 16 nails for each animal are included in the equipment of the rider or driver. An extra supply of shoes and nails should be carried in the field train. Nails issued to individuals should be placed in a wooden container and oiled from time to time to prevent rust. - b. Any animal losing a shoe on the march must be given proper attention immediately. If neglected, lameness will almost surely result. Officers, noncommissioned officer, riders, and drivers must be constantly on the lookout for loose or cast shoes. The feet of animals will be inspected at every halt by the rider or driver. c. A cast or loose shoe is secured to the foot as prescribed in paragraph 100. All officers and noncommissioned officers of mounted organizations and organizations equipped with animals must understand how to secure a fitted shoe. In case no shoe is available, an animal losing a shoe may be enabled to continue the march by the use of a piece of canvas, leather, or gunny sack as a covering to protect the foot. d. As soon as possible after reaching camp the feet of each animal should be inspected by the responsible officer and by the horseshoer. e. The horseshoer in the field should adjust his methods of performing the work of shoeing to conform with the facilities available. In the absence of a forge, a wood fire on the ground will heat the shoes sufficiently to cut off the heels, open the nail holes, and shape the shoe. He may, in the absence of an anvil, shape the shoe over a piece of rail or even over a wagon tire. Nailing and clinching in securing the shoe may be accomplished with tools designed for other purposes entirely. Questions 1. What is the purpose of horseshoeing? 2. How long do shoes normally remain on the feet? 3. What horseshoeing equipment is part of the individual field equipment of each mount- ed man? 4. Why should the branches of the shoe from the bend of the quarter to the heel be fitted fuller than the outline of the wall? EQUITATION CONTENTS Paragraphs Chapter I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1- 5 Chapter II. First Period of Instruction—Adjustment and Fitting of Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6- 22 Chapter III. First Period (continued)—Mounted Instruction . . . . . . . . . 23- 50 Chapter IV. First Period (concluded)—Mounted Exercises at Com- mand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51- 70 Chapter V. Second Period of Instruction—Use of the Reins . . . . . . . . 71- 85 Chapter VI. Second Period (concluded)—Suppling Exercises and e-º Jumping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86- 97 Chapter VII. Third Period of Instruction—The Gaits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98-109 Chapter VIII. Fourth Period of Instruction—Mounted Exercises . . . . . . 110-118 Chapter IX. Fifth Period of Instruction—Mounted Exercises . . . . . . . . 119-126 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1. Object. Instruction in equitation has as its object the training of the student in riding. A good military horseman is one who knows how to ride a well-trained horse, to train a young horse, to ride a difficult, high-spirited horse, to ride and to re- claim a spoiled horse, to judge the quality and suitability of horses, and who is able successfully to care for animals and equipment both in garrison and in the field. Accordingly, to enable the student to become a good military horseman, he should be instructed in the two general subjects of riding and horse training. The object of this course is to prescribe the means and methods whereby the mounted soldier is trained, in a minimum time, to ride sufficiently well for participation in field service. When quiet, well-trained horses are available, they should be used for the initial instruction in equitation. 2. Physical Fitness of Riders. Riding requires the use of many muscles. Over- work of these muscles produces stiffness and soreness, causing muscular contrac- tion, whereas progress in equitation is dependent upon the contrary condition— relaxation. For these reasons, it is essential not to overtax the physical strength of the beginner. In the beginning, the work should be mainly at the walk, punc- tuated by frequent short rest periods. As the novice develops in physical fitness, the trot and gallop periods are gradually extended and the number of rest periods decreased. 3. Confidence. The man who has never ridden a horse is often filled with appre- hension due to the unaccustomed motion, and the difficulty of controlling his horse, especially at the faster gaits. This apprehension causes him to become anxious and overstrained mentally, his muscles to become taut, and his body so rigid as to be incapable of doing its part easily and efficiently. It is necessary, therefore, that particular attention be given to combating this nervous tendency. Confidence must be gained and held from beginning to end. To accomplish this, instruction should proceed gradually from that which has been mastered to that which is new and more advanced. 4. Standard Required of Trooper. Upon completion of the training outlined hereafter each student should have attained a reasonably secure seat at all gaits, and, in, addition, should be able: a. To mount and dismount with ease. b. To apply correctly the aids whereby the horse is caused to move forward or increase his gait; to halt or decrease his gait; to turn to the right or left, or turn to the right or left about; and to back from the halt. c. To cover long distances on horseback with the least possible fatigue to the horse and rider. 177 178 EQUITATION d. To jump obstacles. 6. To ride across country. 5 Division of the Course. For convenience this course in Equitation is divided into five periods of progressive instruction. Questions 1. To enable the student to become a good military horseman, in what two general Subjects must he be instructed? 2. What is the standard of training required of the student in equitation? 3. Into how many periods is the course in equitation divided? CHAPTER II FIRST PERIOD OF INSTRUCTION_ADJUSTMENT AND FITTING OF EQUIPMENT 6. Program of Instruction. During the first period the horses are equipped with stripped saddles and single snaffle single rein bridles. The men invariably ride with stirrups and without spurs. The first 45 minutes of each lesson should be conducted in a riding hall. Any remaining time should be spent out of doors in quiet work on the road or in some appropriate phase of cross-country riding. For the first three or four days the instructor should so conduct the work that not more than half the lesson period is devoted to actual riding, the remainder of the period being confined to explanations, saddling and bridling, mounting and dismounting, adjusting and handling reins, etc. The term riding hall, as used herein, includes any inclosed or uninclosed course of corresponding size and shape. Until they have become reasonably proficient in riding, the men are required to lead their horses to and from the riding hall. 7. Attention to the Fitting of Bits and Saddles. The proper fitting of bits and saddles should receive systematic, continuous attention. There is no phase of horsemanship more important to the service than a knowledge of the Ordinary measures for the prevention of sore backs. Both thorough knowledge and habitual conscientious attention to this subject are indispensible to the efficiency of a mounted organization. 8. To Fold the Saddle Blanket. The blanket, after being well shaken out, should be folded into six thicknesses, as follows: Hold it up by two corners, so that the long edge of the blanket is up and down. Double it lengthwise, the folded corner between the thumb and forefinger of the right hand, thumb pointing to the left. Slip the left hand down the folded edge two-thirds its length and seize it with the thumb and second finger. Raise the hands to the height of the shoulders, the blanket extended between them. Bring the hands together, the double fold falling outward. Pass the folded corner from the right hand into the left hand. Slip the second finger of the right hand between the folds and seize the double- folded corners. - Turn the left (disengaged), corner in and grasp it with the thumb and fore- finger of the right hand, the second finger of the right hand stretching and evening the folds. Grasp the corners and shake the blanket well in order to smooth the folds. Raise the blanket and hold it between the chin and breast. Slip the hands halfway down the blanket, the first two-fingers outside, the other fingers and thumb of each hand inside. Grasp the blanket and let the part under the chin fall forward. Hold the blanket up, arms extended, and even the lower edges; then flip the outside part over the right arm. Hold the blanket thus until ready to place it on the horse. The description given above is the normal method of folding the saddle blanket. Departure from this method may be resorted to, however, in order to prevent EQUITATION 179 undue wear on the bearing surface and along the folded edges of the blanket and, on occasion, for the relief or prevention of sore backs. 9. To Saddle (McClellan Saddle). For instruction, the saddle may be placed 4 yards in rear of the horse, the stirrups crossed over the seat, the right one upper- most; the cincha and cincha strap crossed above the stirrups, the strap uppermost; the saddle blanket folded, horse side in, folded edge to the front, double fold to the right, across the seat of the saddle. Plate 1. To Fold the Saddle Blanket. The instructor commands: BLANKET. Approach the horse on the near (left) side, with the blanket folded and held as described above. Place the blanket well forward on the horse's back by tossing the part of the blanket over the right arm to the off (right) side of the horse, still keeping hold of the middle points. Slide the blanket once or twice from front to rear to smooth the hair on the horse's back, being careful to raise the blanket in bringing it forward. Put the blanket in place, the edges falling equally on either side of the backbone, the double fold resting on the withers. Smooth the blanket and remove the locks of mane that may be under it. The blanket having been placed on the horse, the instructor commands: SADDLE. Grasp the pommel of the saddle with the left hand and the cantle with the right. 180 EQUITATION Plate 2A. To Saddle, McClellan Saddle. Platº -º. To -aºlº, McClellan -aºlº, Mºº- 182 EQUITATION Approach the horse on the near side and place the center of the saddle on the middle of the horse's back, the front end of the side bar about 4 finger widths behind the point of the shoulder blade and about the width of a man's hand in rear of the double-folded edge of the blanket. Let down the cincha strap and cincha. Pass to the off side, adjust the cincha and strap, and see that the blanket is Smooth. Return to the near side and raise the blanket slightly under the pommel arch so that the withers may not be compressed. Take the cincha strap in the right hand, reach under the horse and seize the cincha ring with the left hand. Pass the end of the strap through the ring from underneath (from inside to outside), then up and through the upper ring from the outside; if necessary, make another fold in the same manner. Cincha strap. The cincha strap is fastened as follows: pass the end through the upper ring to the front and seize it with the left hand. Place the fingers of the right hand between the outside folds of the strap and, pulling from the horse with the right hand, take up the slack with the left hand. Cross the strap over the folds and, with the right hand, pass the end of it under- neath and through the upper ring back of the folds, then down and under the loop that crosses the folds and draw it tight. Weave the end into the folds of the cincha strap. Another method of fastening the cincha strap is as follows: pass the end through the upper ring to the rear and seize it with the right hand. Place the fingers of the left hand between the outer folds of the strap. Pull from the horse with the left hand and take up the slack with the right hand. Pass the end of the strap underneath and draw it through the upper ring until a loop is formed. Double the loose end of the strap, push it through the loop, and draw the loop taut. The free end of the strap should be long enough to be seized conveniently with the hand. The cincha strap, when first adjusted, should admit a finger between it and the horse's belly. After exercising the horse for a while the cincha should be examined; if too loose, it should be readjusted. Having fastened the cincha strap, let down the right stirrup, then the left. The surcingle is then buckled over the saddle, and should be a little looser than the cincha. Quarter straps. After placing the saddle in the middle of the horse's back the quarter-strap ring should be pushed forward and fixed by the sliding loops so that when tightened the cincha will be over the sternum of the horse and not over his floating ribs. If the sliding loops become loose, it will be well to fix the quarter- strap ring in place by the use of a short thong or by putting a rivet through the quarter strap in rear of the quarter-strap ring. The quarter strap should be adjusted to such a length that the quarter-strap ring is over the lower edge of the blanket. The buckle of the quarter strap should be against the cantle-halter square. Stirrup straps. The stirrup strap should be put on the saddle so that the hair side of the leather encircles the stirrup loop on saddle and the spreader of the stirrup. This leaves the flesh side of the leather out. The buckle of the stirrup strap should be inside, and at the front of the stirrup, and against it, so that under no circumstances can it touch the gun boot, the blanket, or the saber. Breast straps. A breast strap is not usually required. When used it should be so fitted that the upper edge of the rosette, or ring, is 3 fingerbreadths above the sharp breastbone. The breast strap should admit the breadth of the hand between it and the flat of the shoulder. Modified McClellan saddle. When the modified McClellan saddle is used, the instructions given above govern except as indicated below: After saddle has been placed on the horse's neck, pass to right side and see that blanket is smooth, and let down the girth. Return to left side and raise blanket slightly under pommel arch. Reach under horse and seize end of girth with left hand. Raise saddle skirt with right hand. Insert front girth strap in front buckle of girth and draw up snugly. Repeat the same operation with rear strap and rear buckle. 10. To Unsaddle (McClellan Saddle). The instructor commands: UNSADDLE. Stand on the near side of the horse and unbuckle and remove the surcingle. EQUITATION 183 Cross the left stirrup over the saddle, loosen the cincha strap and let down the cincha. (Unbuckle the girth, of the modified saddle.) Pass to the offside and cross the right stirrup, then the cincha (web girth of the modified saddle). Pass to the near side and cross the cincha strap over the saddle. Grasp the pommel with the left hand, the cantle with the right hand, and, re- moving the saddle over the croup, place it in rear of the horse, pommel to the front. Grasp the blanket at the withers with the left hand and at the loin with the right hand. Remove it in the direction of the croup, the edges falling together, the wet side in. Place the blanket on the saddle, the folded edge on the pommel. If unsaddling in the stable, place the saddle on its peg when taken off the horse. 11. To Fit the Saddle The following principles are of general application in saddle fitting: The withers must not be pinched nor pressed upon. The central line of the back must have no pressure put upon it. The shoulder blades must have free and unhampered movement. The weight must be evenly distributed over a surface which extends from the play of the shoulders to the last true rib, 12. To Balance the Saddle Weight. The exact balance of the weight of the saddle is of so much importance that all concerned must understand how serious may be the least variation. Riders will be required to maintain the seat described in the position of the mounted soldier, or attention, mounted. | Plate 3. To Put on the Single-snaffle Bridle. Plate 4. Adjustment of the Bit and Bridoon. Excessive local pressure caused by the faulty position assumed by the rider is irregular and intermittent. It is not nearly so productive of evil as the pressure due to an uneven distribution of arms and pack, the effects of which are permanent and constant. Accordingly, the weight of such articles as are attached to one side of the pommel and cantle should be exactly balanced by the weight of those of the opposite side. The weight of the pack on the pommel should also equal that placed on the cantle. Furthermore, this relation must be maintained throughout the vicissitudes of field service which are sure to produce changes in the weight carried on the saddle. 13. To Adjust the Length of Stirrup Straps. To approximate the correct length of stirrups straps, before mounting, they are adjusted so that the length of the stirrup strap, including the stirrup, is about 1 inch less than the length of the arm, the fingers extended. 14. To Put On the Single-Snaffle Bridle. The instructor commands: BRIDLE. Take the reins in the right hand, the crown piece in the left hand. 184 EQUITATION Approach the horse on the near side, passing the right hand along his neck. Slip the reins over the horse's head and let them rest on his neck. Take the crownpiece in the right hand and the snaffle bit in the left hand. Bring the crownpiece in front of and slightly below its proper position. Insert the thumb into the side of the horse's mouth, about the tusk, and press upon the lower jaw so as to cause him to open his mouth. Insert the bit by raising the crown piece and, with the left hand, quietly draw the ears under the crownpiece and arrange the forelock. Secure the throatlatch. The bridle should be adjusted so that the snaffle bit will touch lightly the upper corners of the lips and so that the throatlatch will admit 4 fingerbreadths between it and the throat. At the direction of the instructor the halter may be taken off before bridling, the reins being first passed over the horse's neck. A noseband, when used, should be 2 fingerbreadths below the cheek bone and should admit 2 fingerbreadths between it and the nose. 15. To Take Off the Single-Snaffle Bridle. The instructor commands: UNBRIDLE. Stand on the near side of the horse and pass the reins over the horse's head, placing them on the bend of the left arm. Unbuckle the throatlatch. Grasp the crownpiece with the right hand and, assisting with the left hand. quietly disengage the ears. Lower the crownpiece with the right hand and gently remove the bit from the horse’s mouth with the left hand. Place the crownpiece in the palm of the left hand and, taking the reins in the right hand, pass them over the crownpiece. The bridle is placed across the saddle on the blanket. If unsaddling in the stable the bridle is hung on its peg by the crownpiece. If the horse is not equipped with a halter, the reins should be left over the horse's head, and the bridle removed as just described. The horse may be hold thus until a halter is put on, after which the reins should be passed over the horse’s head. 16. To Put On the Bit and Bridoon. The bit and bridoon is put on by the same command and by essentially the same movements as prescribed for the single- Snaffle bridle. Variations in procedure for the two types of bridles are as follows: before bridling, the curb chain is unhooked on the near side; after placing the reins over the horse’s head the lower left branch of the curb bit is held in the left hand, the forefinger against the mouthpiece, the snaffle bit above and resting on the mouth- piece of the curb bit. After the throat latch has been secured the curb chain is hooked up on the near side below the Snaffle bit, above the curb bit. 17. To Adjust the Bit and Bridoon. The bits should be of sufficient width to fit the horse's mouth, the branches of the curb touching lightly the outer surfaces of the lips. The snaffle should touch lightly the upper corners of the lips. The curb should rest iust below the Snaffle. The curb chain should lie flat in the chin groove and be of such length as to cause the reins, when stretched from the pommel of the saddle to form a right angle with the branches of the curb. If the bit is placed high it is less severe; if placed low it is very powerful; if placed too low its effects are painful. It should not be placed so low as to strike the teeth. When the horses are restive it is often due solely to faulty adjustment of the bits and the curb chain. The noseband is adjusted as described above. If tightened it renders the effect of the bits much more pronounced. If too much lowered and tightened it will make the effect of the curb bit too severe. With the bit and bridoon the adjustment of the noseband requires the strictest attention. 18. To Take Off the Bit and Bridoon. The procedure is the sanne as prescribed above for the single-snaffle bridle with the following modification. Before un- buckling the throat-latch the curb chain is unhooked on the near side. 19. To Put On the Cavesson and to Fold and Handle the Longe, The cavesson EQUITATION 185 consists of a strong bridle headstall, to which is attached a heavily padded nose- band. The cavesson (with the longe) is used for exercising, training and disciplin- ing horses, especially young horses. The headstall consists of a crownpiece, brow band, check pieces, throat-latch, and jowl strap. Except for the addition of the jowl strap, it is like the headstall of the ordinary bridle. The noseband is metal jointed and is lined inside with thick felt. On the nose- band are three rings, to one of which the longe is attached, usually to the ring in the center. The longe consist of a flat tape of strong material or a stout rope. It should be about 30 feet long. The cavesson should be adjusted so that the noseband rests just below the cheek bones. The more the noseband is lowered below its normal position the more severe it becomes. If placed very low the noseband is unduly severe. Moreover, it is apt to injure the sensitive cartilage of the nose and to hinder breathing. The noseband should be buckled snugly under the lower jaw. To allow play to the metal portion of the noseband makes its effect severe; if very much play is allowed its effect on the nose will be painful. The jowl strap should be lightly adjusted in order to assure that the cheek piece on the outside does not injure the horse's eye. - If the longe is held in the hand in circular loops it is apt to become entangled in the fingers or burn the hand when paid out rapidly. It should therefore be Plate 5. The Cavesson. 1. Cheek Piece 4. Crown Piece 6, Metal Nose Band 2. Longe 5. Throat. Latch 7. Jowl Strap 3. Brow Band held in successive super-imposed loops, somewhat like figures of 8. All troopers should know how to put on a cavesson and how to fold and handle a longe. They should also be able to exercise a horse on the longe. 20. Care of Saddle Blankets. Saddle blankets should be kept clean, soft, and free from wrinkles, and should be refolded so that the side next to the horse will be 186 EQUITATION changed frequently. Occasionally, they should be hung in the Sun and wind and then brushed and Shaken. When necessary, they should be thoroughly cleaned by repeated immerSlons in tepid water and then, without wringing or pressing, hung over a pole or line to dry. Before folding saddle blankets to put them in storerooms after use, they should be dried thoroughly and cleaned, if necessary and so stored as to prevent deterioration. 21. Care of Saddlery. The care of saddlery is important and officers and noncom- missioned officers will be thoroughly familiar with the methods involved. All men will receive instruction in this subject. Cleaning will be done habitually under proper supervision. a. Cleaning materials. Castile soap (or white soap), saddle soap, and neat's-foot oil are the authorized cleaning and preserving materials. Castile soap (or white soap) is a cleaning agent and does not soften or preserve leather. Neat's-foot oil is an oiling agent only. Saddle soap combines both cleaning and oiling properties. b. Frequency and methods of cleaning. As often as used, leather equipment should be wiped off with a sponge slightly dampened in water to remove mud, dust, or other foreign substances. This maintains the appearance of saddlery, but is, how’ ever, insufficient of itself to preserve it. Bits and other metal should be wiped off with a rag moistened with oil. At intervals of from one to four weeks, depending upon climatic conditions and the use to which it has been subjected, it is essential that leather equipment be thoroughly cleaned. To do this properly all parts of the equipment should be separated and the entire equipment reduced to its simplest elements. All surface dust and mud should be wiped off with a damp sponge. Then, with the sponge slightly damp, a lather is formed of castile soap and thoroughly worked into each piece of leather. After the leather parts are clean the sponge is rinsed out and a thick lather made from saddle soap. This is applied to the parts of thc equipment to obtain a fine surface dressing and to restore the oil removed by the castile soap. Finally, when partially dry, the equipment is rubbed with a soft cloth to give it a finished appearance. c. Frequency and method of oiling. During the first few months of use a set of new leather equipment should be given at least two applications of neat's-foot oil per month. Thereafter, the frequency of oiling is a matter of judgment, as indicated by the appearance and pliability of the leather. Frequent light applications of oil are more valuable than occasional heavy ones. * As far as practicable, the oil should be applied on the flesh side. Leather which has been cleaned should still be damp at the time of oiling. New leather should be slightly moistened and the oil quickly and lightly applied. A small rag may be used to apply the oil, care being exercised not to use an excess. The tendency is to use too much oil; about 1 ounce to a set of saddlery 1s sufficient. d. Metal parts. The bit, curb chain, and spurs may be polished. Dark metal should be cleaned and oiled only, and should never be attacked with abrasive agents. 22. Care of Equipment in the Field. In active campaign or on the march advan- tage should be taken of such opportunities as the situation affords to keep equipment out of the mud and to protect it from rain, dust, and heat. Racks can be impro- vised from materials at hand. A piece of canvas thrown over the equipment affords considerable protection. In cases where shelter is provided for animals provisions should also be made for horse equipment. The saddle must not be thrown about nor left where animals may step upon it. Questions During the first period in equitation, how are the horses equipped? Into how many thicknesses should the blanket be folded? What principles govern the fitting of the saddle? What is the approximate correct length of the stirrup strap? What care should the saddle blanket receive? What are the authorized cleaning and preserving materials? i CHAPTER III FIRST PERIOD (Continued)—MOUNTED INSTRUCTION 23. To Stand to Horse. a. At the command Stand to horse, each rider places him- self on the left side of the horse, facing to the front and opposite the horse's head. He takes the position of attention, except that the right hand (nails down) grasps the reins about 6 inches from the bit, the forefinger separating the reins. The bight of the reins rests on the horse's neck near the withers. (See Plate 6.) Plate 6. To Stand to Horse. b. Being at stand to horse, if the command At ease is given, each rider stands at ease, holding the reins about 18 inches from the bit. c. At the command Attention, each rider resumes the position of stand to horse. d. To stand to horse on the right side, the instructor commands: RIGHT SIDE, STAND TO HORSE. At this command each rider assumes a position on the right side of his horse corresponding to the position of stand to horse as described above, substituting right for left. 24. To Lead Out. The rider being at stand to horse, to leave the stable or picket line, the instructor commands: LEAD OUT. Each rider, holding his right hand well up and firm, leads his horse, without looking at him, to the place desig- nated by the instructor. As the students enter the riding hall the instructor indi- cates the point where he desires the right man to be located and the direction in which the line is to face and commands: LINE UP. The students form in line at intervals of 3 yards, dressing on the right man, each at stand to horse, and with horse correctly disposed perpendicular to the line. 25. To Mount. The rider being at stand to horse the instructor commands: 1. Prepare to mount, 2. MOUNT. (See Plate 7.) a. At the command Prepare to mount, the rider faces to the right, drops the right rein, takes a step to the right so as to be opposite the horse's left shoulder, and then 187 188 EQUITATION - Photos by Signal Corps, U. S. Army. Plate 7A. Prepare to Mount. Plate 7B. MOUNT. EQUITATION 189 half faces to the rear. He takes the reins in the left hand with the little finger between them and the bight falling to the right side; adjusts them so that they give a gentle, even bearing on the horse’s mouth, and places the left hand on the horse’s crest near the withers, taking a lock of mane, if any, between the thumb and fore- finger. He then places the left foot in the stirrup, assisted by the right hand, if necessary, brings the left knee against the saddle, and places the right hand upon the cantle. b. At the command Mount, the rider rises by an effort of the right leg aided by the arm. He keeps the left knee bent and firmly pressed against the saddle, the toe depressed, and the upper part of the body inclined slightly forward. He brings the right foot by the side of the left, changes the right hand to the pommel, passes the right leg, knee bent, over the horse's croup without touching it, and sits down lightly in the saddle. He then places the right foot in the stirrup and takes the reins in one or both hands as instructed. 26. To Dismount. Being at a halt the instructor commands: 1. Prepare to dis- mount, 2. DISMOUNT. * * * * * * * * sº * f Plate 9. To Hold the Single Reins in One Hand. a. At the command Prepare to dismount, the rider passes the reins into his left hand and places that hand on the horse’s crest near the withers. He then places the right hand upon the pommel and removes the right foot from the stirrup. b. At the command Dismount, the rider passes the right leg, knee bent, over the croup without touching it. He then changes the right hand to the cantle of the saddle and brings the right foot by the side of the left foot, the left knee being against the saddle and the upper part of the body inclined slightly forward. He next descends lightly on the right foot and takes the position of stand to horse. 27. To Hold Single Reins in Either or Both Hands. The reins are held, fingers relaxed, knuckles about 30° from the vertical. a. In both hands. A rein is taken in each hand in such manner that the rein comes 190 EQUITATION into the hand under the little finger and passes out over the second joint of the forefinger, the fingers lightly closed. The thumb is closed on the rein and the bight falls forward and to the right under the right rein. The hands are well separated and held normally above the withers. The wrist is straight and supple, and the forearm, wrist, hand, and rein form one straight line from point of elbow to horse's mouth, the elbow being slightly in advance of the point of the hip. (See Plate 8.) b. In one hand. The reins are held in one hand so that they are separated by the little finger. The two reins pass out of the hand over the second joint of the fore- finger, the thumb is closed on the reins, and the bight falls forward and to the right. The free arm swings naturally in rear of the thigh without stiffness. (See Plate 9.) 28. To Adjust and Handle Single Reins. During the first lessons in riding, the instructor causes the rider to hold the reins in both hands. After a few days, how- ever, he requires him to hold the reins in the left hand and, similarly, in the right hand. He practices him in changing the reins from one hand to another, from both hands to one hand and back again, in leng hening and shortening the reins, in dropping and picking up the reins, and explains thoroughly the positions of the hands and the proper length at which to hold the reins. 29. Military Seat. The correct military seat permits the rider to remain master of his equilibrium whatever may be the actions of his horse. It must be secure in itself and provide ease and comfort for both horse and rider. Such a seat is dependent upon balance, augmented by suppleness, muscular control of the body, and use of the legs. The military seat, while obligatory in the Army, is also admirably adapted to all kinds of riding such as hunting, polo, and jumping. For certain of these activities, a different adjustment of stirrups may be necessary. Without a properly constructed Saddle, the deepest part of which is approx- imately in the center, it is extremely difficult to acquire or retain the correct military seat. The McClellan saddle is properly designed. Many flat saddles are too low at the cantle or at the pommel. These faults place the deepest part of the seat of the saddle too far to the rear or too far to the front, making it diffi- cult, and in some cases impossible, to assume the correct seat. Usually all issue flat saddles may be altered by changing the amount of padding at the cantle or pommel so that the deepest part will be correctly centered. ſº The principal elements to be considered are the rider's upper body, his base of support, his legs, and his equilibrium or balance. ſº e The upper body means that part of the body from the hip joints up. The base of support is formed by those parts of the rider's body in contact with the saddle and the horse, from the points of the buttocks down along the inside of the thighs, to and including the inner knees, legs, and stirrups. The fleshy parts of the buttocks are forced to the rear and in no case form part of the seat. The leg is that part of the limb between the knee and the ankle. Since the rider is constantly receiving impulses from the moving horse, he is frequently in danger of losing his equilibrium and can retain it only by the clinging of the knees and thighs reinforced by a sufficiently strong leg grip. Balance obviates the necessity for continuous leg grip, saves the legs from undue strain and fatigue, and is the principal requisite of a secure seat. Balance re- quires that the center of gravity of the upper body remain as nearly as possible over, the center of its base of support. With the horse in motion, the center of gravity must be farther advanced than when at the halt in order to compensate for the force of inertia which tends to overbalance the upper body to the rear and leave the rider “behind his horse.” When the center of gravity passes outside the limits of its base of support, the rider's balance is in danger of being lost and he must maintain it by gripping with his legs. A rider with a poor seat makes the grave mistake of pulling on the reins. Balance must be entirely independent of the hands and reins. 30. Position Mounted. The rider sits with his crotch Squarely in the center of the saddle, his weight distributed forward from the points of his buttocks into his crotch and down onto the inner thighs, knees, and stirrups. At the halt the upper body, due to a slight forward inclination from the hip joints, is slightly in front of the perpendicular. Thus its center of gravity is placed EQUITATION 191 in front of the points of the buttocks. This facilitates correct placing of the thighs and proper distribution of weight. 31. Balance. To be in balance when in motion, the upper body is inclined farther forward from the hips. The lower thighs, knees, and legs remain in close contact with the horse. The knees, ankles, and heels sink at each stride, absorb- ing part of the shock and fixing the rider securely in the saddle. Inclining the upper body to the rear or convexing the loin to the rear places the center of gravity of the upper body in rear of the center of its base of support and causes the rider to sit on the fleshy parts of his buttocks. This faulty position tends to raise the thighs and knees, weakens the seat, concentrates the weight toward the cantle, and is unmilitary in appearance. It is fatiguing to the horse and often injurious to his back. The rider is “behind his horse.” Plate 10. The Trooper Mounted, off Side. 32. The Thighs. The thighs extend downward and forward, their inner sides resting without constraint on the saddle. With the buttocks to the rear and the upper body inclined to the front, the thighs are naturally forced down and the center of the saddle comes well up into the rider's crotch. The large fleshy muscles of the inner thighs are thus forced to the rear and the flat of the thigh is permitted without muscular con- straint to envelop the horse. Thus seated, a proper proportion of the rider's weight is distributed down his thighs and the tendency to grip with them is avoided. If the thighs are turned outward excessively, contact of knee and lower thigh with the saddle is lost and the rider has neither the correct distribution of weight nor the proper base of support. Instability and lack of security result. RIGHT Below, the rider is in balance, with his center of gravity constantly over the distance between his knees and heels. This can only be attalined by keeping the back naturally erect and slightly concave at the loin. Note that his buttocks are well to the rear and that there is no weight on the cantle, due to the forward inclination of his body from the hip joints. Being in balance, he is always able to stand in his stirrups with his welght in his heels and on his knees without first having to lean farther forward. He rides "Lightly" because his reins are long, permitting 1. Halt: Re 1 ns long; heels and knees down; trunk erect and slightly Inclined forward from hips; head, chest and eyes up. 2. Walk: Reins long, allowing horse freedom of head and neck; fingers, Wrist, elbows re- laxed, giving soft hands; trunk in- clined for ward; correct position of legs; chest and he ad up; back stralght without stiffness. 3. Posting Trot- Rider Coming Into Saddle: Same re- marks as under Par. 2. 4. Posting Trot- Rider Rising Out of Saddle: Same remarks as under Par. 2. 5. Gallop: Same - remarks as under Par. 2. - Plate 11. Position of Mounted Trooper: Right and Wrong. the horse to extend his neck and head; because his relaxed fingers, wrist and elbows make his hands soft and gentle; because he is "with his horse” not "behind him.” WRONG: Below, the rider is out of balance; “behind his horse." He sits on the cantle with back and loins humped; knees and heels up; hands and elbows stiff; reins not properly adjusted. All this results in pain to the horse's back and mouth and makes the rider's seat insecure, clumsy and unmilitary. 1. Halt: Knees and heels up; buttocks under rider, who thus sits on the end of his spine with all his welght on the cantle, back and loins humped. relns too long and elbows too far to the rear. 2. Walk: Same re- marks as under Par. 1, apply, also hands and wrist are stiff, elbows again are too far to the rear, which makes control of horse difficult. 3. Posting Trot- Rider Coming Into Saddle: Same re- marks as under Par. 1 apply, but here the reins are held too shortly, giving stiff arms and un ste a dy, brutal hands. 4. Posting Trot- Rider Rising Out of Saddle: Same remarks as under Par. 3. 5. Gallop: Same remarks as under Par. 1. (Courtesy of Colonel H. D. Chamberlin) EQUITATION 193 33. The Knees. The knees are forced down as low as the adjustment of the stirrups will permit without causing the stirrup straps to hang in rear of the vertical. Knees are neither limp nor stiff, nor is there normally any effort to “pinch” with them. Flexed and relaxed, they rest with their inner sides in con- tinuous contact with the saddle. Properly placed thighs, as described above, naturally and correctly place the knees. Knees excessively turned out produce the same faulty results for similar incorrect positions of the thighs. Knees excessively turned in force the heels out and cause the calves of the legs to lose proper contact. c. Center of gravity. d. Horizontal distance be- , tween kneel and heel. Plate 12. Description of Balance. Knees too high cannot form a proper part of the base of support. They place the rider behind his horse. Such a fault is an indication of the fact that either stirrups are too short, the rider is sitting back on his buttocks, or that the for- ward inclination of the upper body is insufficient. If knees are stiffened or straightened, the calves of the legs lose proper contact with the horse and the rider's seat is forced out of the saddle. If knees are limp, the legs go too far to the rear and the stirrup straps are no longer vertical. The heels come up and the crotch and buttocks slip too far forward in the saddle. Thus a faulty position of the knee is an indication of the fact that the entire seat is incorrect. 34. The Legs. The legs, ankles, feet, and stirrups are disposed as follows: The legs extend downward and backward with the calves in light, elastic con- tact with the horse. The calves naturally fall into this position if the knees are flexed and relaxed. This contact of the calves is a means of communication be- tween rider and horse and also assists security. When the legs are not in contact, communication is lost and their swinging confuses a well-trained horse, irritates a nervous one, and renders the seat insecure. Correct adjustment of stirrups assists materially in preserving leg contact. 35. The Stirrups Length. Stirrup leathers are approximately vertical. The length of stirrup is normal and approximately correct if the tread hangs opposite the lower level of the ankle bone when the rider is seated as described above, with his feet out of the stirrups and his legs hanging naturally, well down and around his horse. This is not a fixed rule as the conformation of both horse and rider call for slight modifications. Stirrup leathers for special forms of riding may be longer or shorter than described. For schooling, a longer stirrup should be used. For show jumping, FA2 (1) 194 EQUITATION steeplechasing, and racing, the stirrups should be shortened. Too long a stirrup diminishes the rider's base of support, renders balance from front, to rear par- ticularly difficult, and interferes with proper use of the legs. Too short a stirrup raises the knees excessively, makes the seat insecure as to lateral reactions, and causes undue fatigue when employed over long periods of time. With very short stirrups, unless the forward inclination of the upper body is increased materially so as to keep the center of gravity of the mass over the horizontal distance be- tween the knees and heels, the rider is placed behind his horse with his weight toward the cantle of the saddle. - All requirements of military riding may be met by the normal adjustment of the stirrups. Short stirrups should not be used except for the special purposes given above. The McClellan saddle is not suited for use with very short stirrups. Its high cantle prevents the buttocks from going to the rear as they must when stirrups are markedly shortened. 36. The Ankles. When the heels are well down, the ankles flexed and relaxed, the feet turned out naturally rest with the ball of the foot in front of the center of the stirrup tread. The rider normally supports the weight of his feet, legs, and a portion of the weight of his thighs and upper body in the stirrups. This weight in the stirrups results from the forward inclination of the upper body and not from “standing in the stirrups.” Ankles naturally break slightly to the inside, allowing the calves of the legs to rest against the sides of the horse. They should be relaxed in order that the downward thrust on the stirrups will pass into the heels, causing them to sink below the level of the toes and allowing the ankle joints to flex freely with the movements of the horse. Ankles which are stiff cause the rider to carry the héels too high and result in unsteady legs and fre- quent loss of stirrups. They also restrict the rider in the proper use of his legs in control and management of his horse. Toes turned in stiffen the ankles, force the heels out, and cause loss of contact of proper parts of the calves of the legs. This fault reduces the security of the rider and makes the correct use of the legs impossible. Toes turned out excessively stiffen the ankles, put the knees out of contact, place the rider on the backs of his thighs and disrupt the seat. The toes should not press down on the soles of the boot, but should be relaxed, thus aid- ing materially in obtaining a relaxed ankle. It must be realized that when riding with stirrups the calf muscles cannot be powerfully contracted except when the heels are driven well down. Strong legs and a strong seat are indicated by well depressed heels. They brace the rider against losing balance to the front and facilitate correct driving power against a stubborn mount. 37. Riding Without Stirrups. Without stirrups the legs and feet hang in a natural manner, except that the knees are flexed sufficiently to bring the legs into light, elastic contact with the horse in order to secure the seat and assist balance. The ankles are relaxed, permitting the toes to hang lower than the heels. 38. The Upper Body. The posture of the upper body is that of the dismounted soldier at attention except for an habitual forward inclination from the hips. This position distributes the rider's weight evenly over his base of support and so saves both horse and rider unnecessary discomfort and fatigue. If the upper body is inclined too far forward, the rider easily becomes unbalanced, since at any violent reaction his legs slide too far to the rear. On the other hand, the center of gravity of the upper body should never be so far to the rear as to be directly over the points of the buttocks. The chest is lifted. The shoulders are square without stiffness and carried in a plane at right angles to the long axis of the horse. Lifting the chest with the shoulders as described facilitates the maintenance of a correct posture of the upper body. Rounded shoulders cramp the chest, invite a general slumping of the back and loin, and cause the elbows to fly out from the body. Shoulders forcibly carried back result in general contraction. Failure to lift the chest is often the cause of a poor seat, particularly in riding across country and over obstacles. The head and chin are up, eyes looking to the front. Due to its position and weight, the head has a great influence on the balance EQUITATION 195 of the upper body. For this reason, it is important that it be correctly placed. Furthermore, if it is dropped down, the resulting tendency is to round the shoulders and back, thus destroying the ease and balance sought in the military Seat. The chin is held up without being thrust out or stiffening the neck. The eyes are lifted so that the rider may see where he is going. The bad habit of looking down at the horse's head and neck is dangerous for the rider and all others in the vicinity. - 39. The Hands. The arms, elbows, wrists, and fingers normally are relaxed, the elbows falling naturally in front of the hips. As long as the horse is going at the rate, gait, and in the direction desired, only sufficient muscular energy is used to keep the forearms lifted to the proper position and to maintain the reins securely. A natural relaxation of the arms insures freedom and quietness in the use of the hands. Any involuntary contraction quickly communicates itself through the hands to the horse's mouth, resulting in a loss of that calm confidence which the horse should always have in his rider. The reins are held in either or both hands, fingers softly closed. Backs of the hands are up and out at angles of about 30° inside the vertical. With the reins in both hands, the hands, with fingers relaxed, are separated about 8 or 10 inches and normally held slightly above the withers. The wrists are straight and supple. The forearms, wrists, hands, and reins form almost straight lines from the points of the elbows to the horse's mouth. Sometimes, for corrective purposes, hands may be carried higher, but they should never be carried any lower. Hands carried too low give the impression of pushing down on the reins and cause the horse to seek to escape the downward effect of the bit on the bars of his mouth by raising his head and thrusting his nose into the air. The elbows are carried slightly in advance of the points of the hips. Their posi- tion will vary from time to time in guiding or controlling the horse; but, with reins properly adjusted, they should never pass in rear of the hip joints. When riding with a snaffle bit, maintaining a direct line from elbow to mouth is facil- itated if the reins are taken into the hands between the third and fourth fingers rather than underneath the little fingers. If only one hand is used, the free arm hangs naturally. Good hands are impossible to acquire without a good seat. Softness is an essential characteristic of good hands and must be developed. Relaxed arms, which permit the soft and elastic opening and closing of the elbow joints combined with the lazy play of the wrists and fingers, give soft hands. As long as the horse is going at the speed and in the direction and manner desired, such hands smoothly follow the movements of his head and neck while maintaining soft, continuous contact of unvarying intensity with his mouth. Rough hands are unsteady and quickly communicate unintentional impressions to the horse's mouth, making him nervous and difficult to control. - 40. The Weight. When a rider so disposes his weight as to require the minimum of muscular effort to remain in his seat, and when the weight distribution inter- feres least with the horse's movements and equilibrium, the rider is said to be “with his horse” or “in balance.” This condition of being “with the horse” is the keynote of riding. When passing from the halt to motion, and when the horse is moving, the seat undergoes certain modifications. The rider must assume posi- tions which assure his 'retention of balance and which keep him “with his horse.” The knees, legs, ankles, and to a great extent the thighs, remain fixed in position. The upper body, the unstable part of the rider’s mass, remains in balance over its base of support by appropriate variations in its degree of inclination toward the front and thus overcomes the disturbing effects of the horse’s movements. Any change in the inclination of the body modifies the distribution of weight on the various parts of the base of support. As forward inclination increases, the rider's center of gravity is carried forward and downward. There is an increase in the weight borne by the knees and stirrups until finally when galloping fast across country or racing, and in certain phases of posting and jumping, the knees and stirrups support the entire load. Through the medium of the stirrup hangers this weight is distributed properly along the back of the horse. 41. Inclination of the Upper Body. In forward movement, the degree of for- ward inclination of the upper body should vary with the speed of the horse and 196 EQUITATION With the gait. This inclination always should be such that the rider remains in balance over his base of support. When the inclination of the upper body is not Sufficient to maintain this balance, the rider is not “with.” but “behind” his horse. If it becomes excessive the rider is not “with" but “ahead” of his horse. The upper body is inclined forward from the hip joints. The back should not break to the rear at the loin. The eyes, chin, and chest are lifted in order that the back, while inclined to the front, may retain its normal posture and the field of vision be not reduced. To allow the back to break rearward at the loin and to permit the shoulders and head to drop forward places the weight on the fleshy part of the buttocks and tends toward loss of balance to the rear. This in turn concentrates the weight of the rider at the rear portion of the saddle and, if marching, will result in fatigue and often injury to the horse's back in the region of the loins. Suppleness, muscular control, and opening and closing of the angles at the hips, knees, and ankles supplement the inclination of the upper body and enable the skilled rider to remain in balance with his horse. In the case of unforeseen move- ments, such as shying or bolting, which tend to unbalance or unseat the rider, º is provided and balance retained or regained by an increased grip of the legs. When passing from the halt to one of the various gaits, or when changing gaits or rates, the degree of inclination required of the upper body is dependent upon the suddenness of the change. In increasing gaits, the inclination must be sufficient to prevent inertia from carrying the center of gravity of the upper body in rear of the base of support. The change in inclination is made just prior to the change in gait. g At the walk, the upper body is inclined forward slightly more than at the halt. As a result, despite the constant tendency to drift to the rear caused by the horse's forward movement, the rider remains in balance. Thus Seated, he neither slouches, concentrates his weight on the cantle, nor gets “behind his horse.” The upper body has the same erect, alert appearance as that of the Smart dismounted soldier at attention. At the slow trot or trot (not posting) with or without stirrups, the upper body remains practically erect without stiffness and has just sufficient forward inclina- tion to keep its center of gravity over its base of support. Its forward inclina- tion approximately is that assumed when at the walk. At the posting trot, the rider's center of gravity undergoes more varied displace- ments than during any other gait. The length of his base of support varies from the maximum when he is in the saddle to the minimum when he is at the top of his rise. At this latter phase, his base of support consists of his inner knees, legs, and stirrups. Sufficient forward inclination must be taken at all times to be in balance over the minimum base of support. The rider's body moves for- ward and slightly upward, then backward and downward in cadence with the beats of the gait. In rising to the trot, the angle at the hips should be opened as little as necessary and the buttocks should remain to the rear. The upper body should maintain its inclination without appreciable change. Excessively opening the angle at the hips during this movement causes the upper body to approach a vertical position and the buttocks to move too far to the front. These grave faults must be avoided. The upper body remains fixed in posture and there is no sinking to the rear at the loin. Lifting the head and chest and keeping the hips and buttocks well to the rear produce an easy and natural posture. The chin is raised so that the plane of the face remains vertical. The rider sinks into the saddle very lightly on the upper thighs and crotch, and the points of the buttocks barely touch the saddle at each beat. The knee and hip joints serve as springs to make the reactions soft for both horse and rider. A rider is said to be posting on the right diagonal when, after rising, he comes back into the saddle at the instant the right forefoot comes to the ground. At the ordinary gallop, when fully seated in the saddle, the upper body is in- clined slightly farther forward than at the walk or slow trot, but not as much as at the posting trot. The rider's thighs and crotch maintain continuous light contact with the saddle. At each beat of the gallop, that part of the rider’s weight coming onto his thighs forces the relaxed knees downward and they in turn transmit weight through the relaxed ankles into the heels. This automatically EQUITATION 197 forces them down and causes the legs to maintain their proper position. The back and loin are straight without stiffness. The buttocks are forced well to the rear. The reactions of the gallop are absorbed by the play of the hip joints and not by the relaxation of the loin. Leaning backward at the gallop, or allowing the loin to break rearward, concentrates weight on the cantle and places the rider “behind his horse.” He will then ride “heavily” instead of “lightly.” As the speed of the gallop is increased, the upper body is inclined farther for- ward from the hips. The points of the buttocks are lifted clear of the saddle until the crotch is just out of contact. This places all the weight on the lower thighs, knees, and especially the stirrups. “Pounding” the saddle is eliminated. The rider is more comfortable and the horse moves with more ease and freedom. Rounding the back and loin entails loss of muscular control of the upper body and results in loss of balance. If balance is lost to the rear, the rider gets “be- hind his horse” and sits heavily, close to the horse’s loins. Being “behind the horse” makes galloping laborious and painful to him and places the soldier in an unfavorable position for employing his weapons. When riding overbalanced to the front, the seat is insecure and the rider has difficulty in using his legs or hands to control his horse. In decreasing rates and gaits, in halting and in backing, the rider must not lean back. If necessary, the forward inclination of the body decreases just sufficiently to enable the rider to remain in balance. As the horse decreases his speed or halts abruptly, the rider stiffens his back muscles and keeps his buttocks to the rear. He pinches momentarily with his knees and obtains a brace against his stirrups as a result of his low heels. These combined actions prevent him from losing bal- ance to the front and permit him to remain off the cantle. To test the correct inclination of the upper body, the rider should be able to rise in his stirrups at any gait without altering the position of his upper body, pulling on the reins, or changing the position of his legs. 42. Summary. The rear limit of the military seat is at the points of the buttocks. The fleshy portion of the buttocks in rear of their points is never a part of the base of support. The combined inclination and posture of the upper body largely determine the manner in which a rider sits in the saddle. With the points of the buttocks resting lightly on the saddle and its center deep in the rider's crotch, the upper body is so inclined from the hips as to maintain balance and carry some of the weight of the trunk onto the thighs. This automatically forces them down into their proper position. The thighs and length of stirrups fix the position of the knees. When the stirrups of the flat saddle are shortened, the crotch must be pushed farther to the rear and the body inclined farther to the front so that the knees remain in their proper position on the saddle and underneath the mass of the rider’s body. The knees, snugly in contact with the saddle, are relaxed, flexed, and always as low as the particular length of stirrup will permit, provided the stirrup straps remain approximately vertical. The rider does not stand in his stirrups nor should he give that impression except when intentionally riding in that manner. His sense of balance, aided by the correct distribution of his weight and muscular control of his back and of his hip, knee, and ankle joints, gives him the sensation that at each grounding of the horse's feet in his stride, he is thrust deeper and more securely into the saddle. 43. The Aids. The horse is controlled by the effective use of the legs, the reins, the weight, and the voice. These means of controlling the horse are termed col- lectively the aids. A complete understanding of the aids requires inquiry into the physical apti- tudes and moral qualities of the rider, the study of the so-called natural aids, and a knowledge of the artificial aids. 44. Aptitudes. Whatever may be the value of the instructor or of his methods, the rider's weight and conformation. his fixity or insecurity of seat, his strength or the lack of it, his suppleness or stiffness, his energy or indolence, his intelligence, esprit, and patience—or, on the other hand, his apprehension, nervousness, or bru- tality—are factors which have great influence on results obtained in equitation. One should consider these things carefully in assigning riders to horses, especially to young horses. 45. Natural Aids. The natural aids are the legs, reins, and weight. The legs and 198: EQUITATION . reins serve to put the rider in agreement with his mount; they permit him to judge the character and temperament of the horse, and to transmit to him and impose upon him his will. The movements of the horse vary according to the positions taken by the different parts of his body and the amount of impulsion employed. In order to make the horse execute any movement whatever one must first give him a position which permits, facilitates, or determines that movement, and then produce, maintain, increase, or moderate the impulsion. Rapidity and brilliance of movement depend on the degree of impulsion. The aids are the means by which one gives the horse position and impulsion. 46. Action of the Legs. The legs should be steady—that is to say, in light elastic contact with the sides of the horse. They should be free from all involuntary motion and very definite in their movements. The opposite to steadiness of leg is the fault of swinging, which confuses the horse. The legs may act, resist, or yield. They act when their pressure increases to determine a movement; they resist when their pressure remains constant and is opposed to a displacement of the hindquarters; they yield when their pressure diminishes and allows that displacement. In the first two cases they are active, though in different degrees; in the last case they are passive. When the two legs act simultaneously, the effect should be, if at the halt, to move the horse forward, if in march, to increase the impulsion. Their action should be produced a little in rear of the girth, smoothly so that the horse will not be surprised, but energetically and by free attacks with the calves of the legs if he hesitates to move forward. When one leg alone, the right for example, acts in rear of the girth, it should have the result, while provoking the forward movement, of pushing the hindquar- ters to the left. The horse faces to the right if halted; turns to the right, while increasing the gait, if in march. This action should be produced by drawing the leg a little to the rear, not too much, and closing it in progressively so that the horse will not be surprised. If he hesitates to obey, the leg should act by little taps of the calf, and should cease to act as soon as he obeys or completes the movement required. The spur serves in proper cases, to reinforce the action of the leg, and to render the horse’s obedience more prompt. It is to the leg what the curb chain is to the hand. It must be used with discretion, and in proportion to the results desired and to the degree of sensibility of the horse. A distinction is made between the energetic attacks which must be employed to push the horse forward, or to punish him when necessary, and the light touch of the spur which is one of the niceties of the aids. 47. Action of the Reins. The reins, through the bits, act upon the horse’s mouth. For effects to be exact, they must remain adjusted and stretched during work; if they are flapping, the indications of the hand will probably not reach the horse, or if they do, they will arrive confused, or in the form of brutal and awkward jerks. Contact is that gentle liaison which should exist between the hand of the rider and the mouth of the horse. This soft, steady contact with the mouth is maintained by having the elbows partly bent, and the joints of the shoulders, elbows, wrists and fingers almost completely relaxed. They remain relaxed as long as the horse goes at the gait and rate, and in the direction desired. Hands softly relaxed in this manner, are said to be passive. Contact of unvarying intensity is principally main- tained by the flexibility and play of the elbow joints, which smoothly open and close in order to follow the oscillation of the horse's head and neck. The normal feel on the stretched rein increases in strength as the speed at any gait increases. At the extended trot and the fast gallop the feel on the mouth is quite frank. However, this feel is never an effect of pulling on the reins. It is a contact and a support that the horse learns to reach for when the legs demand an increase of impulsion. A horse that seeks such a contact is often said to “take a nice feel on the bit.” The hands, may act, resist, or follow. The reins being adjusted, the hands act when they increase the tension on the reins. They resist when they are fixed in place, and for this reason a resisting hand is often referred to as a fixed hand. They follow when they follow the movements of the head and neck. It is very important to know when they should properly act, resist, or follow. EQUITATION 199 The actions of the hand should be progressive. The resisting or fixed hand has a very powerful effect without irritating the horse. Its effect is produced by reason of its duration; it should yield when the horse yields. The active and resisting hands affect the equilibrium or impulsion of the horse; the following hand, while preserving the contact, opposes neither the impulsion nor the displacement of weight. sº The diversity and multiplicity of sensations and resistances, transmitted by the reins from the horse’s mouth to the rider's hand, demonstrate how great may be the variety of actions of the hand. Right leading rein. Right direct rein. Right bearing reln. Plate 13. The Use of the Reins as Aids. When the rider can keep a softly stretched rein of unvarying intensity, with hands that are gentle and elastic, he may be said to have good hands. When the hand becomes active for any purpose, it is first moved just the distance necessary to a position where it can best act to produce the result desired on the horse's movement. Then, assuming that the reins are properly stretched and adjusted in length, the half relaxed fingers close and tighten on them. Finally, the hand is fixed in place. At this time the legs increase their drive forcing the horse to accept additional contact of the mouth with the bit. This increased resistance of the hand continues until the horse obeys the hand, whereupon the fingers instantly relax and return to the normal feel as a reward for his obedience. Of entimes they may close again almost instantly if the horse has not completed the movement desired or in case the opposition has not been entirely overcome. Fixing the hand often requires a simultaneous fixing, or immobilizing, of the elbows and shoulder joints. 200 EQUITATION The intensity of the hand's resistance must be just equal to that offered by the horse; never more. Among these numerous rein actions, it is necessary to determine those whose simple and definite effects are sufficient to obtain all of the movements which are useful in military equitation. The reins regulate impulsion. The two reins, acting together should have the effect of slowing, stopping or of backing the horse. They are called direct reins. This action should be produced by fixing the hands and closing the fingers on the adjusted reins; the elbows and hands should move as little as possible to the rear. The hands control, also, the position of the forehand. The reins act through the mouth on the head, neck, and shoulders; they permit the displacement of the head with respect to the neck; the neck with respect to the shoulders; the shoulders with respect to the haunches. They may even act in- directly on the haunches by giving the shoulders such a position that the haunches are obliged to change direction; which is called “opposing the shoulders to the haunches.” - These different effects depend on the direction of tension on the rein, according to whether the hand is carried more or less forward or to the rear, to the right or left, high or low. - One may group the several actions of the hand into five principal series, but it is a purely theoretical division which facilitates instruction in the study of the aids; between the extreme actions, forward and to the right, rear and right, rear and left, and forward and left, there are an infinite number of directions or tractions, from which the rider will be enabled to obtain the proper effect as he gains in knowledge, experience, and tact. In carrying the right hand to the right, the rider displaces the horse's head towards the right; the right rein is then the opening rein. The rider should avoid pulling on the rein from front to rear, or opening the elbow away from body. If the rider accentuates the movement of the right hand toward the right, the neck follows the head, the shoulders follow the neck, and the horse faces to the right while advancing. In giving the right opening rein a tension from front to rear, the rider draws the shoulders of his horse to the rear and right and forces him to throw his haunches to the left. The right rein then takes the name direct rein of opposition. This action should be produced by lowering the hand, the fingers being closed on the adjusted rein. In carrying the right hand forward and to the left so that the rein bears against the neck, the rider draws the horse's muzzle to the right, forces the neck at the shoulders to the left, and weights the left shoulder by loading it with the greater part of the weight of the neck. The right rein is then called the bearing rein. If the rider accentuates the movement of the right hand toward the left, the increase of weight which results should break the equilibrium and turn the horse toward the left. This turn is made while advancing. In giving to the bearing rein (right) a tension from front to rear, two effects may be produced according to the direction in which the rein acts, in front of or in rear of the withers. If produced in front of the withers—that is, toward the left shoulder—the shoul- ders are drawn to the rear and left, the horse, if he was standing still, faces to the left in backing; if in march, he turns to the left while slowing up. If the action of the rein passes in rear of the withers—that is, in the direction of the left haunch—the rein acts on the whole mass of the horse and pushes both forehand and haunches to the left. If the horse is in march, this diagonal action of the right rein, while bending him to the right, pushes him obliquely forward and to the left, provided that the impulsion is sufficiently great to overcome the rearward effect of the rein. The resultant forward movement will be in direct proportion to the impulsion. These two actions of the bearing rein, each tending to oppose the shoulders to the haunches, are called indirect reins of opposition. 48. Feeling the Horse’s Mouth, Adjustment of the Reins. The rider should have the reins sufficiently stretched to maintain contact with his horse's mouth at all time. This is an absolute rule, exception to which is made only when the reins are EQUITATION 201 z completely abandoned. It is only through the tension, no matter how slight, of the reins that the rider may feel the horse's mouth, which is the best medium for indi- cating his impressions. Also the rider is able to act innmediately and smoothly on the mouth only by means of the uninterrupted contact between his fingers and the horse's mouth. Moreover this contact keeps the horse dependent on his rider by causing him to feel the means of the rider's domination, which his training has taught him to respect. Finally, if the hand does not at all times regulate the gait, but allows it to be moderated at will by the horse, his impulsion is lost. Only when the horse's jaw yields, as will be dealt with under flexions, is contact lost with his mouth. This, however, is a momentary loss of contact only. The necessity of maintaining contact with the mouth does not necessarily mean that the horse should be always ridden with a strong tension on the reins. The reins should not become floating, however, no matter how low the neck and head Stretch out. Exception to this rule of contact, as stated, is made only when the horse yields his jaw, or at rest, or at the walk at which gait the horse can be extended to his maximum speed. The reins should be adjusted in order to obtain contact with the horse’s mouth. By this is meant a length of rein, which varies according to the kind of work undertaken, but which permits of a soft feel of the horse's mouth. 49. To Gather the Horse. Having contact with the horse’s mouth through the stretched rein and a light feel of the lower legs against his sides, increase the pres- sure of the lower legs and slightly increase the pressure of the bit by closing the fingers on the reins until the rider has attracted the horse's attention. Gathering the horse serves as a preparatory signal to attract his attention and to prepare him to respond promptly to the subsequent demand on him through the aids. 50. Movements. a. To move forward. 1. Forward, 2. MARCH. Being at the halt, at the command Forward, gather the horse. At the command March, incline the weight of the body forward, increase the pressure of the lower legs and relax the fingers of the hand without losing contact with the horse's mouth. If the horse fails to respond, use the legs with repeated applications until the horse moves forward. b. The slow trot. 1. Slow trot, 2. MARCH. Being at the walk, at the command Slow trot, gather the horse. At the command March, increase the pressure of the lower legs, and at the same time relax the fingers of the hand without losing con- tact with the horse's mouth. If the horse fails to respond, use the legs with repeated applications until the horse takes the slow trot. The rider then maintains the 6 m. p. h., rate by using his legs to preserve the forward movement and, by means of the direct reins, to control and regulate this movement. The rider sits in the saddle, the upper body erect, all muscles and joints relaxed, the hands low and light. c. The trot (posting). 1. Trot, 2. MARCH. At the command March, the rider increases the gait by the same methods as for the slow trot, except that the rate is increased to 9 m. p. h. The rider's body moves upward and forward, then down- ward and backward in Cadence with the beats of the gait. Sufficient forward in- clination of the upper body is taken for the rider to be in balance. The upper body maintains its posture unchanged without sinking rearward at the loins, as the rider comes into the saddle at each alternate beat of the trot. The chin is raised so that the plane of the face remains vertical. The rider sinks into the saddle very lightly on the upper thighs and crotch, the points of the buttocks barely touch- ing the saddle at each beat. d. The gallop. 1. Gallop, 2. MARCH. Being at the slow trot or trot, at the com- mand Gallop (right), apply the aids for the gallop. The rider increases the pressure of both legs, placing the left leg in rear of the girth and the right leg on the girth. At the same time he increases the tension of the right rein to the left and to the rear, and the tension of the left rein lightly to the rear. This frees the right shoulder and restrains the left. At the command March, increase the action of both legs and lessen the pressure on the reins sufficiently to allow the horse to move forward at the gallop. At the gallop the rider's upper body is inclined forward slightly more than at the walk or slow trot. e. The back. The horse being in hand, a backward movement, like the halt, is started by closing the fingers of a fixed hand on the adjusted reins, accompanied by a slight shifting of the weight to the rear. This should not be a steady or 202 EQUITATION continuous action, but is accomplished with quickly repeated applications until the horse takes one or two steps to the rear. After the horse commences his first step to the rear the fingers relax and again close as the next step is demanded. If the horse backs too fast, or lowers the croup too much, the legs should act to counteract this tendency. To halt, the action of the direct reins should cease. The weight should be carried forward and the legs used sufficiently to stop the backward movement. In training, the back should always be followed by moving two or three steps forward. This movement, like the turn on the forehand, may cause the horse to “get behind the bit” and besides, may produce serious injuries to the tendons and hocks of a young or under developed horse. Therefore, with this type horse its use should be limited to that required to obtain the ready obedience of the horse in this move- ment. Backing is an excellent exercise in obtaining vertical suppleness in the horse, and the easy engagement of the hindquarters. Questions What are the aids? What is the purpose of the spur? What is the opening rein? What is the direct rein of opposition? What is the bearing rein? i CHAPTER IV FIRST PERIOD (Concluded)—MOUNTED EXERCISE AT COMMAND 51. The instruction in mounted exercises at the command of the instructor may be conducted in a riding hall or in any other area, inclosed or uninclosed, of similar size and shape. Each new movement is explained and demonstrated to the trooper, then executed by him. The instructor passes frequently from one trooper to another, giving individual instruction as needed. In all exercises the instructor varies the gait so as not to weary the riders or horses. The instruction is conducted without hurry. The daily work begins and ends at the walk. 52. To Move Forward. 1. Forward, 2. MARCH. Being at the halt, at the com- mand Forward, gather the horse. At the command March, incline the weight of the body forward, slightly relax the fingers of the left hand, and use the legs with quickly repeated applications until the horse moves forward. 53. To Halt, 1. Squad, 2. HALT. Being at the walk, at the command Squad, gather the horse. At the command HALT use the reins of opposition and the weight in combination and with repeated applications until the horse halts. In using the weight the rider should keep the buttocks in the saddle, the legs in their proper place and snugly against the horse, and should carry the upper part of the body backward repeatedly. The head should be well up, the chest exnanded, the shoulders free and well back. The weight is not used effectively if the rider stands in the stirrups and lifts his seat out of the saddle, if he pivots on the crotch, if he carries his feet and legs to the front, or if he sinks the chest and advances the head and shoulders. The rider should, accordingly, have careful instruction and much practice in the exact use of the reins and weight in halting his horse. 54. To March to the Right (or Left) Hand. The rider is said to march to the right hand if being on the track, the center of the riding hall is on his right; to the left hand if the center of the riding hall is on his left. 55. To Take the Track to the Right (or Left) Pand without Regard to Distance Between Riders. The instructor commands: TAKE THE TRACK TO THE RIGHT HAND WITHOUT REGARD TO DISTANCE. Each rider directs his horse toward the track, and upon arriving there enters the track to the right hand. The riders are distributed over the whole length of the track. Each rider should keep his horse at the gait ordered and must preserve a safe distance in rear of the next horse. There should be much work on the track without regard to distance between EQUITATION 203 riders. They are then absolutely independent of each other, the only obligation being to maintain the proper gait and rate and to march to the hand directed when on the track. To avoid crowding the individual riders should turn out at will, move across the hall, and take the track at a convenient interval on the Opposite side. When riding on the track without regard to distance commands are not necessarily complied with at once; each rider, however, conforms to them as quickly as possible, considering his place on the track and the position and readiness of his horse for properly executing the movement. Each rider should choose his ground so as to avoid interfering with his neighbor. Under such conditions thoughtful deliberation in using his aids and exactness of execution of the movement by individuals are the results desired by the instructor, and not merely that all riders shall begin or end a movement at the same moment. Simultaneous execution of movements is a form of collective drill which should not be carried on except for occasional short periods for the purpose of checking results. .- - - - - - - - - - - - - -- ** * ,-----------EX- - * * • * * * * = - - - = * * * * * * * * : /7 ſ A.t t,”/ * | ; :º,*- el tt // RADIUS * Walk 29ds: [] Trot 4yds; º Trot 4 yds. Aſ-> Gallop 6yds: “ºn Gallop 6yds º | | W *, ...! w /7 ; f •" -- ~ TD- * & 4. /7 -]º : : . • • * * * i * A. AN | | t S | ; | * \ * "- ~-L D. - ºne .." `-- .." ^ ... " S-a--- * -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ** ... • - - - - - - - - - - - -* --------------- '6) Plate 14. To Take the Plate 15. To Change Plate 16. By the Plate 17. The About. Track to the “Right Hands. Right Flank. Hand”. With Fixed Distances. 56. To Take the Track with Fixed Distances. The instructor commands: 1. At the walk (trot or gallop) take the track to the right hand with 4 feet (or so many yards) distance. 2. GUIDE ON (SUCH TROOPER). The designated rider takes the track, if not already there, at the gait ordered. The other riders move by the shortest line at the gait ordered, or increased gait if necessary, and place themselves, one behind another, with the indicated dis- tance from head to croup. All then ride at the gait and at the distance ordered. In the riding hall the distance from head to croup, when riding with fixed distances, is habitually 4 feet. Out of doors, however, greater distances should frequently be used, such as 10 yards between riders. Such out-of-doors exercises are very useful for training men to control the speed of their horses and to maintain fixed distances from riders or groups of men preceding. 57. To Ride In. Being in any formation in the riding hall or out of doors, the instructor may command: RIDE IN. The riders, moving at the gait at which they were riding, or at the designated gait, and by the shortest line, group them- selves about the instructor. Such oral instruction, explanation, or orders as may be appropriate are then given. - To resume the ride, the instructor gives the command or direction for the exercise desired. The riders move at the designated gait and by the shortest line to their places. . . . - . . . . . - - - - - - - - 204 EQUITATION 58. Changes of Gait. Being at the halt, to gather the horse and to move forward have been described. Being at the walk, to pass to the trot, or, being at the trot, to pass to the gallop, the rider uses the same means as for passing from the halt to the walk. Being at the gallop to pass to the trot or being at the trot to pass to the walk, the rider uses the same means as for passing from the walk to the halt. Changes of gait are habitually made progressively, the walk being taken from the halt, the trot from the walk, the gallop from the trot, and vice versa. For instructional purposes and when necessary in service an increase or decrease of gait may be made more abruptly. A change of gait of one degree is an expression which means a change from the halt to the walk, from the walk to the trot, from the trot to the gallop, or vice versa. 59. To Rise to the Trot (Posting). The horse being at the trot, the rider, to rise to the trot, inclines the upper part of his body forward, supports himself by pressing the knees against the saddle, and then permits himself to be impelled up- ward by the thrust of the horse's hind leg (the left, for example). He remains up during the stride of the right hind leg, and sits down just in time to be impelled upward again by the next thrust of the left hind leg. He continues in this way, avoiding the alternate strides of the trot. In order to catch the rhythm of the movement, the rider's attention should be directed toward the sensation of propulsion produced by the thrust of the hind leg rather than toward the merely supporting effect of the fore leg. It is , upon the hind legs of the horse. So to speak, that the rider rises rather than upon the fore legs. When learning to rise to the trot the beginner will make more rapid progress if he strokes his horse's neck at each effort to rise. Stroking the horse's neck assists the rider to catch the rhythm of the motion; it also causes him to incline his body forward at the proper angle. In rising to the trot the seat should be raised moderately; contact with the saddle should be resumed gently and without shock; the knees should be pressed snugly against the saddle; the lower legs should be kept still, the ankle joint supple, and the heel slightly lower than the toe. The rider's head should be up and his eyes glancing well out to the front; he must not lower the head and look down toward the horse’s front feet. 60. To Change Hands. At the command CHANGE HANDS each rider after hav- ing passed the corner of the riding hall and marched a horse length on the long side, directs himself toward the diagonally opposite corner so as to take the track to the opposite hand at about two horse lengths from the corner. Those going in an opposite direction are passed by keeping to the inside of the track. 61. By the Right (or Left) Flank. 1. By the right flank, 2. MARCH. Being at the halt, at the command By the right flank, gather the horse. At the com- mand MARCH, move the horse forward and at the same time use the leading rein (or the bearing rein) and the weight in such a manner as to turn the horse to the right. The turn is made on an arc of 90°. The radius of the arc when the horse is at the walk should be 2 yards; when at the trot, 4 yards; when at the gallop, 6 yards. During the movement the body of the horse should follow the arc on which he is turning. If, however, the horse prefers to carry his haunches somewhat to the inside of the curve, especially when at the faster gaits, the rider should not oppose it. But if, on the contrary, the horse carries his haunches to the outside of the curve his balance is adversely affected and the rider should oppose such action by using the left leg more strongly and slightly further back than the right leg. In the first lesson in turning by the flank the rider uses the leading rein. Later he is taught to use the leading rein, assisted by the bearing rein; later the bearing rein alone, first with the reins in both hands, then in one hand. By the left flank is executed by similar commands and means. 62. Right (or Left) Oblique. This movement is executed in the same manner as By the right or left flank, except that each rider turns his horse through an arc, of only 45°. - The command is: 1. Right (or left) oblique, 2. MARCH. To resume the original direction: 1. Forward, 2. MARCH. 63. The About. At the command 1. Right (or left) about, 2. MARCH, each rider EQUITATION 205 turns his horse until he finds himself facing in the opposite direction and then moves to his new front. The turn should be made on the arc of a circle whose radius is 2 yards at the walk, 4 yards at the trot, and 6 yards at the gallop. 64. Cross-Country Riding. The time not used in the ruding hall or in riding on the road is utilized in riding cross country. For this instruction the following details govern. 65. Terrain. The unevenness of the ground selected should not be great. All fences, ditches, logs, and artificial obstacles are avoided. 66. Gaits. The gait should be principally at the walk, varied by short trots on Selected ground, leading, and short halts for the purpose of readjusting saddle equipment. The Speed of the regulation gaits should be carefully maintained by the 1nstructor. It is highly important that the Walk be not so fast as to cause restlessness and jigging and that the trot be, at the rate of of not more than 9 miles an hour. The attention of the students should be directed to these gaits and the importance of maintaining them strongly impressed upon their munds. Abrupt changes in gaits are carefully avoided. 67. Formations. Siarting out habitually in column of twos, the instructor should Soon Scatter the riders out in flock So as to cause each to ride as an individual. If more than one squad is present, each may be formed in a flock guiding on its own leader, the leader of the base Squad guiding on the instructor. The Squads may thus be formed in line with 50 to 100 yards intervals between squads, or in column of squads with extended distances between squads. Within the squads the formation may be in column of troopers, column of twos, column of fours, line, or line of troopers. 68. To Fall Out. The men being dismounted, in line, at the command 1. By the right (left), 2. FALL OUT, the man on the right leads his horse directly to the stable or picket line. The other men, in successive order from the right, follow at 4 feet distance until near their places on the picket line or in the stable, when they leave the column and move directly to their respective places. Hav- ing secured their horses, the men unsaddle and unbridle, groom their horses, clean their equipment, and place the latter as prescribed. To hasten the movement the instructor may command 1. By the right and left, 2. FALL OUT. The men on the right and left of the line lead their horses directly to their places on the picket line or in the stable, followed in succession by the men on their right and left, successively. If the men are in line facing their respective places on the picket line, the command FALL OUT may be given. Each man then moves directly forward to his place on the picket line. If the men are dismounted, in column of troopers, or in any other similar for- mation, at the command FALL OUT the men tie their horses on the picket line or in the stable as directed and in an orderly manner. 69. To Stand to Heel. The horses being tied on the picket line or in their re- spective stalls in the stable, at the command STAND TO HEEL each man stands at attention 1 yard in rear of and facing his horse. The horses are then inspected by the instructor. 70. To Dismiss. The instruction period being concluded, the men are ordered to FALL IN. They are then marched to the organization parade in front of their quarters and are there dismissed. Questions 1. What is meant by a change of gait of one degree? 2. How is the command, Change Hands, executed? 3. How is the command, Stand to Heel, executed? CHAPTER V SECOND PERIOD OF INSTRUCTION.—USE OF THE REINS 71. Program of Instruction (continued). The horses are now equipped with the double bridle and the students habitually wear spurs. The bit and bridoon is substituted for the double bridle as soon as proficiency is attained with double I'ellſ).S. Students are given some instruction in riding without stirrups. Not to exceed 15 minutes of each lesson should be used for riding in this manner. The length of trot periods without stirrups should not exceed five minutes. The amount of instruction in jumping given during the second period should be strictly limited so as not to interfere materially with the instruction of the stu- dent in other work prescribed. The object of the instruction in jumping given dur- ing this part of the course is to enable the beginner when riding across country to negotiate obstacles such as Small ditches and logs. The exercises in equitation already given are repeated. In addition the follow- ing exercises should be utilized. 72. Adjustment of Bit and Bridoon. The instruction previously given the student in the fitting and adjustment of the bit and bridoon is carefully reviewed. Plate 18. To Hold the Double Reins in Left Hand. . 73. To Hold the Double Reins in Left Hand. The rider hangs the bights of the reins on the thumb of his right hand in Such manner that the bight of the snaffle reins rest upon the bight of the curb reins. He then carries his left hand in front of his body, back of the hand to the front, and inserts the little finger between the left snaffle and left curb reins (the snaffle passing underneath little finger), the third (ring), finger between the left curb and right curb reins, and the second finger between the right curb and the right snaffle reins. He closes his hand lightly and in such manner that the reins come out of his hand between the thumb and forefinger. He slides the left hand to its proper position and, with the assistance of the right hand, adjusts the reins evenly and to proper length. With his left thumb he presses the reins forward and down upon the second joint of the forefinger and drops the bights of the reins to the right over the horse's shoulder. He drops his right arm to his side. The position of the bridle hand is now the same as that described for the single rein. 74. To Hold the Double Reins in Right Hand. The rider inserts the fingers of his right hand between the reins so that the reins are in inverse order to that pre- scribed for the left hand; the right snaffle rein now passes underneath the right little finger. The position of the hand is the same as that described for the single I’e]11. 75. To Hold the Double Reins in Both Hands. The reins being held in one hand, the rider carries the other hand, back of the hand up, just in front of the bridle hand and so that the little finger is above the reins. He inserts the little finger be- tween the snaffle and curb rein he wishes to grasp so that the snaffle rein will pass 200 EQUITATION 207 underneath. He adjusts all reins evenly and to proper length, then separates his hands until they are well apart and in the position described for holding the single reins in both hands. 76. . Practice in Adjusting and Handling the Double Reins. The recruits are given much practice in changing the double reins from one hand to the other, taking them in both hands, taking a single rein in one hand while three are held in the other hand. When riding with all the reins in, for example, the left hand, the rider sometimes needs to assist with the right hand. To do this he reaches for- Ward with the right hand and seizes the right snaffle or right curb rein and holds it in the usual manner. The left hand allows this rein to be drawn forward 3 or 4 inches but does not release it. When released by the right hand this rein is adjusted as before. ſ (J : | É An §§ § º§ : & } º-_== º - I * Ǻr) D Plate 19. To Hold the Double Reins in Both Hands. 77. Manner of Holding the Reins During Rests and at Route Order. During rests and while riding at Route order the recruits are required to frequently change the manner of holding the reins. The instructor explains to the men that the purpose of these changes is to rest their own arm and shoulder muscles and to give an equally restful change to the muscles of the horse's head and neck. 78. The Effect of the Curb Bit. The effect of the curb bit is much more severe than that of the snaffle, because its action occurs almost entirely on the bars of the horse's mouth; the horse's lips and tongue ameliorate its pressure but little. This pressure acts downward and tends to lower the horse's head and neck. If the pressure of the curb bit is maintained for a long time, it becomes painful to the horse; also the bars of the mouth become numb, the curb chain stops circula- tion, and the horse's mouth becomes deadened to any action of the bit. This bit should not, therefore, be used continuously for long periods. Generally, best re- sults are achieved when the curb and snaffle bits are used in conjunction. 79. The Use and Effect of the Bit and Bridoon. The instructor explains and illustrates to the men the following three methods of using the bits of the double bridle. Use of curb and snaffle. The horse may be ridden with a light and equal pres- sure of both the curb and snaffle bits. This is the method used at drill, on the march, and in cross-country riding or jumping. It is the method most commonly used. If the rider lightly alternates the tension of the curb and snaffle, the sensa- tion thus produced on the bars of the mouth is very effective. When so used the bit and bridoon bring about the gradual relaxation of the muscles of the jaw and the poll and, as a result, the horse becomes light and obedient. The rider may also, on occasion, take three reins in the left hand and the right snaffle in the right hand. With the reins held in this manner the rider, by gentle vibra- tions of the right snaffle rein, causes the horse to relax the muscles of his jaw and poll, or by an upward effect of the right snaffle rein causes the horse to raise his head when carrying it too low, or by using the right snaffle rein as a bearing rein or leading rein renders sudden and powerful assistance to the left hand when riding with the reins in one hand. The last instance named finds valuable ap- 208 EQUITATION plication when in the charge or the melee the trooper rides with the reins in the left hand and the saber or pistol in the right hand. The soldier can then reach forward with the right and grasp the snaffle rein for momentary use in main- taining or regaining control of his horse. Use of Snaffle alone. An exceptional method is to ride the horse on the snaffle alone, the curb reins being slack. This is the method used with horses that arch the neck unduly, that are behind the bit, that are nervous and restless and will not walk, or that have tender mouths. Use of curb alone. The third method is to ride the horse on the curb bit alone, the Snaffle reins remaining slack. This method may be used by the soldier in the mounted charge and on occasions of excitement and stress for the effective con- trol of the horse. 80. The Use of the Spur. The spur should not be used at all if the same result can be obtained by the use of the calf of the leg. For the majority of riders and horses the blunt spur is to be preferred to the one with rowel. The latter is often a severe instrument, which should only be worn by experienced riders. The spur should be used just in rear of the girth and with a series of successive touches rather than a constant pressure. These should cease as soon as the horse obeys. The shank of the spur is of such length that the horse can be touched by the rider simply rotating the ankle without depressing the toe or raising the heel. The spur is properly adjusted when the straps hold it snugly in place and parallel to the sole of the foot at the height of the top of the boot or shoe counter. 81. To Ride Without Stirrups. Riding without stirrups when properly conducted is of great value in training a beginner to ride. It develops his balance, confirms and strengthens his seat in the saddle, and increases the strength and pliancy of his muscles. When riding without stirrups the gaits should be the walk, the slow trot, or the gallop. If the trot is faster than 6 miles an hour, it will, by its roughness, cause excessive weariness, soreness, and abrasions, thereby defeating the object In Vlew. The students should now be able to ride without stirrups for about 15 minutes of each instruction period. To avoid undue fatigue to the riders the instructor frequently changes the gait and exercise. It is best not to cross stirrups. The upturned stirrup straps usually injure the muscles of the thigh. Stirrup straps should be unbuckled and the stirrups and straps entirely removed from the saddle. In riding without stirrups the rider seeks, by sitting his horse correctly, by relaxing all unnecessary tension of muscles throughout the body, and by follow- ing pliantly the rhythm of the horse's motion, to relieve his body from constraint and shock. To do this the rider keeps his thighs in their correct position and does not extend them downward so as to ride on his crotch: he keeps his lower legs snugly in place behind the girth, without stiffening the knee or ankle joints; he sits deep in the middle of the saddle, with his buttocks well underneath his body; and he inclines the upper part of his body slightly backward in order to insure relaxation and pliancy in the region of the loins. The abdominal muscles should not be loose and flabby; they should be “tucked up” so as to draw in the waist at the abdomen and thus assist in retaining the outward curve of the spine. The muscles of the arms and shoulders should be without constraint but should not become so loose as to detract from an appearance of form in the up- per body. The upper body should be held easily and gracefully erect. the shoulders square, the chest well out, the neck well postured, the head up, and the eyes glanc- ing well to the front. 82. To Pass From the Front to the Rear of the Column. Being on the track in column of troopers, at the walk, the instructor commands: 1. First trooper from front to rear, 2. MARCH, 3. NEXT. At the first command the leading rider gathers his horse. At the command, MARCH, he leaves the column by the right or left about, according to whether he is marching to the right or left hand, moves parallel to the column, and enters it again at the rear by another about. The riders in succession execute the same movement at the command NEXT, which is repeated by the instructor until all the troopers have passed from front to rear. The instructor may vary this exercise; for example, he may cause the first rider, at the command, MARCH, to move straight forward at the increased gait EQUITATION 209 and, passing entirely around the circuit of the track, rejoin the column at the Teal'. 83. Increasing and Decreasing the Pace. Exercises in increasing and decreasing the pace are valuable for the following reasons: They afford excellent practice in the use of the aids. They teach the rider how to control the speed of his horse so that he can keep his horse in proper position with the other riders. They improve the balance and discipline of the horse, thus increasing the com- fort of the rider. g In executing the following exercises the instructor emphasizes the importance of a secure seat, steadiness of legs, a sense of balance or accord between rider and horse, and tactful use of the aids. The riders will experience their greatest diffi- culty in attempting to slow up horses which seek continually to increase the pace. In such cases the timely employment of vibrations of the right snaffle rein or of divisions of support will forestall many resistances of the horse. Being at the walk, to cause the horse to walk faster, the rider increases the pressure of his legs and inclines his weight slightly forward. As the horse ex- tends his neck and head the rider, without allowing the reins to become slack, increases the length of the reins. The hands are kept low and steady. Being at a fast walk, to cause the horse to walk slower, the rider increases the tension in the reins and inclines the weight slightly to the rear. The hands are kept low and steady. Care must be taken not to draw in the horse's head and neck too much, as such action usually causes the horse to fret, jig, and prance. With nervous horses the increased tension on the reins must be applied very gently and no stronger than is absolutely necessary. Being at the regulation trot, to cause the horse to trot faster, the rider applies the same aids as described above to cause the horse to walk faster. Being at the trot, to cause the horse to trot slower, the rider applies the same aids as described above to cause the horse to walk slower. In executing this move— ment, if for any reason the rider desires more collection in his horse, this collec- tion is secured by increasing the pressure of the legs. Being at the regulation gallop, to cause the horse to gallop faster, the rider * the same aids as described to cause the horse to walk faster or to trot aster. Being at the gallop, to cause the horse to gallop slower, the rider uses the same aids as described to cause the horse to walk slower or to trot slower. If the horse is galloping at or near full speed and it is desired to bring him down to the regulation gallop quickly, this can generally be accomplished most easily by Sud- denly depriving the horse of the steady support of the reins and using the reins and the weight thereafter intermittently and in combination. 84. To Move Backward. The command is: 1. Backward, 2. MARCH, 3. HALT. At the command Backward the rider gathers his horse. At the command MARCH the rider uses the direct reins and the weight in combination until the horse takes one or two steps backward, after which the rider ceases to use his weight and continues to use the direct reins to cause the horse to continue to back. If the horse backs too fast or lowers his croup too much the rider’s weight is car- ried slightly forward to counteract this tendency. At the command HALT the ac- tion of the direct reins ceases, the weight is carried forward. and the legs are used sufficiently to stop the backward movment. In training. the halt should al- ways be immediately followed by two or three steps forward. Backing, like the turn on the forehand, may cause the horse to “get behind the bit:” it may also cause serious injuries to the hocks. Therefore, its use should be limited to strict necessity: that is, for the satisfactory instruction of the soldier and the horse. Thereafter the horse is backed only when necessary. 85. To Ride at Will. The instructor commands: 1. At the walk (trot or gallop). 2. RIDE AT WILL. The riders scatter out in the interior of the riding hall, or over a designated area if out of doors, ride at the gait ordered, and execute on their own initiative such movements and exercises as the instructor specifies. When riders meet each keeps to the right. Horses and men alike seek companionship: they prefer to move in a body and do not like to act alone. Although both require collective training, they need far more to be taught to go ahead as individuals. Riding without regard to dis- 210 EQUITATION tances should be the rule both indoors and outdoors during instruction in equita- tion, and riding with fiaced distances should be the eacception Questions . What is the effect of the curb bit? When is the snaffle but used by itself? When is the curb used alone? What is the purpose of riding without stirrups? : CHAPTER VI SECOND PERIOD (Concluded)—SUPPLING EXERCISES AND JUMPING 86. The mounted suppling exercises, like all physical-culture exercises, depend for their good results upon the regularity and thoroughness with which they are practiced daily. Thus, long hours or intensity of application on one day do not compensate for the lack of practice on previous days. Furthermore, to produce the best results these exercises must be performed correctly, for, if performed incorrectly, they may serve only to confirm existing faults. Hence it is highly important that the instructor and the beginner alike have well in mind the object in view in each instance. Accordingly, in taking up a new exercise, the instructor gathers the class about him and briefly explains and 111ustrates the exercise. He then causes the students, at the halt, to practice accurately the exercise just explained. When understood by the riders and systematically applied by the instructor the suppling exercises produce quick results. They may be executed either with or without stirrups. The gaits employed during the suppling exercises should be the walk, the slow trot, and the gallop. The gallop should be employed very early in the instruction and used chiefly thereafter, because it is the most favorable gait for suppling the rider's loins. The gallop can be maintained for long periods without undue fatigue. The slow trot, on the contrary, is not only trying to inexperienced riders, but if prolonged, may cause such abrasions of the skin and Soreness of the muscles as to retard rather than promote progress. There should, nevertheless, be much work at the slow trot, but for short periods only. The instructor causes the riders to take the track without regard to distance; if they march to the right hand they hold the reins in the left hand; if to the left hand they hold the reins in the right hand. Thereafter they take the reins in one or both hands, drop and retake them as necessary, without command. Occasionally, as a temporary measure, the instructor may cause the riders to knot the reins and release them entirely. Habitually, however, the reins should be held while doing the suppling exercises; the rider is then cultivating a good hand in conjunction with a good seat. Moreover, the instructor is then able to point out instances illustrating the effect produced upon the bridle hand by the stiffness and bobbing of the body due to a poor seat. While practicing an exercise the beginner should pay great attention to the position and steadiness of the bridle hand and the 'suppleness of the wrist, elbow, and shoulders. He should endeavor to coordinate and to separate his movements: thus, while moving or using one part of the body, he should neither unconsciously nor nervously contract the muscles in an unrelated part of the body nor move the bridle hand. The students being suitably disposed on the track at the gait ordered, the instructor places himself near to and facing the track and gives the command for the desired suppling exercises. At the instructor's command, AS YOU WERE, each rider discontinues the exercise. The exercises are not performed in unison. The instructor in his observations and criticisms confines his attention chiefly to the riders passing in front of him. Those riders who are beyond the view of the instructor are then enabled. with less self-consciousness, to recover their eouilibrium and to adopt corrective measures. The instructor should give his commands, observations, and criticisms in such a manner as to be easilv heard and understood, but he should avoid shouting or scolding. When prolonged or special explanations are necessary the rider in question should be required to fall out of the column and report to the instructor. EQUITATION 211 If several riders are involved, the instructor should assemble the whole column In order that all may profit from his instructions. The suppling exercises have for their object the attainment of strength, pliancy, and easy control in the parts of une bouy most allected in riding. These are the neck, Shoulders, louns, hip Joints, knees, and ankles. 87. To Supple the Neck. The object of neck exercises is to combat ruglduty of position due to the conuraction of illuscles in une region of the neck. The instructor commands: ROTAL E THE IN ECrs. Each rider slowly turns the head and eyes as far as possible—first, to the right; unen, without pause, to the left. The exercise thus continues unul the instructor commands: AS YOU WERE, whereupon each ruder ceases the exercise and resumes the initial posi- tion. The instructor commands: FLEX THE NECK. Each rider slowly carries the head as far as possible upward and backwards and then, without pause, as far as possible, forward and downward. The exercise is thus continued until the instructor commands: AS YOU WERE. 88. To Supple the Shoulders. The object of the shoulder exercises is to combat rigidity of position due to contraction of the muscles in the region of the shoulders and to cultivale coordination of muscular efidiºt. The instructor commands: ROTATE THE RIGHT (LEFT) ARM VERTI- CALLY. Each rider extends the arm straight upward, wrist and hand relaxed; without pause, he then carries the arm to the rear, downward, forward, and up- ward in such a manner as to describe, with uniform movement, a vertical circle. The exercise is thus continued until the instructor commands: AS YOU WERE, whereupon each rider ceases the exercises and resumes the initial position. 89. To Supple the Loins. The object of the following exercises is to give the rider practice in rotating and flexing the body in the region of the loins. The move- ments should be execuled in such a manner as gradually to bring about the desired result—suppleness. The instructor commands: SWING THE RIGHT (LEFT) ARM FROM FRONT TO REAR, HORIZONTALLY. Each rider extends the arm Straught to the front, fingers extended, palms upward. He then, without pause and by rotating the body in the region of the loins, Swings the shoulders and arm to the right, the arm moving in a horizontal plane until the hand is over the horse's croup, the eyes following the hand. Each rider thus continues the exercise, Swinging the shoulders and arm in horizontal plane, by rotating the body at the waist until the instructor commands: AS YOU WERE. The instructor commands: STROKE THE HORSE ON THE RIGHT (LEFT) SHOULDER WITH THE RIGHT (LEFT) HAND. Each rider, by flexing the body at the waist, leans slightly forward and downward and gently strokes the horse on the shoulder until the instructor commands: AS YOU WERE. The instructor commands: STROKE THE HORSE ON THE LEFT (RIGHT) SHOULDER WITH THE RIGHT (LEFT) HAND. Each rider, by rotating the body in the region of the loins, carries the hand over the reins and downward to a position opposite the designated shoulder of the horse. He then gently strokes that shoulder until the instructor commands: AS YOU WERE. -- The instructor commands: STROKE THE HORSE ON THE LEFT (RIGHT) SHOULDER AND THE RIGHT (LEFT) HAUNCH WITH THE RIGHT (LEFT) HAND. Each rider, in the same manner as in preceding exercises, strokes the horse on the designated shoulder with the designated hand and then, without pause, while rotating the body in the region of the loins, turns the shoulders and arm to the right (left) rear, the eyes following the hand, and strokes the horse on the des– ignated haunch. He thus continues the exercise, alternately stroking the horse on the shoulder and haunch, until the instructor commands: AS YOU WERE. The instructor commands: SWING LOW TO THE FRONT WITH THE RIGHT (LEFT) HAND. Each rider extends the arm vertically upward, palm to the front, leans to the right (left) and downward by flexing the body at the waist, and makes a low sweeping stroke from the rear to the front; he then resumes the initial position of the body, the arm extended vertically upward. With a slight pause, he thus continues the exercise until the instructor commands: AS YOU WERE. The instructor commands: RAISE THE THIGHS. Each rider, inclining the 212 EQUITATION upper part of the body slightly backward, raises the thighs only so much as is necessary to detach them and the lower legs from contact with the saddle. The rider thus balances on the buttocks, which should be pushed well underneath the body. This exercise requires the rider to flex the body at the loins in order to follow the motion of the horse and to minimize the effect of the shock. Riders should not be required to maintain this position continuously; they take and retake it, according to their ability to do so without falling. The exercises ceases at the instructor's command: AS YOU WERE. 90. To Supple the Hip Joints. The object of the following exercises is to supple the muscles in the region of the hips and flatten the inner thigh surfaces of the rider's legs. The instructor commands: ROTATE THE RIGHT (LEFT) THIGH. Each rider removes the thigh from against the saddle, straightens the legs and carries it back until vertical. He then rotates the thigh at the hip joint by turning the knee inward, and, pressing the thigh hard against the saddle, draws it forward to its normal position. The friction of the thigh against the saddle presses back- ward the muscles underneath and back of the thigh, thus permitting the femur to rest solidly against the saddle. The lower leg is replaced in its normal posi- tion. The foot should hang naturally, without constraint. No attempt should be made to turn the foot either outward or inward. Its position in this respect is dependent upon, and a natural consequence of, the flatness of the inner sur- faces of the thigh and the degree of its rotation inward. This exercise should habitually be given at the halt; if executed while the horse is in motion serious injury may occur in the region of the hip joint. The riders, being at the halt, the instructor directs them to rotate the right thigh and care- fully fix it in position; next, similarly, the left thigh. He then causes the riders to take the walk, the slow trot, or the gallop, during which they should try to confirm the new position. After a few moments, however, the riders become shaken out of the exact position assumed. The instructor then brings them to the halt, directs them to again rotate one thigh, then the other, and to fix their position, after which he causes them again to move forward. 91. To Supple the Knees. The object of the following exercises is to render the knee joints supple, combat the involuntary contractions to which the knee joints are liable, and cultivate the coordination of muscular effort. The instructor commands: FLEX THE RIGHT (LEFT) KNEE. Each rider, removing the lower leg from against the horse, carries it backward and upward until horizontal and then, without pause, returns it to the normal position. The exercise is thus continued until the instructor commands: AS YOU WERE. 92. To Supple the Ankles. The object of the following exercises is to assist the rider in overcoming involuntary contraction and stiffness in the ankle joints, in lowering the heels properly when riding with stirrups, in retaining the stirrups by the easy flexibility of the ankle joints, and in overcoming the tendency to stand stiffly in the stirrups. The instructor commands: ROTATE THE RIGHT (LEFT) FOOT. Each rider traces with the toe, by a slow and uniform movement, a circle in a vertical plane perpendicular to the horse. In tracing the circle the rider's toe first moves toward the horse. The exercise is thus continued until the instructor commands: AS YOU WERE. The instructor commands: FLEX THE RIGHT (LEFT) ANKLE. Each rider slowly flexes the ankle by raising the toes upward as far as possible and then, without pause, extending them downward as far as possible. The exercise is thus continued until the instructor commands: AS YOU WERE. 93. The Jump. a. To jump obstacles. The jumping of obstacles is an excellent exercise for developing a good seat and leads to boldness, confidence, and ag- gressiveness in the rider and horse. Jumping may be analyzed into three parts: first, conducting the horse straight upon the center of the obstacle; second, in- spiring him with sufficient impulsion to insure his jumping; and third, going over the obstacle with the horse in such a manner as not to interfere with his balance or freedom of movement at the take-off, in the air, or on landing. The correct muscular reactions of the rider in the third operation are called the “gymnastics of the jump.” The first two parts may be considered together and constitute the approach, or conducting the horse to the obstacle. The beginner must first EQUITATION 213 attain some degree of proficiency in the gymnastics of the jump before adding the problem of conducting the horse to the obstacle. b. Gymnastics of the jump. The gymnastics of the jump develop in the rider balance or the ability to go “with" his horse, coordination and independence in the use of the parts of the body, suppleness, muscular control, security of seat, and confidence. Initially, well-trained, willing, and quiet horses are used over the simplest of obstacles. It is advisable to start at first with bars placed on the ground and gradually raise them by degrees, about 3 inches at a time, until the riders can take without difficulty an obstacle 2% feet in height. 94. The Jumping Seat. The following are the essential points in the correct jumping seat: Plate 20. The Jumping Seat. The rider approaches the jump seated, but with body inclined forward. He has contact with the saddle along the full length of his thighs from knees to points of buttocks. His feet are well home in the stirrups. His weight is borne principally by the thighs, diminishing rearward until at the points of the buttocks it is practically nil. His body during the approach, while still seated in the saddle, has sufficient forward inclination to insure its center of gravity being in line with the direction of the horse's thrust and slightly in advance of the center of its base of support. If the forward inclination is not sufficient, or if the back is humped (not straight), the line of thrust passes beneath the center of gravity of the rider's body, causing him to rock to the rear or break badly at the loins. As a result the rider is “behind his horse” or, as is frequently said, “his horse jumps from under him.” It must be remembered that whenever the body is in- clined forward, the inclination is made from the hips and not at the loins. During the take-off the hands are absolutely passive; that is, they follow the mouth with a constant even tension on the reins. Any unnecessary movement of the hands or shifting of the rider's weight distracts the horse and upsets his balance. If the rider's position is correct at the take-off, he is thrown slightly forward and upward without voluntary effort. The knee angles open and the hip angles 214 EQUITATION close. The angles of the ankles likewise close due to the increased weight in the stirrup. Over the jump the buttocks are kept out of the saddle by the rider's balancing on his lower thighs, knees, and stirrups. The back must not be too relaxed, as muscular control of body and balance would then be lost, causing the rider to fall back into the saddle or forward on the neck of his horse. During the descent and in landing, the forward inclination of the body is gradually decreased to avoid losing balance, falling forward on the horse's neck, or an abrupt return of the buttocks to the saddle. The hip angles open, the knee angles close, and the rider is preparing to resume his seat. On landing, the shock is progressively received on hip joints, thighs, and knees, and through the ankles onto the stirrups. As the horse's forefeet are grounded and his hindquarters come to the relief of his forehand, the rider's body sways forward from the hip joints to save the horse's back from unnecessary strain. The body is prevented from falling forward by the correct amount of inclination, assisted by muscular efforts of the back, lower thighs, knees and legs, and by keeping the posture of the loin and back unchanged. Head and chin are kept high. For a few strides the rider continues to support himself on the lower thighs, knees, and stirrups; then he relaxes the knees and settles gently into the saddle. Plate 21. Jumping Obstacles, Showing the Take Off and Landing. The rider's crotch is deep in the saddle, fleshy part of the buttocks to the rear and not under the rider. Thighs, knees, and heels are forced down to the limit allowed by the length of the stirrup straps. h The legs are always against the horse and not in cadence with the stride of the orse. Head, chin, and eyes are up. Holding the chin up assists greatly in maintaining correct spinal posture and muscular control of the body. 95. To Conduct the Horse Up To, Over and Beyond the Obstacle. When the rider has made sufficient progress in the gymnastics of the jump, the difficulties of the approach may be taken up. Either more difficult obstacles may be used or two or more obstacles placed one after the other (in and out). Another method is to remove the wings. Care must be taken to make the work progres- EQUITATION 215 sive, and to use obstacles of no greater height or breadth than the horses can negotiate. As the horse starts his approach, often somewhat abruptly, the rider inclines his body forward sufficiently to keep his balance. Thrusting the body forward or sinking backward at the loin at the moment of take-off must be avoided. The approach should be made on a line perpendicular to the obstacle and straight toward the center. The speed is regulated according to the size of the jump and upon the natural “manner of going” of the horse. Speed should be gained gradually as the jump is approached. The rider should begin the approach not too far distant frcm the obstacle, 15 or 20 yards, with the horse “on the hand,” gathering impulsion and only the necessary amount of speed as he approaches, and with a reserve of impulsion to be used at the last moment should the horse hesitate. Rushing or excessive speed must be avoided. The reins should not be too long, so that any attempt of the horse to run out may be forestalled; hands low and well separated; and the horse evenly balanced between hands and legs. As the approach begins, the fingers slightly relax on the reins, and the legs slightly increase their pressure, requiring and facilitating a gradual increase of speed and impulsion. The rider must determine and use the necessary aids to conduct his horse straight and to insure his jumping. The legs should not be “thrown away” on a horse which rushes a jump. Such a horse is just as likely to refuse, and more likely to run out, than the quiet-going horse. The rider should feel or sense the horse during the approach, and use his legs sufficiently to insure jumping. He should approach the obstacle determined to jump. During early instruction in jumping, the curb reins should be knotted and dropped on the horse’s neck or fastened to the throatlatch of the bridle. When riding across country, only obstacles up to the ability of horse and rider are taken. 96. Common Errors to be Guarded Against in Jumping. The following is a list of the common errors of riders when jumping and the causes thereof: ERROR, Getting behind the horse on the approach, or at the take-off, or both. Falling on the horse's neck on landing, and occasionally when the horse places himself for the take-Ofſ. Hitting the horse in the mouth with the bit .. Toes down and heels up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . © e º e º 'º e e Lºs down over the shoulder on either S1C 8. CAUSES Rlder not ready to go with his horse, or rider's Weight too far to the rear. Rider's legs too loose. Rlder behind his horse, and fails at the take- off to relax hands to permit reins to slide through fingers as needed. Rider's hands not relaxed when horse jumps. Improperly adjusted stirrups, or improper manner of closing legs on horse, usually the latter. Mental and physical tenseness. Looking back at Jump . . . . . . . . . . . . e e º 'º - © tº e - G - e. Mental and physical tenseness. Losing Stirrup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rider behind horse, loss of balance forward or to one side, or improper method of sup- porting the welght of the body or of closing or improper presentation of horse to jump. Repeated refusals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . e e º e º e o e Fallure or inability to use the aids properly, legs on the horse. Unsteady hands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Insecure seat, mental and physical tenseness, or lack of muscular coordination. Repeated run-outs . . . . . . tº e º 'º e º & e º e º ºs e º e º e º e º e º e Failure or inability to use aids properly, or improper presentation of horse to jump. Floating relns on approach or take-off . . . . . . . . Unsteady position of body. 97. Marching Under Field Conditions. At the end of the second period the in- structor will take the students on a short practice march of approximately 5 miles length. For this march the riders will be fully armed and equipped and the saddle packed as for field service. During this march they will be carefully instructed in the following: March discipline. Proper rate of speed at the walk and the trot. The use and value of leading. The correct adjustment of saddle and equipment prior to the start of the march and during regular halt periods. Watering. 216 EQUITATION Questions Instruction in jumping obstacles is divided into what two phases? What speeds are used in the high and broad jumps? What position should the body be in at the jump? What should the rider be instructed in in the march under field conditions? ; CHAPTER. VII • THIRD PERIOD OF INSTRUCTION_THE GAITS 98. Program of Instruction (continued). Horses should now be equipped with bit and bridoon and the men habitually wear spurs. When the time is available two lessons per day are advisable, each lesson being of approximately one and one-half hours duration. When time for two daily lessons is not available the work may be covered by one lesson per day of not less than two hours duration, exclusive of the time required to care for animals and equipment. The men ride without stirrups during the first 15 minutes of each day’s in- struction, using the snaffle bit alone. The curb reins are knotted and dropped on the horse's neck. This first half hour is devoted entirely to those exercises which tend to improve and confirm the seat, namely, the suppling exercises and the gymnastics of the jump. During the remainder of each day's instruction the men habitually ride with stirrups. While the men are riding with stirrups the instructor gives close attention to the difficulties encountered by them. For example, many men are unable to re- tain their stirrups; others stand in their stirrups; others ride with their stirrups too long, thus cultivating a “forked seat”; others ride with their stirrups too short, thus lifting themselves out of the saddle, tiring their leg muscles, and rid- ing in the rear part of the saddle seat. The stirrups should be of such length as to cause the lower leg to extend downward and backward and to rest comfortably and snugly against the side of the horse, leaving the knee and ankle flexible and the heel lower than the toe. During this period of instruction the instructor will continue to use the exer- cises prescribed for the preceding two periods. In addition he will use the fol- lowing exercises for advancing the training of the men in equitation. 99. The Gaits. The gaits commonly found among riding horses are of two general classes: Natural gaits which include the walk, trot, gallop and extended gallop or run; and artificial gaits, resulting from training and specialized breed- ing, which consist of the fox-trot, the running walk, the pace, the rack, the single- foot and the canter. e 100. The Mechanism of the Natural Gaits. The instructor will briefly explain and illustrate by use of a horse the mechanism of the following gaits. ſ The walk is marked by four beats. The feet are raised successively and planted in the order in which raised; for example, right fore, left hind, left fore, right hind. - The trot is marked by two beats and a period of suspension. The horse springs from one diagonally disposed pair of feet to the other; between the beats all the feet are in the air. The right fore and the left hind are together called the right diagonal pair; the left fore and right hind, the left diagonal pair. The gallop is marked by three beats and a period of suspension. Thus, for example, if the horse is galloping with the right lead, the first beat is marked by the left hind foot, the second by the nearly simultaneous placing of the right hind and the left fore, and the third beat by the placing of the right fore. If the horse be galloping with the left lead, the beats are right hind, left hind and right fore, left fore. A horse is said to gallop with the right lead when the right fore is planted in front of the left fore and the right hind in front of the left hind. When the feet are planted in the inverse order the horse is said to gallop with the left lead. A horse gallops true when he gallops with the right lead in turning to the right and with the left lead in turning to the left. He gallops false when he gallops with the left lead in turning to the right, or conversely. EQUITATION 217 A horse is disunited when he gallops with the right lead with his fore feet and with the left lead with his hind feet, or conversely. The recruits, when at the gallop, need not concern themselves as to whether their mounts are galloping true or false; they should not, however, permit their horses to gallop disunited. When a horse becomes disunited in his gallop the rider should bring him to the trot and then put him back into the gallop. During riding-hall work the instructor should not insist that all the horses gallop true. Thus, when galloping on the track, if a few horses are seen to gallop false it is of no consequence. The instructor should bear in mind that the false gallop, occasionally used, is a beneficial exercise for the horse, causing him to acquire a handiness and sense of balance in making changes of direction that is most useful in drill, combat exercises, and cross-country riding. The gallop departs are not taken up until the last period. Prior to teaching the gallop departs, should the instructor desire that the student take the gallop with a certain lead, the right for example, he directs the rider to ride his horse at the trot from the inside of the riding-hall ring, perpendicularly towards the track. Upon arrival at the track the recruit turns his horse sharply to the right, applies both legs with vigor, and forces the horse into the gallop. Another method of accomplishing the same result is for the recruit to take the trot on a circle to the right hand and then urge his horse into the gallop. Occasionally, when the riders are at the gallop, the instructor will question them as to whether their own and other designated horses have the right or left lead. 101. The Speed of Gaits. In the military service it is essential for the rider to maintain certain rates of speed when at the walk, trot, and gallop. The rate of the walk is 4 miles per hour, or 117 yards per minute. At the command 1. Forward, 2. MARCH, the regulation walk of miles per hour is taken and scrupulously maintained unless otherwise specially directed. 1 The rate of the trot is 8 miles per hour, or 235 yards per minute. At the com- mand 1. Trot, 2. MARCH, the regulation trot of 8 miles per hour is taken and scrupulously maintained unless otherwise specially directed. For the purpose of individual instruction in equitation the rate of trot may, at command, be reduced to 6 miles per hour. The command is: 1. Slow trot, 2. MARCH. When at the Slow trot the rider should sit down in the saddle; when at the Trot, he should rise to the trot. The maneuvering gallop is at the rate of 12 miles per hour, or 352 yards per minute. It is called the regulation gallop. At the command 1. Gallop, 2. MARCH, the maneuvering gallop is taken and held unless otherwise specially directed. The Eartended gallop is at the rate of 16 miles per hour, or 469 yards per minute. It is taken at the command 1. Eactended gallop, 2. MARCH. The Canter is at the rate of 10 miles per hour. It is used on occasion in con- nection with the instruction of recruits in riding and in the training of horses. It is taken at the command 1. Canter, 2. MARCH. 102. Rates of Speed. Throughout instruction in equitation the instructor will avail himself of every favorable opportunity to impress upon the men the importance of knowing and maintaining the proper rates of speed at the various gaits. In this connection the example set by the instructor, especially when leading the men across country, will have a strong influnce in the right direction. The instructor will have a gaiting course of 1 mile length marked off and fre- quently practice the men individually over this course at the regulation walk, trot, and gallop. Occasionally, Selected individuals may be required to lead the squads to which they belong through the gaiting course at a prescribed gait, the instructor and his assistants keeping time and noting errors. 103. To Leave Ranks. The instructor causes the students to form line and then calls upon them individually to ride their horses out of ranks. As each man's name is called he rides his horse out of ranks to a point or locality designated by the instructor. In case a rider's horse resists leaving rank the rider takes the reins in both hands, gathers his horse, inclines his weight slightly forward, applies the right 1 Cavalry habitually marches at trot at a rate of 9 miles per hour. However for drills and ceremonies the slower trot of 8 miles per hour is preferable. 218 EQUITATION leading rein and the right leg so as to cause the horse to move forward and to the right oblique. When the horse has taken two or three steps forward and to the right oblique the rider changes the aids to the left leading rein and left leg so as to cause the horse to move to the left front. Continuing the above-described process, the rider causes the horse to move on a zigzag course towards the desig- nated point or locality. In riding a difficult horse out of ranks it is essential that the rider not permit the reins to become slack when inclining his body forward. Also, when using the leading rein on one side the rider must not permit the opposite reln to become slack. The reins are kept taut and the horse up on the bit. 104. Practicing, Individually, the Charge at Full Speed. The instructor now pre- pares the troopers to participate in the charge in line. This is accomplished by practicing the troops in galloping, individually and at full speed, over a distance of 60 to 75 yards. In charging, the trooper bends his body forward and pushes his feet home in the stirrups. He gives his horse his head, if necessary, a touch on the spur, and holds him in the direction indicated. Having charged the distance prescribed by the instructor, the trooper reduces the speed progressively; that is, he brings his horse to the regulation gallop, then to the trot, then to the walk. To reduce the speed abruptly is unnecessary and inadvisable during instruction. It may be practiced later on when the trooper is sufficiently proficient in the use of the aids to stop suddenly without injuring the mouth or spoiling the temper of his horse. In order not to fatigue the horses by repeated charges, the individual charge should be practiced only a few minutes during any one instruction period. It should always be executed on a track or piece of ground especially adapted to this work; that is, open, level ground where the footing is neither too hard nor too soft. 105. Object of Riding-Hall Exercises. The object of the purely riding-hall exer- cises prescribed is to afford the rider frequent opportunity to apply the principles previously stated. It is evident, therefore, that these riding-hall exercises are merely the means to an end. The end to be obtained is that the rider shall be able to control his horse out of doors, alone or in ranks, and under both favorable and unfavorable conditions. 106. To March on a Circle. The riders being on the track, at the command ON A CIRCLE, the designated leader, followed by the other riders, rides on a circle between the two tracks. At the command TAKE THE TRACK the leader takes the track to the hand toward which he is marching and is followed by the other riders. 107. Work by Threes. The riders being on the track with 4 feet distance from head to croup, as the head of the column passes across an end of the riding hall the instructor commands: 1. By threes by the right (or left) flank, 2. MARCH. At the command MARCH the first three riders, at the head of column execute By the right flank and proceed straight down the length of the hall. They are followed by each successive three in the column, who turn to the flank on the same ground. In each three the center rider is the guide. The center rider of the leading three is also the guide of the squad, the guides in rear regulating upon him. Upon arrival at the opposite end of the hall the leading three take the track to the hand to which they were marching before the movement began. The movement is continuous until the instructor commands: TAKE THE TRACK. When the riders are disposed by three in the riding hall the instructor should cause them to halt, to move forward, to change gaits, to turn to the right flank, and to execute the right or left about. Each rider, in addition to executing all movements correctly, should be required to preserve his place, checkerboard fash- ion, with reference to his comrades. Thus the conditions of the exercises de- mand of the trooper increased alertness combined with an effective use of the aids. 108. Cross-Country Riding. The instruction in cross-country riding already pre- scribed is continued during the third pericq. However, the trot and gallop will be used more frequently and the route selected may be over ground affording steeper slopes. Natural obstacles such as heavy brush, woods, small ditches, and streams may be crossed, but fences, hurdles, and all other artificial obstacles are avoided. 109. Marching Under Field Conditions. Studen's should now be in condition to take a practice march over a distance of approximately 15 miles. º EQUITATION 219 Questions What classes of gaits are there? What are the natural gaits? - When is a horse said to be galloping true? When is a horse said to be disunited? i CHAPTER VIII FOURTH PERIOD OF INSTRUCTION_MOUNTED EXERCISES 110. Program of Instruction (continued). During the fourth period the horses are equipped with a bit and bridoon and the men habitually wear spurs. When time is available two lessons per day are advisable, each lesson being of approximately one and one-half hours duration. When time for two daily lessons is not available the work may be covered by one lesson per day of not less than two hours duration, exclusive of the time required to care for animals and equipment. The men ride without stirrups during the first 15 minutes of each day’s in- struction, using the snaffle bit alone, the curb reins hanging loose. The first half hour is devoted entirely to those exercises which tend to improve and confirm the seat, namely, the suppling exercises and the gymnastics of the jump. During the remainder of each day’s instruction the men habitually ride with stirrups. The primary objective of the instruction during the fourth period is constantly to improve the seat of the rider and his use of the aids. To accomplish this task the instructor utilizes all the exercises of preceding periods in addition to the following exercises. 111. Broken Lines. The broken-line exercise consists of departures from and re- turns to the long side of the hall by successive obliques. The riders being on the track without regard to distance at the walk. trot, or gallop, the command is: BROKEN LINES, ONCE (TWICE, OR THREE TIMES) IN THE LENGTH OF THE RIDING HALL. As each trooper enters the long side he leaves the track by an oblique and, having marched the proper distance, returns to the track by another oblique. This is repeated the number of times specified; at the other end of the long side he retakes the track. This exercise in the riding hall has for its object to teach the rider how to make rapid changes of direction when out of doors. 112. Serpentine. The serpentine consists of successive abouts executed by the rider directing his horse on a sinuous course. The command is: SERPENTINE. Being on the track without regard to distance, at the walk or slow trot, as each rider reaches the middle of the short side designated by the instructor he leaves the track and follows by a continuous succession of abouts, a serpentine course to the far end of the riding hall. Upon reaching the opposite end of the riding hall each rider takes the track to the same hand as that on which he marched before the movement began. * Riders should execute broken lines and serpentines as individuals; they should not follow closely in the trace of the man in front. The riders being thus disposed without regard to distance, each turn is made by the horse in exact obedience to the aids as applied by the rider. 113. Circling Individually. The riders being on the track without regard to dis- tance, at the walk, slow trot. or canter, at the command Individual circle to the right (or left), each rider gathers his horse. At the command MARCH, each rider describes a complete circle tangent to the track and retakes the track at the point where he left it. The radius of the circle should be 2 yards at the walk, 4 yards at the slow trot, and 6 yards at the gallop. Each rider, without reference to any other rider, rides his horse with great exactness on the circle. He should endeavor to use the aids correctly in maintain- ing the speed and in controlling the direction of the horse. 114. The Half Turn. The half turn consists of an about followed by an oblique. Being in the track to the right (or left) hand, at the walk, slow trot, or canter, at the command Half turn each rider gathers his horse. At the command MARCH each rider executes a right about and then by the right oblique regains the track. 220 EQUITATION The about should be made on the arc of a circle whose radius is 2 yards at the walk, 4 yards at the slow trot, and 6 yards at the gallop. At the moment the horse starts the right about the rider increases the action of the left leg and left bearing rein, thus causing the horse to turn slightly on the haunches. This movement being a turn slightly on the haunches, should be much practiced, first at the walk and slow trot and later at the canter. This exercise is of especial value when executed at a collected canter because it teaches the rider how to turn quickly to the right (or left) about at the gallop out of doors. 115. The Figure of 8. The riders being on the track without regard to distance, at the walk, trot, or gallop, at the command Individual figures of 8 each rider gathers his horse. At the command MARCH each rider directs his horse on such a course as to describe a figure of 8, the figure being perpendicular to the track and its lower loop tangent to the track. In the beginning the figure of 8 described by each rider should be of large dimensions. Later, as the riders become more skillful in the use of the aids, the * * * º ſº- * tº * wº - -- gº -- - º - - - -- -----1----- f \ f - *- \ f \ g * * \ : * * º \ & \ ". ,' N- ,’ * ~ ... • J * * ~ * * • * * - / . * * * ... * sº 49 *. sº (C) * * a’ * * {\ Y * & l * ..! : ge d = ºe { tº t w I sº § º & º f ! … -- | *A $ • ‘ & W ſº ſº w * º * ſº ! ar tº * * º * * g *. g t & ! \ S. ... •’ | t t º w g a ſ * | | | | " - \ * & N--- * > --- " . t * * w § ; v * g 0 º g s § tº sº ** g t * * f tº ! \ º | ", * : t -----, * ~ * t w * t ! * * t § * wº *" t } * ~ | g | g & w ſº & f º * º t t \ * & t * { | g e º t f ſº º w \ * [. : º | ! W t w /". * : § § * ** { ! Af * ; t | { } W V & t N----- - - - , : Af ' ' || || 2' || \, . \ } || | t Q z g ! ... < ; v \ ----, * * * * • * * ! tº r * ! { ,’ | * * \ ,’ \! º g \ ^ N tº z f § § g d * * º \ . º t y t ºf t $ t g ! tº a t § V & * º I | * \ t ! t | ſº I º ! *\ t * \ !N \ \ } * * | \ \ 0. º | z s * & Q & t º * ! * * ~ * \ § - - -" * e ºs t * w t * -- $ t º \ l ſº º º * ~ | § sº g \ | \ ſº * * * * * º * | * - g * | º | * ! & * * ^, ; | * t º t w ſº & * , * tº tº J w * Q º \! † * | § A º ! \ \ g t l , ſ ! * ſº t * * \ \ J Q & t t * ſ º Aſ * * t * e : * v ! ... • * g | \ \ . t \- sº ---- " ' z w t i e” | º i * º | tº { Af g º ,” ſº A \ § e • * • * s g { ... • d e \ $ d }^ } ſº 2 * & ~ * t t B g * * ~ * * * = ~ w * * * a? º Af * º t | º * ^ vº ! º W \ 0 º ! ! | | | | t \ ". * t º * & * * * z ; ; \ * * & ^. * t * * * * = = - rs = * * * * * * *~ - - - - - - - - -\- - - * - - - - - - - - - - - - - - e.” * = m, as * * = Knee-P- N. Hock- Metacarpal (cannon) Metatarsal (cannon) Foºtlock——R. Tolstern Aff -Ergot, *—Corone.t. Foot, Or Plate 26. Regions of the Horse. getting in the path of some one who may not be able to avoid you. Enter either mounted or dismounted; if dismounted, move at once to that part of the hall least occupied, usually the center, and then mount. 3. After mounting and while warming up your horse at slow gaits, remain off the track and avoid those moving at faster gaits. 4. If for any reason you wish to halt, move first toward the center of the hall. 5. Avoid blocking the track while talking to persons in the gallery or outside. 6. Keep to your right in passing all riders approaching from the opposite direction. 7. Keep to the side that is away from the wall in passing all riders going in the same direction you are. 8. Do not stop nor turn sharply without first looking behind you to see if the way is clear. 9. If someone is improperly blocking your way, call TRACK loudly enough to be distinctly heard. 10. If there is jumping in progress, it is inconsiderate of you to get in such a position as to cause the person jumping anxiety or fear. The one jumping should not be expected nor required to look out for others. 11. Horses led in the hall for exercise should be led on the side next to the wall to prevent them from whirling and kicking passers-by. 12. Unless occasion demands lounging should not be permitted in a crowded riding hall. This applies as well to any other form of dismounted exercise with mean, resisting, or vicious horses. 13. Manage your horse so as not to be a nuisance to others. It is irritating to EQUITATION 225 have some one ride up on your horse's heels; the person who does so is also in danger of being kicked. Do not ride your horse in such a manner as to irritate or excite other horses. 14. If riding to the left hand at increased gaits, stay on the outside track. If riding to the right hand at increased gaits, while others are moving in the opposite direction, stay on the inside track. If all are moving in the same direction, the outside track may be used while moving to the right hand. 15. Time your entrance into or departure from the riding hall so as to cause least inconvenience to others. • 16. The management of any riding hall is governed to some extent by local conditions; furthermore, not all halls are managed in the same way. It is best to adhere strictly to the rules published by proper authority. 126. Points of the Horse. The names of the various regions of the horse will be found in Plate 26. The following scale of points for judging light horses may be found useful. Judging Light Horses. SCALE OF POINTS General Appearance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Height. Proper height for class or purpose for which used. Weight. Suitable weight for class or purpose for which used. Form. Symmetrical, Smooth, stylish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. - - - - - - - e e º e º e º e º e s tº e e tº e º ºs º ºs e º º © º e e 4 Quality. Bone clean, dense, cannons, broad and flat, tendons and joints sharply de- fined, skin and hair fine, refinement and finish throughout ..... • & © e º e º 'º - E - e. e. e. e. e. - e > Temperament. Alert and active, disposition good . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e º 'º e º e º 'º e º e º e º e e º e Head and Neck e e o e º e º e e o e º e º e o e º 'º e º e º e º º º 8 º Head. Size and dimensions in proportion, clear-cut features, Straight face line, wide angle in lower jaw . . . . . . . . & © e º 'º e & tº e º e º e º a tº e º e º e s (→ c e º 'º e º e º e º 'º e º 'º e tº e º e º e º e s tº e º e º e s e e s e º e Forehead. Broad, full . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº gº tº e º 'º º tº e to e º e º 'º e s e º e º e s m e º e º e º e s e e e º e e a e Eyes. Prominent, large, full, bright, clear, lid thin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ears. Medium size, pointed, set fairly close, carried alert and erect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Muzzle. Fine, nostrils large, lips thin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e tº e º 'º e º 'º - e. tº tº e º e º 'º e º e º 'º tº e º e º e º º * - e. Neck. Long, supple, well crested, not carried too high, throat-latch fine well cut out, head well set on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº & & & e º 'º e º º ºs e e º 'º - © e sº e e g º e º e º e º ºs e º 'º e º e º e º e º 'º e Forequarters e e o e g º e º e s e e º e e º e º e e s e e e s e s e e 20 Shoulders. Long, sloping and muscular . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Arms. Short, muscular, approaching upright rather than horizontal position ........ e e º a Forearms. Long, Wide, muscular * @ e e º 'º e º e o e º e e º e º 'º' tº e o e º e º 'º e º e º 'º e º e º 'º e º e o e º 'º e º e º e º e º e º e g º e Q Knees. Straight, wide, deep, strongly supported . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * * * * * * * * e º º ºs e º e º e º e s e e º e Cannons. Short, broad, flat, tendons sharply defined, set Well back . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . © e º c Fetlocks. Wide, stralght, strong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . e e º & & Pasterns. Long, sloping (45-degree angle with floor or ground) Smooth, strong ....... e Feet. Large, round, uniform, straight slope of Wall approximately parallel with slope of pastern, sole concave, bars strong, frog large, elastic, heels Wide, full, horn dense, smooth . . . . . e tº e º e s e o e º e e s a e º e º e e s tº e - e G & e s e e º e º 'º e s e e º e © tº e º e º ºs e º e º sº e º e º e º ºs º e e e º 'º e Legs. Direction viewed from in front, perpendicular line dropped from the point of the shoulder should divide equally the knees, cannon, pastern and foot; viewed from side of a perpendicular line dropped from center of elbow joint should fall on center of knee, fetlock joint and back of foot . . . . . . . - e. e º is © e - e º te e º 'º - tº º ºs e e º e e s e º tº Weight : 4. Body e o tº e º e - © e º e º & • © 12 Withers. High, well finished at top, extending well back . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e º º e º 'º º e. Chest. Medium Width, deep e e º e º e º e º e e º e º ſº e º e º 'º e º C G s e º 'º e º & tº e º 'º º e º e º e º 'º e e & e º e º e s tº e º 'º e º 'º º Ribs. Well Sprung, long Close e e e e º e º e o e e e e s e e º e º & e s s e º & 0 & e s tº e º 'º e o e º e º e º e º e s e e º e º e e a e e º e º e Back. Short, stralght, strong, broad . . . . . . . . e - © tº e º e º - e º O p & tº e º e º O e s e e - e. e. e. e e º e º e º 'º e º 'º - e - © a Loin. Short, broad, strongly coupled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * * * * * * * e - e. e e º e º 'º e º 'o e º e º 'º e º 'º' Flank. Deep, full, long, low underline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº & e º e º º & e º º e º e º 'º e º º º Hindquarters e e e o e º e º e º e o e e º e º e e º e º e º e º e 30 Hips. Broad, round, Smooth . . . . . . . . e e e e o e e s e e e s e o e º 'º e º e e º e e º e o ºs e o e º e s e º e º e e º e º e e º e º e º e e Croup. Long, level, round, smooth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • * * * * * * * * * * * * * e º e º e º e º e s e º e e s tº e e º º & © Tail. Set high, well carried . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Thighs. Full, muscular e - e º º ºs e º 'º e º 'º e e e º e e º ºs e e a e e s e is e e s e s e º e e º e º 'º e º e º e e s a e e is s º e º e º e º ºs e - G & º Quarters. Full, deep, well muscled . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gaskins. Broad, muscular . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hocks. Well directed, wide, point prominent, deep, clean cut, smooth and well supported Cannons. Short, broad, flat, tendons sharply defined, set well back ..... tº tº tº e º e º te tº e º e º & © Fetlocks. Wide, straight, strong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e º e º a e º e s e º e º e a e e e s e e e e Pasterns. Long, sloping (50 degree angle with floor or ground), smooth, strong . . . . Feet. Large, round, uniform, slope of wall approximately parallel with slope of pastern, sole concave, bars strong, frog large and elast!c, heels wide, full, horn dense, smooth Legs. Direction, viewed from the rear a perpendicular line dropped from the point of the buttock should fall on the center of the hock, cannon, pastern and foot; viewed from the side this same line should touch the point of the hock and the back 4. i of the fetlock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº dº tº e º e º 'º º e º e © tº e s tº e * * * * * * * * * * * tº e º & a dº sº e e tº º º e º 'º e º e º e º e º 'º Gaits . . . . . . . • * * * * * * s e e s a s • e s e º e s a e s s • * ... 18 Walk. Rapid, flat footed, free stride, straight and true . . . . . . . . tº e º e º ºs e s e • * > → c e s is g º e º sº ſº tº Trot. Free. Springy, square, going well off hocks, rot extremely high . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Canter. Slow, collected, either lead, no cross canter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . © e º E tº e º 'º - tº e º 'º e º 'º º º ºs Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 FA2 (1) 226 EQUITATION Questions 1. What are the gallop departs? . 2. Why should the rider be not required to practice the change of leads at the gallop? 3. When swimming a horse, should the rider get into difficulties, what part of the horse should he grasp? DRIVING AND DRAFT CONTENTS Paragraphs Chapter I. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3 Chapter II. Harnessing and Unharnassing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-8 Chapter III. Adjustment and Care of Harness and Horse Equipment . . . . . . . . 9-11 Chapter IV. Preliminary Mounted Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-22 Chapter V. Management of the Pair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-28 Chapter VI. Draft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-35 CHAPTER I GENERAL 1. References. a. This section contains detailed instructions in the subjects listed above. * b. Training Manuals provide the details of training and duties of saddlers and horse- shoers. See TM 2-220, 2100-25; FM 6-5, and 25-5. 2. Object of Instruction. The objective of instruction of the driver of animal-drawn units is proficiency in harnessing and unharnessing; in the proper fitting, cleaning, and care of harness; and in managing and maneuvering a single pair and ultimately an artillery team in draft. Individual instruction mounted should precede instruction as an artillery driver. (See “Equitation.”) º Sº ſº är ºr 5* 7. 2.7% % Y Na º- sm erº-sº QC ſºlº £º % #!º tº. * º ſº-c º --- º Eºss." Zººſ ºº & º F}=\º-ºs- —ll) ă Plate 1, 75-mm Gun Team, Harnessed and Hitched. 3. Use of Terms. The two horses assigned to a single driver are called a “pair”; the horse on the left side is called the “near” horse, and the horse on the right, the “off” horse. The driver rides the near horse. The pairs assigned to draw a carriage are termed collectively a “team.” A team usually consists of three pairs, designated in the order from front to rear as “lead,” “swing,” and “wheel” pair. When a team consists of four pairs, they are designated from front to rear as “lead,” “lead swing,” “wheel swing,” and “wheel.” The middle pair of a team of five pairs is called the “middle swing” pair. The driver stands to horse on the near side of his near horse, and when necessary to control the off horse also holds the coupling rein, detached from the saddle, in his right hand. CHAPTER II HARNESSING AND UNHARNESSSING 4. Nomenclature of Harness. The nomenclature of field artillery harness is shown in Plate 2. 5. Disposition of Harness in Garrison. The harness of a pair is arranged on two pegs and two spikes fastened to the heelpost. On the upper peg is placed the off saddle with its attachments over the seat; the blanket across the saddle, folded edge next to the pommel; the collar on the blanket, bearing surface down, neck strap and 227 228 DRIVING AND DRAFT Bria/e Co. War Aad Cºor/ºad \ sºrop Sº sº rº A roos.” Cº., 27- Af Sº sº tº º § t - º % º j - sº - & *; & Aºxº C gºtº - - ** - 32 tº é ! - × & #; # * 3:47/29 * / º y^ ESEº Jweaf Zºë \\ IL º Trace N (zyżſzóa/º Sºrrøstrap Cºg Zoops A. 5.ºrrø Şāraa jºr ** * * * * ~~~) Cºrzcºa | NEAR LEAD(OR. SWING) HARNESS. NEAR, WHEEL HARNESS. Plate 2. Nomenclature of Field Artillery Harness. Plate 3. Disposition of Harness in Garrison. DRIVING AND DRAFT 229 pad away from the heelpost. On the lower peg, the near saddle and harness are arranged as prescribed for the off harness. The neck yoke, with martingales attached, and both bridles are hung on a spike driven into the side of the heelpost at the height of the upper peg. The traces are hung on a spike placed above the upper peg. The harness sack covers all the harness on pegs. If the harness pegs are on the left heelpost (facing the manger), the cantles of the saddles are placed against the heel- posts; otherwise the pommels are against the heelposts. (See Plate 3.) # i i Plate 4. Method of Tying Horses to Wheels of Limber and Carriage and Disposition of &zºº : Harness in the Field. f º -cº &º 6. Disposition of Harness and Horse Equipment in the Field. For harnessing and unharnessing, wheel pairs are tied to the left wheels of limbers, swing pairs to the right wheels of limbers, and lead pairs to the right rear wheels of carriages. (See Plate 4.) Before unharnessing, the swing driver places the pole prop under the pole to relieve the automatic pole support of the harness weight; after harnessing, he returns the prop to its traveling position. In unharnessing, drivers place their saddles astride the limber pole in the order of pairs in teams, wheel pair saddles next to the footboard, the near saddle of each pair to the rear. Pommels of wheel saddles are to the front, others to the rear. Wheel traces are detached from the collars only and are laid back, with the neck yoke, on the footboard. Each saddle is placed with its attachments over it, the blanket across the saddles, and the bridle, collar and traces (except wheel traces) over the blanket. The horse equipment of the chief of section, and, in horse artillery, of the gunner and cannoneers Nos. 1 and 2, is placed on the footboard of the piece limber; that of the caisson corporal and mounted cannoneers Nos. 3, 4, and 5 on the footboard of the caisson body; that of higher-numbered mounted cannoneers on the footboard of the caisson limber. In an ammunition section, the horse equipment of the chief of section and of mounted cannoneers with the first caisson is placed on the footboard of the first caisson limber; that of the ammunition corporal and other cannoneers of the section on the footboard of the second caisson limber. The horse equipment of other mounted men is disposed as directed by the battery commander. The harness and horse equip- ment are covered with paulins securely tied in place. 7. To Harness. a. By detail. The drivers standing to heel, the instructor gives in succession the commands indicated below. As each command of execution is given, the drivers perform the duties specified and then stand to heel awaiting the next com- mand. After his pair is harnessed, each driver stands to horse, 230 DRIVING AND DRAFT 1. By detail, 2. HARNESS. Remove the harness sack. In order to make sure that collars which are adjusted to fit particular horses are not misplaced and put on the wrong horse a small leather tag with the number of the horse on it can be tied to the choke strap ring of the collar. 3. COLLAR. Beginning with the off horse, remove its collar from the peg; unsnap the halter tie rope; place the collar, body up, over the horse's head and then turn the collar over so that the neck strap, collar pad, and body of the collar will be in place; snap the halter tie rope to the halter. In a similar manner place the near collar on the near horse. (See Plate 5.) Plate 5. How to Hold Breast Collar Before Slipping. It Over Horse’s Head in Harnessing. 4. SADDLE. Put the blanket on the off horse and then the saddle with its attach- ments; let down the cinch and cinch strap and fasten the cinch; buckle the pad strap to the saddle; turn back the back strap and, in the case of the wheel harness, the breeching; fasten the crupper. Saddle the near horse in like manner. The tendency of the blanket is to work back when the horse is in draft; therefore put the blanket well forward with not more than two inches projecting behind the rear ends of the side bars of the saddle. Be sure the blanket in front is well up in the pommel arch to prevent wither pressure. Before tightening the cincha strap be sure that none of the harness is between the saddle and the blanket. Be sure the blanket is not displaced when the saddle is put on. 5. TRACES. Lay the middle of the traces of the off horse over the horse's back behind the saddle, toggles on opposite sides; beginning with the off trace, pass the toggles through the trace loops from the rear and attach them to the D-rings on the collar. Attach the traces of the near horse in a similar manner. The rear ends of the traces are left hanging over the backs of the horses, except that, when harnessing for drill by pairs, these ends may be brought forward and fastened to the toggles of the opposite traces at the D-rings of the collars. Traces may be left off when harnessing for drill by pair. The off bridle has the lead rein and is therefore easily distinguished from the near bridle. When halters are put on over the bridles the crown strap on the crown piece of the bridle is attached to the crown piece of the halter to prevent the halter from slipping back on the neck. Halter ropes are attached to the outside pommel rings. 6. BRIDLES. Bridle the off horse; secure the roller, and then bridle the near horse. Unless otherwise instructed, halters are removed before bridling. 7. COUPLE. Turn the pair about so as to face the stable driveway and attach the coupling rein to the off ring on the pommel of the near saddle. 8. YOKE. The wheel driver takes down the neck yoke and places himself between his horses, facing in the same direction in which they are facing; he fastens the neck- DRIVING AND DRAFT 231 yoke strap of the off horse, then that of the near horse; passes the martingale of the near horse between the forelegs and through the standing loop on the cinch; attaches the hooks at the ends of the side straps to the martingale D-ring; secures the martingale of the off horse similarly; then passes out in rear of the near horse. b. Without detail. The command is: HARNESS. At this command the drivers harness, following the successive steps prescribed in a above. Plate 7. Properly Adjusted Collar for Lead or Swing Horse. c. In the field. The order of harnessing is: collar, bridle, saddle, traces, couples, yoke. 8. To Unharness. a. By detail. (See paragraph 5 for disposition of harness). The commands are as indicated below; each driver at the command of execution performs the duties indicated and then stands to heel awaiting the next command. 1. By detail, 2. UNHARNESS, 3. UNYOKE. At the third command, the wheel driver passes between his horses from the rear and, beginning with the near horse, unhooks the side straps and draws the martingales through the standing loops on the cinches; unsnaps each neck- 232 DRIVING AND DRAFT yoke strap and hangs the neck yoke on its spike. 4. UNCOUPLE. Each driver uncouples. If the horses are facing the stable driveway, they are turned to face the manger. 5. UN. BRIDLE. Unbridle the near horse; halter and tie to the manger; hang the bridle on its spike. Release the lead rein roller and unbridle the off horse. 6. TRACES OFF. Disengage the near trace of the near horse and lay its middle over the saddle, toggle on the near side; disengage the off trace and lay it beside the near trace, toggle on the off side; place the # * º Arakes pºorz, 3rzaz wºee's AſocAed' (D £3% (2)-cºnfi/ić's frat/ (3) Wherz ready, carriage 2 Anozzi's across approaro'Azcz// Žiž ()(` road. Zeazz As reszz/7Zea’ Cranzøed— sfrazoº ferred." %2 S- czp fºe road: 2- azzdſ fraces [JPHILL N -, rºlſ /2 fezzeoſ. º N i \ \ \\ 's f \ \s J | | S- s I'-2' v T. - J \{ W g r ~ \ \\ \ | 8 §§2 | \ſ § -I. S- \ W § " ^ \º \ | \º-º. Carriage Kººi Li J stalled here, ſº & / / * * ~ ;";’ y A > * Áºy A & —ROAD —- Plate 17. Two Methods of Starting a Carriage stalled on a Hill. may be attached around the trail of the carriage. For short, hard pulls, it may be at- tached around the felloe near the ground and passed over the tire of the wheel. A stalled carriage may often be started by turning the pole to one side as far as it will go and then straightening and moving the team in that direction. c. To avoid whip of the pole, carriages should be driven squarely across sunken roads, ruts, narrow ditches, etc.; when necessary, the brake is applied so that the traces are kept taut and the horses kept in draft continuously. 244 DRIVING AND DRAFT A team should be brought up to a hill or other difficult pull at a quiet, steady walk; this should be maintained throughout the pull except for the natural and necessary shortening of the stride of the horses as they strain into heavy draft. As the wheels of the limber reach the beginning of the difficult pull, each driver eases his pair into the collar. The lead driver sets the pace. Commensurate with the difficulty of the pull, he quietly causes his pair to exert their power in the collar. The swing driver likewise eases his pair into the collars, being careful, however, not to exert so much draft or to allow his pair to step out at such a rate as to slacken the traces ahead of him and thus take the horses ahead out of draft. - The wheel driver observes the same precautions as the swing driver. However, he does not allow his wheelers to exert their utmost effort in the collar but endeavors to save a slight reserve of power to be utilized in case danger of stalling the carriage is imminent. While in heavy draft each horse should have full freedom of head. If a carriage is stalled on a hill the certainty of starting is insured if the team is started and moved forward a stride or two before the full load is felt in the collars. There are two methods recom- mended for obtaining this: º (I) If the ground permits, the team and pole may be turned toward one flank and, when ready, the team moved out in the new direction. After the team has the carriage rolling, the upward climb may be resumed. (See Plate 17.) (2) If the carriage is on a narrow road or must resume the march along the same road, cut and back the limber until the trail of the carriage points across the road, straighten the team and pole to point up the road, and when ready start the team. Note that as the team starts it first feels only the pull of the limber and does not feel the pull of the entire carriage until the carriage straightens out. In descending a steep slope, the wheel driver causes his wheelers to lay back in the breeching and, assisted by the brakes, eases the carriage slowly down the slope. Lead and swing drivers step their pairs slowly ahead of the wheelers, keeping their traces absolutely slack. In negotiating drop-offs, the swing and wheel pairs are crowded up on the heels of the pair ahead so that as a pair drops off there will be sufficient slack in their traces to avoid pulling the pair behind off their feet. - Likewise in negotiating a bank or wall, the swing and wheel pairs must be crowded up behind the pair ahead to allow that pair sufficient trace to scramble up on the bank or over the wall. Sometimes in ascending a short, steep slope where footing is precarious, it will be found necessary to approach it at a fast trot or gallop to allow the team, or part of it, to get on good footing before the forward momentum of the carriage is lost. w In driving through woods and other terrain features where extremely short and sharp turns must be made, the wheel driver handles the carriage with his pair. The other drivers carefully give him all possible slackness of trace. - By driving his inside wheeler strongly into the collar and ahead of his outside wheeler, the wheel driver can cause the carriage to swing well to the outside of a turn. Should lead and swing drivers fail to give the wheel driver sufficient slackness of trace, he must obtain the necessary trace by bringing the carriage up strongly with his wheelers. 35. Gaits. The average rates of speed of the authorized gaits are as follows: the walk, 4 miles per hour; the trot, 8 miles per hour; the gallop, 12 miles per hour. In marches on metaled roads, the trot used should not be in excess of 6 miles per hour. MOUNTED FORMATIONS AND MANEUVERS SECTION 1 THE TRUCK-DRAWN BATTERY CONTENTS Paragraphs Chapter I. Motor Traction and the Driver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . s & 8 & 1-2 Chapter II. Formations of the Battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-9 Chapter III. Commands and Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * * * * * * 10-15 Chapter IV. Maneuvers . . . . . . . ." . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-27 Chapter V. Formation in Battery and Resumption of Marching Formation . . 28-32 Note: Except as otherwise indicated, paragraph numbers in Sections 1, 2, and 3, shown thus: (119) refer to or are based upon paragraphs in FM 6-5, Field Artillery Field Manual, Organization and Drill. Generally, portions of the text appearing in smaller type are explanations or amplifications of the text proper.) CHAPTER I MOTOR TRACTION AND THE DRIVER 1. Reference Data. a. Operation and maintenance. “Care and Operation of Motor Vehicles” contains detailed instructions on operation, maintenance, and inspection of motor vehicles to include general principles of motor transport; the military automotive driver; marches or motor movements; pioneer work, field expedients, and difficult operations; military automotive maintenance; loading for movement by rail or water. b. Manufacturer's handbooks. Manufacturer's handbooks accompanying vehicles should be used to obtain detailed information concerning the construction, operation, and maintenance requirements of commercial vehicles. Appropriate Technical Regu- lations cover the construction and maintenance of vehicles supplied by the Ordnance Department. (119) 2. Objective of Training. The service required of field artillery motor transport in- volves its employment in both strategic and tactical operations. The training of motorized units, therefore, must enable them to operate with facility both on roads over considerable distances and off roads over varied terrain of the battlefield. In addition, it may be required to march in the zone of the interior under conditions where minimum conflict with civilian traffic is of prime importance and where resultant decentralization of control imposes increased responsibility of the individual operators. (120) CHAPTER II FORMATIONS OF THE BATTERY 3. Scope. The provisions of this section apply, primarily, to the light-truck-drawn ar- tillery, but with obvious modifications are applicable to all calibers of motorized artillery. (121) Note—For maneuver purposes, the battery is divided into battery headquarters, guns and their prime movers, and fifth and maintenance sections. . The general formation applies to any piece battery, even though the number and assignment of vehicles present with the unit differs from that illustrated. 4. Formations of the Battery, a., Order in line. The battery is formed as indicated in Plate 1. The order of vehicles from right to left may be reversed in each line. 245 246 MOUNTED FORMATIONS AND MANEUVERS b. Order in section column. (Plate 2) The vehicles of each subdivision of the battery are in column, the subdivisions following in order: battery headquarters, firing battery, and the fifth and maintenance sections. ãº. Ord! Gles. 5 xds. º Bettery Headquarters [5] [D] [D] [D] [D][Sle:ORO Trk. - - Vure] wire.] 5 yds. Firing battery 4. #Cof Sceſ[D][N]2. O Ex 31stSgt [5] [5] Maint Kı An L E G E N D ô — BC RO — Rec. Officer ô–Lieut Ex — Executive à — 1st Sgt Ord — Orderly & — Sgt Cof Sec-Chief of Section [E] — Driver Ki — Kitchen EF- Guidon Ann — Arnmunition Trk-Truck Bglr – Bugler Plate 1. Order in Line, Light Truck-Drawn Battery. c. Order in battery. (See Plate 9 and par. 5, Section 2) The pieces placed for action are in line in the order or the reverse order, of their permanent numbers from right to left. The motor vehicles are at such places as the battery commander may direct. d. Order in line of vehicles. (Plate 3) The formation is the same as the order in line, except that the vehicles are arranged in a single line, subdivisions in the order (or the reverse order) from right to left as in b above. e. Order in flank column. (Plate 4) This formation is one which would result from a simultaneous movement to the flank by all vehicles from the order in line (122) 5. Intervals and Distances. a. Intervals. The interval between adjacent wheels of vehicles in line is 17 yards or as directed by the battery commander. In flank column, MOUNTED FORMATIONS AND MANEUVERS 247 the interval is that which results from the movement to the flank from the order in line. b. Distances. (1) In line. The distance between subdivisions of the battery in line at a halt is 5 yards, measured from the rear of the longest element of any subdivision to the front of the following subdivision. (2) In column. The distance between vehicles in column at a halt is 5 yards. When marching at very slow speeds, a distance of 5 yards can be maintained. As the speed of the battery is increased, the distance between vehicles must likewise be in- creased. Under no circumstances should the distance be less than one and one half times the minimum distance in which the vehicle can be stopped from the particular speed and on the particular road surface in use. (123) ºn 5 YOS SO’ | Plate 2. Order of the Subdivisions of a Battery in Section Column with 5-yard Interval. 6. Posts of Individuals. a. General. Except for officers, who are posted dismounted as shown, individuals, when dismounted, are 2 feet outside the wheels and facing to the front. Cannoneers take post as prescribed in the Service of the Piece. b. In line. The posts of individuals for the battery in line are shown in Plate 1. c. In flank column. In flank column, the battery commander's car is opposite and 15 yards from the head of the battery and on whichever flank the maneuver places it. d. In section. In section column, the battery commander's car is at the head of the battery. e. Other formations. In all formations, the posts of individuals other than the battery commander are determined by the location of their respective vehicles in the formation. Officers and noncommissioned officers leave their posts when necessary for the better performance of their duties. (124) 7. Disposition in Park. Carriages are arranged in the order in line, pieces uncoupled. (125) 8. Preparing to Leave Park. a. The battery being in line dismounted, in front of the park, the first sergeant commands: POSTS. The enlisted personnel hasten to take their posts dismounted as indicated in paragraph 6, the battery headquarters under the supervision of the reconnaissance officer, the firing battery under the supervision of the executive, and the fifth and maintenance sections under the supervision of the assistant executive. Necessary adjustments in assignment of personnel are made, the pieces are coupled, and the drivers make the prescribed inspections of their vehicles. Each driver, after inspecting his vehicle, reports the result to his chief of section who, in turn, reports to his chief of subdivision. Each chief of subdivision, having received the reports, makes a general inspection of his subdivision and commands: REST. 248 MOUNTED FORMATIONS AND MANEUVERS Subdivisions are called to attention when the battery commander takes his post in front of the right flank of the battery, and the chiefs of subdivision report in order from front to rear (when formed in the gun shed, from right to left), “Battery head- quarters in order, sir,” or “Firing battery in order, sir,” or “Fifth and maintenance sections in order, sir,” or report deficiencies noted as a result of the inspections. Fol- lowing these reports, the first sergeant reports, “Sir, the battery is present or accounted for,” or “Sir, (so many) noncommissioned officers and privates absent.” i £ ſº § a a G] ; § sº # i ſº i i . i– C-. #– i i-|#Ti– c=.e—<=:: #-#=#= i i # à G.(S) 3.# --------- ſº b. The battery commander then commands: MOUNT. The personnel, except the battery commander and chiefs of subdivision, mount the vehicles, and the battery commander commands: START ENGINES. As each engine is started, the driver MOUNTED FORMATIONS AND MANEUVERS 249 raises his left hand as a signal that his vehicle is ready to move. Each chief of sub- division, when his subdivision is ready to move, executes the same signal. The battery commander and chiefs of subdivision mount at the command of execution for the first movement. (126) 9. To Dismiss the Battery. a. As soon as the battery is parked, the battery commander takes post dismounted in front of the right flank of the battery and commands: STOP ENGINFS, DISMOUNT. Chiefs of section inspect their sections and report damage or losses to their respective chiefs of subdivision, who in turn report to the battery commander as in the formation of the battery. The battery commander then gives such instructions as may be necessary and directs the first sergeant. “Dismiss the battery.” Officers fall out. Wire © § $e p 3. ‘o 3 §: [D] > $s © dº sº Q £º | Such intervals as results from movement from order in line Plate 4. Order in Flank Column. b. The first sergeant then commands: FALL OUT, whereupon each chief of section takes charge of the work of routine maintenance. Each officer supervises the work of his department. c. In garrison, when the materiel is in order, the battery is formed dismounted, marched to barracks by the first sergeant, and there dismissed. (127) CHAPTER III COMMANDS AND SIGNALS 10. General. Commands may be given orally or by means of the arm, bugle, or whistle. Oral commands may be supplemented by signal. (128) Note—Exceptions. No command of execution is given, and the movement is obeyed as soon as understood in the following cases: Action front (right) (rear) (left); limber front and rear; route order. 11. Kinds of Commands. Commands are of two kinds; first, preparatory commands, which indicate the movement to be executed, such as Forward; and second, commands of execution, such as MARCH. A well-defined pause should be made between the two kinds of commands when used together; in mounted movements both should be more or less prolonged. Oral commands should be given facing the unit; arm signals should be given facing in the same direction as the unit. (128) 12. Signals. a. General. Signals are transmitted by bugles, whistles, voice, and by arm movements. Because of the great extension of convoys in movement, sound signals are of no value except at halts. The bugle may be used in rear areas for such signals as: Attention, Assemble, and Forward. Whistle and voice may be used at halts to attract attention. There is a complete set of arm and hand signals for use in convoy control and maneuvers coupled and limbered which may be transmitted both at a halt and in movement. All operating personnel, whether drivers or not, must be thoroughly trained in the use of these signals and impressed with the necessity for the prompt and rapid transmission of signals from one end of the column to the other. In movement, signals are given by the assistant driver who makes certain that the assistant driver ahead or in rear receives the signal and promptly passes it on. (Par. 316, FM 25-10) b. Whistle. (1) ATTENTION. One long blast. (2) BATTERY COMMANDER'S PARTY REPORT. One long, followed by one short blast, the whole signal repeated once. (3) CEASE FIRING. One long blast. (4) CHIEFS OF SECTION REPORT. Three long blasts. (5) OFFICERS REPORT. Two long blasts. Note—The signals given below are taken from FM 6-5, Field Artillery Organization and Drill and FM 22-5 Infantry Drill Regulations; but are rearranged in sequence. c. Arm, and hand signals. Standard signals are given below. They should be preceded by the whistle signal Attention to orders (short blast) when necessary to fix the drivers’ attention at a halt. Plate 5. Assemble. Plate 6. Attention. Signals are made with either arm but are generally made with the right arm. (80) When using arm signals the battery commander should: (1) Place himself where he can be seen by the battery. (2) Face the direction in which the battery is facing. (3) Signal attention with his whistle and allow time for all concerned to locate him. (4) Make his signal (preparatory command) slowly and distinctly. (5) Allºw, time for its interpretation. Then signal command of execution and simultaneously blow one whistle blast. - 250 MOUNTED FORMATIONS AND MANEUVERS 251 d. In movements which involve a change in the direction of march, it is desirable for the battery commander to move in the new direction after making the preparatory signal. (80) (1) Assemble. Raise the hand vertically to the full extent of the arm, fingers extended and joined, and describe horizontal circles with the arm and hand. (Plate 5) (2) Attention. Hand moved above head rapidly from side to side. (Plate 6) (3) Prepare to mount. Extend the arm horizontally to the side, palm up, and wave the arm upward several times. (Plate 7) (4) Prepare to dismount. Extend the arm diagonally upward to the side, palm down, and wave the arm downward several times. (Plate 8) © Plate 7. Prepare to Mount. Plate 8. Prepare to Dismount. (5) Forward. Face and move in the desired direction of march, at the same time extend the hand vertically to the full extent of the arm, palm to the front, and lower the arm in the direction of movement until it is horizontal. In starting a convoy, this Plate 9. Forward. Plate 10. March (Command of Execution). signal is a warning signal. Immediately after giving the signal, the convoy commander or serial or section leader mounts and directs the driver of his vehicles to start. (Plate 9) (6) March. (command of execution). Extend the arm vertically and then lower it sharply to the side. (Plate 10) º Right Left Plate 11. Change Direction to the Right (Left). (7) Change direction to the right (left). Column right (left). Extend the arm vertically, lower it to the left (right) until horizontal, and describe a horizontal semi- circle to the front and right (left). (Plate 11) (8) Halt. Raise the arm vertically to the full extent of the arm. Signal of execu- tion, lower the arm to the side. (Plate 12) (9) Route order. Extend the arm vertically and move it slowly back and forth from right to left through a wide arc. (Plate 13) 252 MOUNTED FORMATIONS AND MANEUVERS (10) Cease firing. Raise both arms vertically and hold them in that position until the signal is understood. When giving this signal the commander faces the battery. (Plate 14) ſ Plate 12. Halt. Plate 13. Route Order. Plate 14. Cease Firing. 13. Signals for Motor Convoys. a. Whistle. In addition to the signals listed in Paragraph 12b the following are used: (1) START ENGINES. Two long followed by two short blasts. (2) STOP ENGINES. Two short followed by one long blast. b. Arm and hand. Plate 15. Ready to Start. (1) Ready to start. Senior in truck stands on running board, faces leader, and gives the arm signal, “I am ready.” Extend the left arm vertically, fingers extended and joined. This signal, when used by the commander, means, “Are you ready to move?”; by a subordinate, “I am ready to move.” (Plate 15) g Plate 16. Start Engines. Plate 17. Stop Engines. (2) Start engines. Simulate cranking. (Plate 16) (3) Stop engines. Cross arms in front of body at the waist and then move them sharply to the side. Repeat several times. (Plate 17) (4) Close up. Extend the arms horizontally, straight to the front, palms in. Move the hands together and then resume first position. Repeat several times. (Plate 18) (5) Increase speed. Carry the hand to the shoulder, fist closed; rapidly thrust the fist upward vertically to the full extent of the arm and back to the shoulder several times. (Plate 19) (6) Decrease the speed. Raise the right elbow to a position above and to the right of the right shoulder and extend the forearm upward and to the left, right hand above the head, palm to the front. (Plate 20) Note—To indicate an increased or decreased speed for a maneuver, the appropriate signal is made following the preparatory signal for the maneuver. MOUNTED FORMATIONS AND MANEUVERS 253 (7) Change gear range. These signals are given at the halt only. § * - ? g T, / ; t t º § d * º t g tº * - Plate 18. Close Up. Plate 19. Increase Speed. Plate 20. Decrease Speed. (a) High range. Move the arm up and down several times, fingers pointed up- ward. (Plate 21) - * • * * * - \ | . -: r.” | v " . . " First Second Third Fourth Reverse Plate 23. Gearshift. (b) Low range. Move the arm several times from the vertically extended posi- tion downward with the fingers pointed downward. (Plate 22) (8) Gear shifting. To indicate the gear to be used in starting the vehicles, or to which a shift is to be made at any subsequent time, extend the arm vertically and show the number of fingers corresponding to the gear desired, as follows: (a) First. Index finger only. (b) Second. Index and second fingers. (c) Third. Index, second, and third fingers. (d) Fourth. Index, second, third, and fourth fingers. (e) Reverse. The closed fist. (Plate 23) Sºlº ! t º | t First Movement Point at Right Second Movement Forward (Left) Vehicle Plate 24. Right (Left) by Vehicle. (9) Right (left) by vehicle. Point at the right (left) vehicle and then signal forward. (Plate 24) 254 MOUNTED FORMATIONS AND MANEUVERS (11) Drivers to turn around simultaneously. Extend both arms horizontally toward the drivers and describe small vertical circles, then signal forward in the desired new First Movement Second Movement Plate 25. Drivers to Turn Around Simultaneously. direction. When the distance between permits and the convoy is long, this signal may be given by a motorcycle messenger passing back along the column. (Plate 25) 14. Driver Signals. a. Slow or stop. Extend the left arm outward to an angle of 45° below the horizontal. (Plate 26) b. Turn right. Extend the left arm outward at an angle of 45° above the horizontal. (Plate 27) c. Turn left. Extend the left arm outward horizontally. (Plate 28) d. Pass and keep going. Extend the left hand horizontally and describe small circles toward the front with the hand. (Plate 29) /-N /~ /~ Yºſ - º ſāşN \sº ſº * I, T, Sº ºf 1 Ti! t; º Plate 26. Slow or Stop. Plate 27. Turn Right. Plate 28. Turn Left. 2^ Tr sº J - n-2 Plate 29. Pass and Keep Going. 15. Signals for Maneuvers Coupled. a. General. Chiefs of subdivision repeat the commands of the battery commander or give appropriate commands to their sub- divisions in time to insure the proper execution of the maneuver. The chiefs of sub- Front Right Rear Plate 30. Action Front (Right) (Left) (Bear). division ordinarily give their commands orally or by arm signal, and see that the com- mands of the battery commander are understood and correctly executed by their sub- divisions. b. Chiefs of vehicles repeat the commands of their chiefs of subdivision or give MOUNTED FORMATIONS AND MANEUVERS 255 appropriate commands to their drivers to insure the proper execution of the maneuver. The senior man riding on a vehicle is the chief of vehicle. c. In addition to the whistle and arm and hand signals described above the following arm signals are used: (1) Action front (right) (left) (rear). Extend the arm vertically and lower it quickly, palm vertical, several times to the front (right) (left) (rear). (Plate 30) Right Left Plate 31. By the Right (Left) Flank. & (2) By the right (left) flank. Extend the arm vertically and lower it to the right (left) until horizontal. (Plate 31) Right Z (Viewed From Above) Plate 32. Couple. Plate 33. Guide. Plate 34. Right (Left) About. (3) Couple. Extend both arms laterally, palms down. (Plate 32) (4) Guide. After the signal of execution, point at the guiding element. (Plate 33) (5) Right (left) about. Extend the arm horizontally to the left (right) and describe slowly a large horizontal circle-and-one half to the front and right (left). (Plate 34) Right Left Plate 36. Right (Left) Front Into Line. (6) Right (left) oblique. Extend the arm obliquely upward to the right (left) front and lower it, describing a large vertical circle on the right (left) side. (Plate 35) (7) Right (left) by vehicle. Point at the right (left) vehicle and then signal forward. (8) Right (left) front into line. Extend the arm vertically and describe several large vertical circles on the right (left) side. (Plate 36) CHAPTER IV MANEUVERS 16. General. a. The number of maneuvers prescribed herein are limited to those essential for combat and ceremonies. Mobility in truck-drawn units is attained primarily by road marching and field maneuvers in contradistinction to drill-ground maneuvers. b. Movements which may be executed toward either flank are explained as toward but one flank. - c. Any movement may be executed either from a halt or when marching, unless other- wise prescribed. d. When, because of the differences in lengths of elements, proper intervals and dis- tances do not obtain during maneuvers, the prescribed intervals or distances will be secured gradually by appropriate changes of speed. e. If, in forming elements abreast of each other, the command Halt is given, during the movement, only those elements halt which have reached their new positions; the others continue the march and halt on reaching their positions. (130) 17. Guides. Each chief of vehicle supervises the speed and direction of march of his vehicle. As soon as the march in line or flank column has begun, one of the flank elements is designated as guide of the movement, thus, “Guide right (left).” Other elements aline themselves on the guide and maintain their intervals from that flank. Guides are responsible that the proper direction and rate of march are maintained. (131) 18. Directing Vehicles. In changes of formation, vehicles which establish the direc- tion and rate of march of the new formation are termed directing vehicles. (132) Plate 37. 1. By the Right Flank, 2. MARCH (From Order in Line Forms Flank Column to the Right). 19. Guidon. The battery guidon is mounted in a suitable bracket on the battery commander's car. (133) - 20. Alinements. The base vehicle being established in position, the command is: 1. Right (left), 2. DRESS, 3. FRONT. At the command DRESS, drivers other than the base drivers look to the flank designated and aline their vehicles. Vehicles cover from front to rear. Each chief of subdivision supervises the alinement of his sub- 256 MOUNTED FORMATIONS AND MANEUVERS 257 division from a position on the flank occupied by his vehicle and in line with the radiator of the base vehicle, facing down the line. (134) 21. To March to the Front and to Halt. The commands are respectively: 1. Forward, 2. MARCH; and 1. Battery, 2. HALT. (135) *- 22. To March by the Flank. (Plate 37) The command is: 1. By the right (left) flank, 2. MARCH. Except as noted below, all vehicles simultaneously turn to the right. If the battery is in line with closed intervals, the movement is executed by files of vehicles successively instead of simultaneously. If executed while marching at closed intervals, all vehicles except those on the designated flank halt at the second command and then follow successive movement. Movements by the flank while marching should not be attempted except at very low speeds, and then only according to a prearranged plan and on a prearranged signal. This movement is not executed from column except when it is intended to march by the flank but a short distance and then resume the formation in column. (136) ſm (*"ſists {m *ll AA . 24 AA G] [G] [d] G] º T w º 5 yds ſm (s "º"I’m + - - º EIG [][3] . [I][d] [][d]| |[][3] T - 5 yds Fifth eña Nisinterºice Section 1. J18g F][3+1Pio oaç㺠Plate 38. 1. Left About, 2. MARCH. 23. To March to the Rear by an About. (Plate 38) The command is: 1. Right (left) about, 2. MARCH. All vehicles simultaneously execute the about, turning on the shortest practicable radius. (137) 24. To March Obliquely. (Plate 39). The command is: 1. Right (left) oblique, 2. MARCH. At the second command, vehicles oblique simultaneously, moving in IPA2 (1) 258 MOUNTED FORMATIONS AND MANEUVERS parallel lines, alined from front to rear and from right to left. The movements should be such that, on executing a second oblique in either direction, carriages will have the proper distances, intervals, and alinements. (138) 25. To Change Direction When in Column. (Plates 41 and 42.) The command is: Øj[S]º CBC ordi-EU-3:831 r N. : N. Plate 39. 1. Left Oblique, 2. MARCH, Followed by 1. Right Oblique, 2. MARCH. 1. Column right (left), 2. MARCH. If in section column, the leading vehicle makes a 90° turn followed in trace by the other vehicles. If in flank column, the file of vehicles on the designated flank executes the movement prescribed for vehicles in section column. Vehicles on the outside of the turn independently increase the speed and conform to the movement of the corresponding vehicles on the inside flank. Column half right (left) may be executed. (139) . . 26. To Form Section Column to the Front From Line. (Plate 42) The command is: MOUNTED FORMATIONS AND MANEUVERS 259 1. Right (left) by vehicle, 2. MARCH. (Plate 42.) The right vehicle of the leading sub- division moves straight to the front; the other vehicles of the subdivision successively incline to the right and then to the left so as to follow in column. A similar movement is successively executed by the other subdivisions of the battery so as to follow in column. If executed while marching and an increased speed is not announced by the battery commander, all vehicles except the directing vehicle reduce the speed sufficiently to execute the maneuver, resuming the original speed at such time as will enable each vehicle to take its proper place in column. If an increased speed is announced, the directing vehicle takes up the increased speed; other vehicles take up the new speed in time to take their proper place in column. The battery commander places his car in front of the directing vehicle, which thereafter conforms to the speed set by the battery commander's car. (140) ----HTH Aº |NSIDE RADIUS OF TURN 9 O DEGREES i. Plate 40. 1. Column Right, 2. MARCH (From Section Column). 27. To Form Line to the Front From Section Column. (Plate 43) The command is: 1. Right (left) front into line, 2. MARCH. (Plate 43) The leading vehicle of the lead- ing subdivision moves straight to the front six vehicle lengths and halts; other vehicles of the leading subdivision move to their positions by two obliques. A similar move- ment is executed successively by the subdivisions in rear (See Fig. 1). Line may be formed at any desired interval by instructing the necessary personnel prior to the movement as to the interval desired, by the use of stakes to mark the location of the vehicles, or by the use of markers who individually place the leading vehicles in the formation. A single line of vehicles may be formed by the same command, the neces- sary personnel first being informed as to the formation desired (See Fig. 2). This movement is executed by the entire battery as described for the leading subdivision. (141) § .* * *, *.*.*. • , g” y * * --- ©º tº: ſº {} ! / 2' 2^ * * H . | ODC - ºf-15 Yos—-ºltº-17 yos —--|DD|--—17 Yps –...-- *~d W-4. JG 53 ºr C -ºš tº: . | * * {* t R 2 tº lºt Sgt. ... * ... • * - * .. - - - - - " . Firing pattery' " ...-- " " : t Č of 36& tº Lº C of $ ec ... < r < e < Cof 5 scº N. S.O Ex c 13t 9 ºt t º ! t t ... → ----" * Fifth erºd M3inter, once Sections . º 5,t v H.R. Plate 42. 1. Right by Vehicle, 1. Column Right, 2. MARCH (From Flank Column). 2. MARCH. HPlate 41. f 5 YOS | — 7 y OS - fl. -- 7 vos----- | | l | t | h º H º, | +! | — | sºps | ! { * * * * | | | | f | | A | SO’ 2. | i 2’ i. ,” | | 2 º ! | Af | 2. } Z t --- | ,” - 2. * | ,” /* 2 8 o’ 2 - 2" & Ar Af 27 - .** ,’ | 60° 4– Fig. 1. By Subdivision. Plate 43. 1. Right Front into Line, 2. MARCH. MOUNTED FORMATIONS AND MANEUVERS 261 8N *: < – – – – – – – –-> <=** • • • • • • • -- →\,^J #^\, \,\ ğ•- N`N 4N`N\ NN^, N y!• • • • • • • • • • • •NNNJ #• • • • • • • • • •`N^NJN |×WANNN 2 2N^N 7 + – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –•N\,\,^ ŲN\^,^\ NNN.N {NN^^,N • • • • • •= • → → → → → → →-NN\^\N ^NN^NN NNNNN\, • ~ = ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ = ~•••• • •^N^,^N\, |--|-|N`NN^NNN {NN.\\\NN # -*- - - - - - - -NNNNNJN\N ?>NN\NNNN •N… NNN^）N^.N • • •~ ~ ！== -NNN\NN .N NNNNNNNNJN *\N\NNNN \ ^N.N\,\,^N \,N → ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ \,N\NNNN^N \,NNN \,N^\,\,NN\\\ ^,^^N\\N\N\ \,NNN\ ^ • • • • • • →\,N•N^N.\^ ą^~ ！\,NNN\ \,`NNN.N £\\,NNNNNNN\\ ©NN.`NN\NNº,N.\`N 3 → – – – – –\N« *NN^,N^N\, →N\,NN•NNN^NN \,\,NN.\,N\\,\N ！\,N\,~ NN^,^NN\,\N § →••• • • •\,^NNN^NNN\,`NN };\NN^,NNN\N\,^ \,^.^N*A. >*•NN^N\,^\*N eº*J\\N^`N\*^N\^, • • • • • •N« N.< ' .. N\^\\\\ Èšī£，`s,`， `s^ \`N`N`s,`s,`s`s,`s，`s,`s） · · · · ·Ë FJ FTĒTĒ JĒJÈ-HÊ-TE-Hſ-ſig-H+（-1+（ſ-a)（ſ-№-HìĘ-）HìLEHD Ë By Single Vehicle. 1. Right Front into Line, 2. MARCH. Fig. 2. Plate 43 (Continued). CHAPTER V FORMATION IN BATTERY AND RESUMPTION OF MARCHING FORMATION 28. Forming in Battery. Batteries of motorized artillery are usually established in position from section column, each section being independently conducted to and established in position by its chief. The order in battery may be formed by the com- mand Action front (rear) (right) (left). The movement is executed as prescribed in Service of the Piece. (142) 29. Disposition of Motor Vehicles. The piece trucks are conducted by the first sergeant to a place designated by the battery commander. In active service or instruction simulating it, they are disposed to take advantage of concealment and cover. The ammunition trucks halt at points designated by the battery commander for unloading ammunition and thereafter join the other vehicles under the direction of the first sergeant. (143) º Deteil 2O & : Liaison sections 2^ Meintern ance section Plate 44. Order in Line, Battalion Headquarters Battery, Light Truck-Drawn Regiment. (For legend, see Plate 1.) Note. For maneuver purposes, the battery is divided into the detail, liaison sections, and maintenance section. Until tractors are issued, battery maintenance vehicles will form on the left of liaison sections. In the figure, three vehicles for the battalion commander and his commissioned and noncommissioned staff have been omitted. 30. To Couple. The command is: COUPLE. The movement is executed as pre- scribed in the Service of the Piece. (144) 31. Formation After Coupling. The battery is in line and may be maneuvered accordingly. (145) 32. Headquarters Batteries and Combat Trains. These batteries are formed as illustrated in Plates 44, 45, and 46. They are maneuvered in accordance with the principles prescribed for the piece battery. (146) 262 MOUNTED FORMATIONS AND MANEUVERS 263 2O 2d &ection 1st section Plate 45 order in Line, Battalion combat Train, Light Truck-Drawn Regiment. (For legend, see Plate 1.) Note. Two motorcycles with side cars (not shown), if present, are posted as pre- scribed by the commanding Officer. 2O Detail E. E. E. E. E. H battery mainterience end in 3 girnental naintern ance section Re 2O Plate 46. Order in Line, Regimental Headquarters Battery, Light Truck-Drawn Regiment. (For legend, see Plate 1.) Note. Three vehicles for the regimental commander and his staff and the motorcycles and side cars have been omitted from this figure. MOUNTED FORMATIONS AND MANEUVERS - SECTION 2 THE HORSE-DRAWN BATTERY CONTENTS Paragraphs Chapter I. Formations of Gun Battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-10 Chapter II. Commands and Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-13 Chapter III. Maneuvers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-43 Chapter IV. Formation in Battery and Resumption of Marching Formation . . 44-49 Chapter V. Headquarters Batteries and Combat Trains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50-51 CHAPTER I FORMATIONS OF GUN BATTERY 1. General. The leading caisson of an ammunition section in the normal order in park is called the first caisson, the other the second caisson. Movements prescribed for the piece and caisson of a gun section apply with obvious modifications to the first and second caissons, respectively, of an ammunition section. (68) 2. Battery Detail. The battery detail corresponds to a platoon of two sections. (69) P ZTI CX Z X C 3-2 yds T-sº yds C 2 yds Plate 1. Section Column. Plate 2. Double Section Plate 3. Flank Column. Column * 3. Formations of the Section. The section is said to be in— a. Section column when one carriage is in rear of the other with 2 yards distance from the heads of the lead horses of the second carriage to the rear of the first carriage. (Plate 1). b. Double section when the two carriages are abreast with 2 yards interval between adjacent wheels. (Plate 2). c. Flank column when the two carriages are abreast with 17 yards interval between adjacent wheels. (Plate 3) (70) 4. Formations of the Battery, Limbered. a. Order in line. The battery is formed as indicated in Plate 4. The sections may be formed in the reverse order. Each section is in section column, pieces begin either in front or in rear of their caissons. b. Order in double section line (Plate 5). Similar to the order in line, except that each section is formed in double section. The caissons are all on the same flank of their pieces. ) c. Örder in section column (Plate 6). The sections, each in section column, follow each other in the order, or reverse order, of their positions in the order in line. Pieces are either in front or in rear of their caissons. d. Order in double section column (Plate 7). Similar to the order in section column, 265 266 MOUNTED FORMATIONS AND MANEUVERS except that sections are in double section. The caissons are all on the same flank of their pieces. e. Order in flank column (Plate 8). The sections, each in flank column, follow each other in the order, or reverse order, of their positions in the order in line. The caissons are all on the same flank of their pieces. (71) 5. Order in Battery. (Plate 9) The pieces and caissons of the gun sections, placed for action, are in line in the order, or the reverse order, of their permanent numbers from right to left; the caissons of the fifth section, unlimbered, are placed one on each | | * * º d : , : 5 ºmº" º º 17 † º # Legend BC ºft Guidon B Piece Lieut S Đugler -- Č Caisson ist Sgt Ind Individually R. Pattery reel & Sgt mounted men RC Reel and cort Ø Corp WM Mountain wagon Trk Truck © Driver Distances end intervals are in yards. Plate 4. Order in Line, 75-mm Gun Battery, Horse-drawn. Note. The maintenance section, if present, is posted to the left of the fifth section. flank of this line, or are otherwise disposed as directed by the battery commander; the limbers are disposed as explained in paragraph 45. (72) 6. Intervals and Distances. a. Intervals. The interval between adjacent wheels of hitched carriages in line is 17 yards; in double section line the interval between adjacent wheels of adjoining sections is 13 yards. b. Distances. (1) The distance between hitched carriages in column, from the rear of one carriage to the heads of the lead horses of the carriage which follows, is 2 yards. (2) In column or in line, the distance between a carriage and a mounted gun squad is 2 yards. In double section or in flank column, the distance between caissons is such as to permit each caisson to march abreast of its piece. In line, the distance between caissons of the ammunition section is such that the caissons are abreast of the pieces and caissons of the gun sections. In battery, when the limbers are posted in rear of their carriages, the distance from the heads of the lead horses to the rear of the caissons in the line of pieces is 25 yards. (73) 7. Posts of Individuals. a. The posts of individuals for drill purposes are shown in the table below. * b. Cannoneers take posts as prescribed in the section on “Service of the Piece.” In horse batteries, with the carriages limbered, gun squads when not specifically directed otherwise are in rear of their caissons, dressed toward the side of the guide; in section column they dress to the right; in flank column, double section column, and double section line they form on the outer flank of the caisson, the front rank alined on the axle of the limber. Led horses of the cannoneers of horse batteries are posted 2 yards in rear of the caisson limber. c. Officers and noncommissioned officers leave their posts when necessary for better performance of their duties. (74) MOUNTED FORMATIONS AND MANEUVERS 267 8. Disposition in Park. Carriages are arranged in the order in line, pieces in front, in normal order of sections from right to left, at intervals as directed by the battery commander. (75) & 9. To Form the Battery in Park. a. (1) The battery being formed dismounted, the first sergeant forms the chiefs of section, drivers' squads, and battery detail into a group. zºr &ytz's q- x7 # C * .# § P 3 CA © 5 t º © -: R -: 4 yds i-o- .5 | $ºs -3, 3 * C º, ºf $ & & ſº Plate 6. Order in Section Column. º.# ===g-à-l[UD This group is marched by the senior chief of section to the horses. Upon arriving at the position of the horses, the chief of section in charge halts the detachment and commands: HARNESS. The drivers fall out and harness, and individually mounted men saddle; the horses of chiefs of section are saddled by men detailed for that purpose. 268 MOUNTED FORMATIONS AND MANEUVERS Platoon COIn- mander First, sergeant (when not act- ing as chief of platoon). Chief of section Guidon Buglers posite the center. Halfway between his Sections, and in line With the lead drivers of his leading carriages. Halfway between the center Sections, opposite the rear Of the rear Car- riages. BOOt to boot. With the lead driver of his leading carriage, Or, if in double S e C tº i O n, of his piece. Column and 15 yards from the left flank. Opposite the Center of his platoon, 4 yards from the left flank. Opposite the Center of the battery, 4 yards from the right flank. Same as in line Abreast of the guide of the battery, park, 4 yards from the right flank of the battery alined on the lead drivers. Boot to boot. With each other, 2 yards in rear of the captain. and 15 yards from its flank; On the left When the right section leads, and on the right in the reverse Order. Halfway between the pieces and Cais- sons, and in line With tº he l e a d drivers of his lead- ing carriages. Opposite the cen- ter of the COlumn and 4 yards from its flank; . On the right W he n the right section leads, and on the left in the reverse Order. Boot to boot. With the lead driver of his piece. ------ and 2 yards to his left. Posts of INDIVIDUALs, HoRSE-DRAwN BATTERIES -- * Order in lin Qº injectiºn ord i man ... . . . . . . * - - TÜler IIl e OT || C O I U1 ºn 11 O r rder in flank *. r Individuals | double section line | double section column Order in battery column Captain . . . . . . . 8 yards in front Opposite the Opposite the Cen- Halfway between e of the battery op- center of the ter of the column the two center-sec- tions, 10 yards in rear of the line of the trail Spades. Halfway between the guns Of his pla- toon, and 5 yards in rear of the line of the trail Spades. Halfway between the two center Sec- tions, 20 yards in rear Of the line Of the trail Spades. 2 yards in rear of the lunette Of his caisson and oppo- site its Center. Before leaving (2) The drivers having been marched off, the gun squads are formed into a group by the first sergeant and marched to the gun park by the senior gunner. Upon arriving at the park, the squads are posted with their carriages if the latter are not in the gun ë—eras— ë- #- y [. IX. C ------&y cis & Z - P C |+ tº 2 yds Plate 7. Order in Double Section Column. MOUNTED FORMATIONS AND MANEUVERS 269 shed; otherwise the detachment is halted and the detachment commander commands: FORM PARK. At this command, the cannoneers fall out and run the carriages out o the shed by hand. . (3) The park being in order, the senior gunner posts the cannoneers at the car- riages limbered, and commands: PUT YOUR CARRIAGES IN ORDER. At this com- mand, carriages are prepared for hitching, extra cannoneers being detailed to perform the necessary police duty. 2 15yds P r P | P P +O +o g-e F 17yds SI-2– G-#-- &- t Plate 8. Order in Flank Column. (4) As soon as the horses are harnessed, the first sergeant commands: LEAD OUT. At this command, sections lead out in turn and form in column. The first sergeant then mounts the drivers, conducts the column to the park, posts the teams with their carriages, and causes them to be hitched. (5) In horse batteries, when the carriages have been prepared for hitching, the senior gunner directs the gunners to march their squads to the horses and to saddle. b. In the field, the duties enumerated in a above are performed at the first sergeant's command: 1. Drivers, 2. HARNESS AND HITCH. Hº-Hº-Hº * | * * * * * All intervals and distances in yards 25 All carriages assumed to be 17 yards long when limbered r sº Limbers Trucks Plate 9. Order in Battery. c. The lieutenants reach the park or the stables at such time as is necessary for them to superintend the details of their departments. They take their posts as chiefs of platoon as soon as the teams are posted with the carriages and in time to superintend the hitch- ing. Each chief of section inspects his section when hitched and reports the result to his chief of platoon. . Each chief of platoon, , having received the reports of his chiefs of section, makes a general inspection of his platoon and commands: REST. Platoons are called to attention upon the approach of the battery commander, and as soon as he has taken his post platoon commanders report in succession from right to left, “Detail in order, sir” (the detail being on the right), or “First (such) platoon in order, sir,” or report deficiencies noted as a result of the inspections. Following these reports, the first sergeant makes his report as prescribed for dismounted formations. (76) 1270 MOUNTED FORMATIONS AND MANEUVERS tº 10. To Dismiss the Battery. a. As soon as the battery is parked, chiefs of section #inspect their sections and report injuries or losses to their respective chiefs of platoon; the latter make appropriate reports to the battery commander as in the formation of the battery. The battery commander then gives such instructions as may be necessary and directs the first sergeant, “Dismiss the battery.” Officers fall out. ... b. The first sergeant commands: 1. Drivers, 2. DISMOUNT, 3. UNHITCH, 4. UNHOOK TRACES. He conducts the teams to the stable and then commands: FALL OUT, whereupon each chief of section takes command of his section. The assistant executive, assisted by the first sergeant and stable sergeant, superintends the work of the drivers. The executive, assisted by the chief mechanic, superintends the work of the cannoneers in caring for the carriages. c. In the field, the first sergeant, when directed to dismiss the battery, commands: 1. Drivers, 2. DISMOUNT, 3. UNHITCH AND UNHARNESS. Chiefs of section then take charge of their sections. d. In horse batteries, while the drivers are unhitching, gun squads are marched by the senior gunner to the stables or picket lines. At the command Fall out, they un- saddle and care for their equipment. Sufficient cannoneers are left to care for the horses; the remainder return to the park to care for the matériel. e. In garrison, the battery should be formed dismounted, marched to the barracks by the first sergeant, and there dismissed. (77) CHAPTER II COMMANDS AND SIGNALS 11. Commands and Signals. a. General. (See paragraph 12 a and b, Section I, which applies to horse-drawn units as well.) b. Commands are of two kinds; first, preparatory commands, which indicate the movement to be executed, such as Forward; and second, commands of execution, such as MARCH. A well-defined pause should be made between the two kinds of com- mands when used together; in mounted movements both should be more or less prolonged. Oral commands should be given facing the unit; arm signals should be given facing in the same direction as the unit. c. Chiefs of platoon repeat the commands of the battery commander or give appropriate commands to their platoons in time to insure the proper execution of the maneuver. The chiefs of platoon ordinarily give their commands orally, supplemented, if necessary, by the appropriate arm signal. They see that the commands of the battery commander are understood and correctly executed by their platoons. d. Chiefs of section repeat the commands of their chiefs of platoon, or give appro- priate commands to their sections in time to insure the proper execution of the maneuver. Chiefs of section ordinarily give their commands orally, supplemented, if necessary, by arm signals, and see that the command is understood and correctly executed. (78) 12. Whistle Signals. , The following whistle signal is used in addition to those given in paragraph 12, Section 1: Trot. Two short blasts, repeated once or twice. 13. Arm Signals. (See paragraph 12 d, Section 1.) These signals may be made with either arm, but are generally made with the right arm. The signal for the command of execution, MARCH, consists in extending the arm vertically and then lowering it sharply to the side. * * In movements involving a change in the direction of march, it is desirable for the battery commander to move in the new direction after making the preparatory signal. Arm signals are as follows: a. Attention. (See par. 12 d (2), Section 1.) b. Back. Carry the hand to the shoulder and move the open hand, palm extended, MOUNTED FORMATIONS AND MANEUVERS 271 several times in the desired direction. This signal is given facing the desired direction of movement. (Plate 10.) N Plate 10. Back. Plate 11. Caissons Front. c. By the right (left) flank. (See par. 15 d (2), Section 1.) d. Caissons front. Extend the arm horizontally to the front, palm down, and move it several times through a small horizontal arc. (Plate 11.) Fig. 1. Point. Fig. 2. Right Oblique. Fig. 3. Left Oblique. Plate 12. Close Intervals. e. Cease firing. (See par. 12 d (10), Section 1.) f. Change direction to the right (left). (See par. 12 d (7), Section 1.) Plate 13. Countermarch. Plate 14. Double Section, Right Oblique. g. Close intervals. Point to the section on which intervals are to be closed and then signal right (left) (right and left) oblique, according as the intervals are to be closed on the right, left, or an interior section. (Plate 12.) h. Countermarch. Extend the arm vertically and describe quickly several small horizontal circles. (Plate 13.) i. Decrease the gait. (See par. 13 b (6), Section 1.) j. Double section, right (left) oblique. Extend the arm horizontally to the right (left), palm vertical, and move it several times through a small vertical arc. (Plate 14.) Fig. 1. Point. Fig. 2. Right Oblique. Fig. 3. Left Oblique. Plate 15.. Extend Intervals. -. k. Extend intervals. Point to the section on which intervals are to be extended and then give the appropriate signal for obliquing. (Plate 15.) 272 MOUNTED FORMATIONS AND MANEUVERS l. Flank column, right (left) oblique. Extend the arm horizontally to the right (left), palm down, and move it several times through a small horizontal arc. (Plate 16.) m. Forward. (See par. 12 d (5), Section 1.) Fig. 1. Right. Fig. 2. Left. Plate 18. On Right (Left) Into Line. n. Guide. (See par. 15 c (4), Section 1.) o. Halt. (See par. 12 d (8), Section 1.) r p. Increase the gait. (See par. 13 b (5), Section 1.) Plate 19. Pieces Front. Plate 20. Right Sections Forward. q. Limber or pack. Extend both arms laterally, palms down. (Plate 17.) r. On right (left) into line. Signal a change of direction to the right (left) and then signal left (right) front into line. (Plate 18.) s. Pieces front. Extend the arm horizontally to the front, palm vertical, and move it several times through a small vertical arc. (Plate 19.) t. Prepare to dismount. (See par. 12 d (4), Section 1.) u. Prepare to mount. (See par. 12 d (3), Section 1.) - v. Right (left) about. (See par. 15 c (5), Section 1.) - w. Right (left) by section. Point at the right. (left) section and then signal forward. z. Right sections forward. Carry the closed fist to the shoulder and thrust it forward several times to the full extent of the arm. (Plate 20.) y. Right (left) front into line. (See par. 15 c (8), Section 1.) MOUNTED FORMATIONS AND MANEUVERS 273 Fig. 2. Left. Plate 21. Right (Left) Into Line. . . . . 2. Right (left) into line. Signal a change of direction to the right (left), followed by describing several small vertical circles with the arm extended. (Plate 21.) aa. Right (left) oblique. (See par. 15 c (6), Section 1.) ab. Route order. (See par. 12 d (9), Section 1.) (80) CHAPTER III MANEUVERS 14. General. a. Movements that may be executed toward either flank are explained as toward but one flank. - b. Any movement may be executed either from the halt or when marching, unless otherwise prescribed. c. All mounted movements not specially excepted may be executed at the trot or gallop. To execute a movement at an increased or decreased gait, the command Trot (gallop) (walk) precedes the command March. Gaits are increased or decreased one degree at a time. d. Movements explained for smaller units are applicable, in general, to larger units with appropriate changes in commands. - e. When, because of differences in length of elements, proper intervals and distances do not obtain during maneuvers, the prescribed intervals or distances will be secured gradually by appropriate modifications of pace. - • * * ~ * e f. If, in forming elements abreast of each other, the command 1. Battery (platoon) (section), 2. HALT is given during the movement, only those elements halt which have reached their new positions; the others continue the march and halt on reaching their positions.” “... . ." . . . . .” - - ' ' ' . . . . . " g. To correct errors while marching or to suspend the movement, the command is: 1. In' place, 2. HALT: . All halt and stand fast. To resume the movement, the com- mand is: 1. Resume, 2: MARCH. e . . . * - * ... . ; ºth. To revoke a preparatory command, the command is: AS YOU WERE. (81) * 15. Guides. a. Each chief of section supervises the gait and direction of march of his 'section." The guide of a battery marching in flank, column is the guideſ of the leading carriage on the flank designated by the battery commander. r ſ : ; ; ; ; b. The battery commander may place himself in front of a carriage and command: GUIDE ON ME. The carriage in rear of the battery commander follows his movements and becomes the guiding carriage.: (82). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . " ' ... ', ... ; J 274 MOUNTED FORMATIONS AND MANEUVERS The guide of a carriage is its lead driver; of a section in section column, the lead driver of the leading carriage; of a section in double section, the lead driver of its left carriage; of a section in flank column, the lead driver who was guide of the section in the preceding movement, or so designated. The guide of a battery. In line, is the guide of the right, left or other designated section. In column (section, double section, or flank), is the guide of the leading section. During an oblique, is the guide of the leading carriage on the side toward which the oblique is made. The guiding carriage changes only: - By command of the battery commander. When a maneuver is ordered which will make it a rear carriage (oblique excepted). In this case the leading carriage which is nearest to the original guide becomes the guiding carriage. When a maneuver is ordered during or after which the carriage ceases to be the directing carriage of its section. In this case the guide of that section becomes the guide of the battery. This does not apply to changes of direction without change of formation or to extending or closing intervals. During Right (left) wheel, either by battery or by section in double section or flank column, the guide is in the direction of the turn. During Extend (close) intervals the guide is toward the section on which the intervals are changed. In these cases, at the completion of the movement, the guide reverts to where it was before the movement began. 16. The Guidon. On leaving park, the guidon posts himself with the guide of the battery. In all subsequent movements, except during an oblique march, he changes position when necessary so as to be with the guide of the battery. (83) 17. Directing Carriages. In changes of formation, carriages which establish the direction and rate of march of the new formation are termed “directing carriages.” (84) 18. Essential Changes in Gaits. In the maneuvers hereinafter described, the two general rules following apply as to essential changes in gait. Caisson ſ 2 yards Chief of Section2 - - sº 22-º-º: c=2~~ CE-, C-ca C-: / A. /// / / / /// / / / / / 6 yards ſ ſ 6 yards Plate 22. “By the Right Flank” from “Flank Column” forms “Order in Line to the Right.” a. Rule 1. When a change of formation requires certain carriages to gain ground so as to reach specified positions abreast of the directing carriages, the battery com- mander may or may not announce an increased gait. If an increased gait is announced, the directing carriages maintain their gait; the others move at the gait announced until they have reached their new position, when they take the gait of the directing carriages. If an increased gait is not announced, the directing carriages reduce their gait one degree; the others maintain their gait until they reach their new position, when they take the gait of the directing carriages. If the movement is executed from a halt, or while marching at a walk, and an increased gait is not ordered, the directing carriages advance three carriage lengths toward the front of the new formation and halt. b. Rule 2. When a change of formation requires the directing carriages to gain ground in order to precede the other carriages, the battery commander may or may MOUNTED FORMATIONS AND MANEUVERS 275 not announce an increased gait. If an increased gait is announced, the directing carriages take the increased gait at once; the others take it in time to follow the movement in their proper order. If an increased gait is not announced, the directing carriages maintain their gait; the others reduce the gait one degree and, take the gait of the directing carriages in time to follow the movement in their proper order. If the movement is executed from a halt or while marching at a walk, and an increased gait is not ordered, the directing carriages move at a walk; the others remain halted, or halt, and take the gait of the directing carriage as prescribed above. (85) The following abstracts are of use in learning these rules: Rule 1. Other carriages gain. Gait Directing Carriages Other Carriages Increased Maintain Original 111 crease 1 degree until in position; then Cake gait of directing carriage. NO increase Reduce 1 degree Maintain Original until in position; then From trot or gallop take gait. Of directing carriage. No increase Advance 3 lengths and halt | Advance to new position; then halt. From halt Or walk Rule 2. Directing carriages gain. Gait Directing Carriages Other Carriages In CreaSed Increase 1 degree Maintain original until cleared; then take gait of Cºirecting carriage. NO increase Maintain original Reduce 1 degree until cleared; then take From trot or gallop gait of directing Carriage. No increase Move at Walk Rema.n halted or halt until cleared; then From halt or walk take gait of directing carriage. 19. Alinements. The battery is alined in a manner and by commands similar to those given in Driving and Draft. The battery commander supervises the alinement from a position on the flank toward which the alinement is made and in line with the wheel driver of the base carriage, facing down the line. The first sergeant similarly superintends the alinement of the wheel drivers of the rear-rank carriages. In horse batteries, gun squads aline themselves to the flank ordered under the supervision of their gunners. (86) asº - * s: - * ,” , " t * * § f J g i f : : Plate 23. “By the Right Flank” from “Order in Line” forms “Flank Column” to the Right. 20. To March to the Front and to Halt. The commands are, respectively: 1. Forward, 2. MARCH; and 1. Battery, 2. HALT. (87) 21. To March by the Flank. (Plates 22 to 25.) The command is: 1. By the right (left) flank, 2. MARCH. Except as noted below, all carriages simultaneously turn to the right. If the battery is in line with closed intervals, the movement is executed by sections successively instead of simultaneously. If executed while marching at closed intervals, all sections except the one on the designated flank halt at the second command and then follow by a successive movement. This movement is not executed from section column :276 MOUNTED FORMATIONS AND MANEUVERS unless it is, intended to march by the flank but a short distance and then resume section column. (88) - NOTE. In Flank column all pieces or all caissons are on the same flank. If the battery is in line at closed intervals, chiefs of section give the preparatory command, By the (left) flank at the same time, as the chief of section on their right (left) (the flank tºward the movement is indicated) gives the command of execution for that particular section. right which - * ...---- { HIH { { ...-- UH– --TH!— " 'I'----- []+1}– ; : ; : Á 2–E–F– f : Plate 25. “By the Right Flank” from forms “ Double “Double Section Line” “By the Right Flank” from Section Column” to the Right. Plate 24. “Double Section Column” forms “Double Section Line” to the Right, This results in the Order of carriages within each section being reversed. Note. 22. To March to the Rear. (Plates 26 to 28.) a. By an about. The command is: 1. Right (left) about, 2. MARCH. All carriages simultaneously execute the about. In horse batteries, because of the presence of the gun squads, the leading carriages, on making the about, modify their gait slightly to obtain the prescribed distances. ... b. By a countermarch. Being in order in line or in section column, the command is: • * * * * * **. * * * * * - - * • * * * * * * ~ f' \ Aſ 2’ t ; : f \ \ f \ - ) ~ - s - .* , , . . . . . ; # f z : -2 ° tº t = i * -- ~~ * * , *. #Piąte 26. “Left About” from “Section Plate 27. “Left About” from “Double Section. Column” forms. “Double Sec- : ... , tion Column” to the Rear. forms “Section Column” to sº .#. i * { * *, * ..'...tº'.... . MOUNTED FORMATIONS AND MANEUVERS 277 as tº sº. ... * *s * Plate 28. “Countermarch” from “Section Column” or “Order in Line” forms “Section Column” to the Rear or, “Order in Line” to the Bear. Note. These movements result in the order of carriages within each section remain- ing unchanged. ePrº, :f :f * :* / Plate 29. “Right. Sections. Forward” Plate 30. “Right Oblique” from “Section. from “Order in Line” or “Closed In- Column” Places the Carriages on Right £ervals” places the right. section of each .* Oblique as Shown. platoon forward as shown. 278 MOUNTED FORMATIONS AND MANEUVERS 1. Countermarch, 2. MARCH. The leading carriage of each section executes left about, followed in trace by its rear carriage. (89) Note—The only two formations from which Countermarch is given. At the completion of either Right (left) about or Countermarch the carriages should be marching on a track twelve yards from and parallel to the track just traversed. 23. Being in Line at Closed Intervals, to March to the Rear. (Plate 29). The com- mand is: 1. Right sections forward, 2. MARCH, 3. Right (left) about, or countermarch, 4. MARCH. 5. GUIDE RIGHT (LEFT). At the second command, the right section of each platoon moves forward so as to clear the left section. If an increased gait is ordered, the right sections take the gait indicated; otherwise the left sections reduce the * w * a f ſ f f f 2^ ſ * z z z / / f f f * * | f i w 2." * z f z f / t f Plate 31. “Right Oblique” from “Double Plate 32. “Right Oblique” from “Flank Section Column” Places the Carriages Column” Places the Carriages on Right on the Right Oblique as Shown. Oblique as Shown. * * * * * * * * f : : : Plate 33. “Right Oblique” from “Order in Line” forms the Carriages on the Right Oblique as Shown. * gait one degree, or, if halted, remain halted. As soon as the right sections are clear of the left sections, the fourth command is given and all sections take the gait of the right sections. On completion of the about or countermarch, the fifth command is given, and the rear sections increase the gait to reach their positions in line. (90) For example—If the movement is executed while at a walk and an increase of gait is given, the section chief of each right section in each platoon repeats the command, Trot; the section chiefs of the left séctions caution, Continue the march. If executed while halted, the chiefs of section of the right sections repeat the command, Forward, and the section chiefs. of the left sections caution Stand fast. Right sections should dress to the right in moving out. MOUNTED FORMATIONS AND MANEUVERS 279 24. To March Obliquely. (Plates 30 to 33). The command is: 1. Right (left) oblique, 2. MARCH. At the second command, carriages oblique simultaneously and move on parallel line, alined from front to rear and right to left. The movement should be such that on executing a second oblique in either direction carriages will have the proper distances, intervals, and alinements. (91) Section chiefs command, Right (left) oblique. When executed from section column, flank column or order in line the rear carriage of each section should immediately move to the oblique and not follow in the track of the leading carriage. When in double section column the carriage on the flank toward which the oblique is being made should be about one-half horse's length in advance of the other carriages so that if a second oblique is made in the opposite direction they will be aligned. Plate 34. “Column Right” from “Section Column” forms “Section Column” to the Right as Shown. f f Plate 35. “Column Right” from “Double Section Column” forms “Double section Column” to the Right as Shown. 25. To Change Direction when in Column. (Plates 34 to 36.) The command is: 1. Column right (left), 2. MARCH. If in section column, the leading carriage makes a 90° turn followed in trace by the other carriages. If in double section or flank column, 289 MOUNTED FORMATIONS AND MANEUVERS the outside carriages increase the gait one degree during the turn. Column half righ (left) may be executed. (92) * This is usually used when in a column formation and a change of direction is executed by entire battery, , or when a section changes direction in column, the rear carriage following in the tracks of f & f —£e—ſº-- sm sº sº sº sº, sº tº sº tº * —#P-IIH e” 2^ /*— 6 Yps RADIUs A A. f f “Column Right” from “Flank Column” forms “Flank Column” Plate 36. to the Righ h o the Right as Shown. --tº-iſ- * = m, amº as * * * * * * * —£e-l'H * ,” sº & * & * & e * * * Aº * * a * & * * * a * e * A .* Aº 2’ -(IHI------------ —£e-lº- * , * * * * & * e * & & * * & & 2 * 49 º w * * ,” * * Aº a ,’ ,” .” ,” ,” Aº * º * * = ... e * * --- gº e & e * ,” - ,’ { H H —#–Elk— *º- - • I ºf II - * = * * * * * * * * * ,’ —-if-..” e ... * e * * ,’ & zº * e * z * 42 4. a * * a a z * a * a 2’ ,’ ,’ e * ,” * * * * * * & ,’ .” ,’ * * 2^ 2^ ,” ,” .." ,’ ,’ ,” gº * * & * & * * * w * sº ,” ," ,” - [...]—iſ------------- —£e—ſº- & sº ... • * º & * & º f & z d f w * , t { § jº { ſ † ; ſ t & t º g g t ſº t : § s t t t º g t ; $ s 3 t ſº • * * * * * * * - ºr - ? t ! º J. : rt3. - - - ** * *** - - ! amº, amºr ºr **** º t - T - : * 1. d J t t ſº - -- f f ; : Plate 37. “Battery Right Wheel” from “Order in Line” forms “order in Line” ~~~~ * •sental ºr ; ; **** * º •- i.; ; *- * * *e I g º * *** * sen i t *ist, ,” * n" | p g g I g t g t; ; ; ; ; ; Plate 43. Being in Double Section Line: 1. Right by Section. 2, MARCH, forms “Double Section Column” to the Front. MOUNTED FORMATIONS AND MANEUVERS +à → → → → - ' forms *Order in Line” to the Front. “Right Front Into ‘Line” from “Section Column' Plate 44. 286 MOUNTED FORMATIONS AND MANEUVERS 31. To Form Line to the Right (Left) From Section Column. (Plate 46.) The command is: 1. Right (left) into line, 2. MARCH. The leading section executes Column right and moves forward; the others move forward, successively execute Column right, and move into their positions in line to the right of the leading section. The second section in column inclines to the right to clear the leading section when the latter is moving at a slower gait. Line may be formed at closed intervals, the first command being preceded by the command At (so many) yards. (Rule 1.) (98) 32. To Form Line on the Right (Left) From Section or Double Section Column. (Plate 47.) The command is: 1. On right (left) into line, 2. MARCH. Executed as in right into line, except that the second section in the column inclines to the left in % $: s Plate 45. “Right Front Into Line” from “Double Section Column” forms “Double Section Line” to the Front. order to clear the leading section and that each section passes beyond the preceding one before turning to the right. Rule 1 applies, except that the leading section is habitually halted on advancing three carriage lengths in the new direction. Line may also be formed at close intervals, the first command being preceded by the command At (so many) yards. (99). 33. To Form Flank Column From Section Column. (Plate 48.) The command is: 1. Flank column, 2. Right (left) oblique, 3. MARCH. Rear carriages of sections simultaneously oblique to the right and then to the left when by so doing they will have their prescribed intervals. Carriages in rear of the leading section close at the gait of the obliquing carriages. (Rule 1.) (100) The chief of section of the leading carriage commands, Continue the march. The chiefs of section of the remaining carriages command, Right (left) oblique, and then Left (right) oblique. MOUNTED FORMATIONS AND MANEUVERS 287 34. To Form Line to the Front From Flank Column. (Plate 49.) The command is: 1. Right (left) front into line, 2. MARCH. Carriages on the right execute Right front into line; those on the left move by the right flank, each forming in section column behind the leading carriage of its section. (Rule 1.) (101) 2---Ü-T----------->-º- !--------UHT------------É–H– 13t SECTION ,’ 2d SECTION 1st SECTION 2d SECTION /A * * | t º t t t ! ! t i t Plate 46. Being in Section Column, to Plate 47. “On Right Into Line” From Form Line to the Right: 1. Right Into Section Column forms “Order in Line” Line. 2. MARCH. to the Right. H –---s:-----Hº- 4–----------. {}- ----------------------- —£º-ºº---------- —º-i- `------------------------ >------UHH----------- ſº-Hº- Plate 48. “Flank Column Right Oblique” from “Section Column” forms “Flank Column” to the Front. 35. To Form Line to the Flank at Closed Intervals From Flank Column. (Plate 50.) The command is: 1. At (so many) yards, 2. Right (left) into line, 3. MARCH. Right into line is executed, each section moving successively by the right flank. (Rule 1.) (102) 36. To Form Section Column From Flank Column. (Plate 51.) The command is: 1. Pieces (caissons) front, 2. MARCH. The designated carriage of the leading section moves straight to the front; the other carriage of this section obliques in time to follow in the track of the designated carriage. The other sections execute the movement similarly. (Rule 2.) (103) 288 MOUNTED FORMATIONS AND MANEUVERS 37. To Form Double Section Column From Flank Column. (Plate 52.) The com- mand is: 1. Double section, 2. Right (left) oblique, 3. MARCH. Carriages on the left incline sharply to the right and move abreast of their right carriages. (Rule 1.) (104) The chiefs of carriage on the right of the column command, Continue the march; if the battery commander gives no increase of gait, the chiefs of section give the command to decrease the gait one degree. The chiefs of carriage on the left of the column command, Right oblique and then left oblique, giving the second command so that their carriages will move up abreast of the right car- riages and at two yards interval. * - - - - ** es. -- -, -*** * ~ J -º-º: * > * ^ \ * * * * * \ | * t * *s- º º j . * t t * t I . I t g `s º ſº * f I * * º HH- * t (HH- e s = º is as º sº ºn sº * * * * * * * > --É.--&- * * * * * * * * * * * {H}– * t * t * g * | * • ? Y- | SS ~! °, \ * * * * ** * * *A v \ * SS * *. * * SS * * *::s, \s * > - as s sº º sº, sº me sm * * * * * * * —Hº-ºh- sº gº as * * * * * * * * IIHF- * N. * * ^. ^ * * * * * * *N. \ * N. ..:* * > * Fºr * - - - - - - - - - - - - - - — —#- ſº as sº ºr * * * * * * * * * Plate 49. “Right Front Into Line” from “Flank Column” forms “Flank Column” to the Front. 2-------- -º-, -, * = * :- * * * *-* p! | f z j ſ & YDS i ; | | ! | --- ; ,------- 2- * * * * * [...] * º: sm, sº sºme sº *.**g p? ** Tº Y { : 7 : ch pi 3. § Yos º: ... " T ... ſ ~ 2: º 0 ! e * ſº ! | | ! -- - - - - - - |- - - - - - - - ſº-ſºT------ i ,” CŞ. p3 Y !,’ g 8 Yºs cell pe k! l sº, smºs as sº * = −3 º' -- = * * - IIHI} smº m º ºr * * * 2" i-2 ce y Y | $ ! Plate 50. 1. At 8 Yards, 2. Right Into Line, 3. MARCH from “Flank Column” forms “Line to the Right” at Closed Intervals. 38. To Form Double Section Line From Line. (Plate 53.) The command is: 1. Double section, 2. Right (left) oblique, 3. MARCH. In each section, the rear carriage inclines to the right and places itself abreast of the leading carriage. (Rule 1.) (105) MOUNTED FORMATIONS AND MANEUVERS 289 39. To Form Double Section Column From Section Column. (Plate 54.) The command is: 1. Double section, 2. Right (left) oblique, 3. MARCH. Each section forms double section; carriages in rear of the leading one close at the gait of the carriages which incline to form double section. (Rule 1.) (106) The chief of the leading carriage commands, Continue the march (if the movement is not executed from a halt). The chief of the rear carriage of each section commands, Right oblique and then Left oblique. If an increase of gait is given all carriages in rear of the leading carriage of the column take the increased gait until they have gained their proper intervals and distances. If no increase of gait is given the leading carriage reduces its gait one degree until the remaining carriages have taken the increased gait. -É.- :---------- —£-º-ºs--------- T-I---------—B-I- as sº * * * * * = * * * * * IHI------------ —£º-iſ- Plate 51. “Pieces Front” from “Flank Column” forms “Section Column” to the Front. H----sº sm- ºr * * * * = as *-i-->* * * * * * – H----, `------------------------------------------ (IHP- ------------ ūHi- —£–H–---------- —£–H–--------—£-k—------------------ 3-H-----------ā-º----------Hºº-º- Plate 52. “Double Section Right Oblique” from “Flank Column” forms “Double Section Column” to the Front. Plate 53. “Double Section Right Oblique” from “Order in Line” forms “Double Section Line” to the Front. *~~ *~~ *= * * nº º ºs ºs ºs as me me mºme as sº sm am, sº º sm amº sº, º m ºf ºss ºn ess as sº * * * * * * * * * * * * { |H|- *-* * * => Egº º ſº tº 4-3 –J-IIH Plate 54. “Double Section Right Oblique” from “Section Column” forms “Double Section Column”. FA2 (1) 290 . MOUNTED FORMATIONS AND MANEUVERS 40. To Form Line From Double Section Line. (Plate 55.) The command is: 1. Pieces (caissons) front, 2. MARCH. Each section forms in section column. (Rule e ; : ; ; N v \ N * Å a * * \ N ^ # ; ; ; ; ; Plate 55. “Caissons Front” from “Double Section Line” forms “Line”. * * \ ºt ! 41. To Form Section Column From Double Section Column. (Plate 56.) The com- mand is: 1. Pieces (caissons) front, 2. MARCH. Each section forms in section column successively. (Rule 2.) (108) The chief of the leading designated carriage commands, Forward, if at a halt, Continue the march if at a walk and no increase of gait is given, or Trot if at a walk and an increase of gait is an- nounced. - The chiefs of the other carriage in each section command, Right (left) oblique and then Left (right) oblique, giving the second oblique at the proper time to follow in column. If no increase of gait is announced, all carriages in rear of the leading one decrease the gait one degree, and if an increase of gait is given the carriages in rear take up the increased gait when the carriage next in front is in its proper place in column and has taken the increased gait. →-------->4–5–1–----->{H}–-------- —£e—Il----------- [H]−--------—£e-lº- Plate 56. “Pieces Front” from “Double Scotion Column” forms “Section Column”. {H}------------ - HH------------ (IHT---------- [Hiſ- –5–4–---, -e-…-------, `---------- —£e-IH-------. —#-lº- Plate 57. “Flank Column Right Oblique” from “Double Section Column” forms “Flank Column” to the Front. 42. To Form Flank Column From Double Section Column. (Plate 57.) The command is: H. Flank column, 2. Right (left) oblique, 3. MARCH. Each carriage on the right inclines sharply to the right and takes position in flank column at the pre- scribed interval. (Rule 1.) (109) . The chiefs of carriage on the left (right) of the column command, Continue the march, or if no increase of gait is announced give the command to decrease the gait one degree. The chiefs of car- riages, on the right (left) command, Right (left) oblique, and then Left (right) oblique, giving the second oblique so as to move up abreast of the left (right) carriage at seventeen yards interval. 43. Maneuvering When in Double Section. Being in double section, the section is maneuvered as if it were a single carriage. Similarly, the double section line or column is maneuvered as explained for the order in line or in section column with obvious exceptions due to the formation. (110) . . CHAPTER IV FORMATION IN BATTERY AND RESUMPTION OF MARCHING FORMATION (“Service of the Piece” should be studied in connection with this section.) 44. Forming in Battery. a. Frequently, especially when occupying staggered positions and where concealment of the evidences of occupation would be furthered thereby, batteries are established in position by having cach section conducted to and established in position by its chief of section. b. In forming in battery with regular intervals between sections, the double section line or column may be formed preliminary to taking the order in battery; the former for unlimbering for action either to the front or to the rear, the latter for unlimbering for action to the flank. - Where the tactical situation and nature of the terrain permit it, the battery goes into position from double section column with caissons toward the direction of fire. This method is conducive to an accurate establishment of the line of pieces at uniform intervals with a minimum of moving the carriages by hand. * c. When going into position to fire or practice fire discipline, the battery commander, chiefs of platoon, and chiefs of section dismount. One of the buglers takes the battery commander's horse, the other the horses of the executive and his assistant. The chiefs of section turn their horses over to the swing drivers of the pieces. d. In horse batteries, cannoneers are usually dismounted before approaching the position. e. The caissons of the fiſth section are disposed as directed by the battery com- manders. (111) When the caissons of the fifth section are to remain at the battery position, they are disposed, prior to occupying the position, so that they will be unlimbered simultaneously with the pieces, one on either flank. 45. Disposition of Limbers. a. At ceremonies and drills, limbers moving at a trot are posted 25 yards in rear of their carriages. In limbering, the gait is a walk unless otherwise ordered. b. In active service and in instruction simulating it, limbers are conducted by the first sergeant to a place previously designated by the battery commander. They are disposed to take the best advantage of cover. Both in limbéring and unlimbering, the gait is a walk unless otherwise ordered. (112) Generally the limbers are posted in double section line, faced toward the enemy and with intervals of about 20 yards. They are always formed to take best advantage of cover. Drivers may be dismounted and caused to care for the horses and material. Or, if so directed, the limbers may be drilled separately. Both in limbering and unlimbering, the gait is a walk unless otherwise ordered. The piece limber turns to the right in time to cross the trail of the piece at right angles. 46. To Unlimber to Fire. The command is: ACTION FRONT (REAR) (RIGHT) (LEFT). (113) & (See “Service of the Piece.”) 47. To Limber. (Plate 58.) The command is: LIMBER FRONT AND REAR (REAR). If in rear of the pieces, the limbers move out simultaneously and incline well to the left before moving into positions for limbering. g If posted other than in rear of the pieces, the limbers move toward the nearest flank of the position in section column, and on approaching the position the piece and caisson limbers separate and form two columns, each column moving toward the trails of the corresponding carriages. (114) 48. Formations After Limbering Front and Rear. (Plate 59.) a. To march in line. The command is: 1. Pieces (caissons) front, 2. MARCH. The designated carriages move straight to the front; the others execute a right about and increase the gait as necessary. 291 292 MOUNTED FORMATIONS AND MANEUVERS • * * * * * * * * * - - - - - * * * * * * * Fig. 2. Limber Rear. ••∞ //^ſ-4 º,∞ ^,� \, \,№à * ~ ~ ） ----- ●-„… • *• • •rº £;„^^ ~~~---___--！(）3 |·\~~~’ «·’,º^L. ~~ ، |}|（~~~~^,^,^„“L-~~~<■=}}? º•• • �| 8/ /„»„“„•*»，© |Q! ! !/ / /•^ , ^L-~~~�� i ;\/ , !’,’/*,^ ^ _ •ſă ！ !\ \ \,’ ,,^,，,^ ,^ �07. us !•• \,;�{\\{\\„^)^,^A.//$ \,•• \ \ ;i \\}\\^J„~“ „ “,^„’,’’,’tº \ \ \! 1} \`<^ ）„~“ … • ^ , ^^ _^ , ſ I i|• ! * J ^ < ） ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~•„º,^,^/ |!* ~… *• \ ! !i 1 ; * ~ ~ ~ < — — •„ *z'_'， ,'► \ !}||!~ ~ ~_ - • ^,^^/ \ {|}?• • •„” ,^_^ \ !|}：• , " . ^� } \ \| 1 !z „” ,”！ 4 iſ !!| 1„.^,^„^� \\ | \!|t.•„º,^b）O ! \; \!\w 1 !^ , ^ ;,•！ { ſ \\| 1 ||» ^ ^ ^ _ ^ſ！ |{\{\*ų.| | |• Lºſ „” \ \ ^{ \ \ （ \| | |„- “ , ^ ' ^ I \ N ^Y¡ t tL4， ， ... • ^ _ • rði í 1 × （ ）^ < -1 \!_!--~~~~ ~ ~^oð ŒC;|ł`< > < ！|+-+--L • ^L-º^\fò--> |||< Ti-|–|—~~~… • ^~ 8; ; ;Ț--+----$N ; ; ;-）{>=}}§ +[O] →—E|------+--S）-（–\ !!| 9.! 1! / ¡!，~| i 1 ii 1 iſì4~）. ! ±~ [i-i{/ ! ! !| | |~ ~）„^ ~- -* “Pieces Front” after “Limbering Front and Rear” forms “Order in Line” to the Bear. Plate 59. MOUNTED FORMATIONS AND MANEUVERS 293 b. To form double section line. (Plate 60.) The command is: 1. Form double section line, 2. MARCH. Caissons stand fast, pieces incline to the right, execute left about, and place themselves on the right of their respective caissons. c. To form flank column. (Plate 61.) The command is: 1. Flank column, 2. Pieces by the right (left) flank, 3. MARCH. All carriages move by the flank toward the direction indicated, caissons maneuvering as necessary to form flank column. . . . . . . / At * 2 * e” /* e” A. y \ / \ / \ * / N / Plate 60. “Form Double Section Line” from “Limber Front and Rear” forms “Double Section Line” to the Firing Front. … T ~ 2 - ~ N N 2. \ ſº \ \ \ \ \ Af \ \ \ \ \ i \ N *HF – - – - – -—[HT – TH |-- W R \ Plate 61. “Flank Column, Pieces by the Left Flank,” from “Limber Front and Rear,” forms Flank Column to the Right of the Firing Point. Plate 62., “Double Section, Pieces by the Left Flank,” from “Limber Front and Rear” forms Double Section Column to the Right of the Firing Point. 294 MOUNTED FORMATIONS AND MANEUVERS d. To form double section column. (Plate 62.) The command is: 1. Double section, 2. Pieces by the right (left) flank, 3. MARCH. All carriages move by the flank toward the direction indicated, caissons maneuvering as necessary to form double section column. (115) * ^ i Plate 63. To March in Line After Limbering Rear the Command is: 1. Form Double Section Line. 2. MARCH. º | º - Plate 64. To Form Double Section Line After Limbering Rear the Command is: 1. Form Double Section Line. 2. MARCH. 49. Formations After Limbering Rear. (Plate 63.) a. To march in line. The com- mand is: 1. Pieces (caissons) front, 2. MARCH. The designated carriages move as the leading carriage in each section. b. To form double section line. (Plate 64.) The command is: 1. Form double section line, 2. MARCH. Caissons stand fast, pieces move up on the left of their caissons and halt. c. To form flank column or double section column. Execute by the same commands and in the same manner as described in paragraph 48. (116) CHAPTER V HEADQUARTERS BATTERIES AND COMBAT TRAINS 50. Headquarters Battery, Battalion. The formation for ceremonies and maneuvers is given in Plate 65. The maneuvers of this unit are similar to those of the gun battery. (117) 51. Motorized Units of Horse-Drawn Regiments. Maneuvers are limited to those necessary for ceremonies, to form park, and for marching in column. The principles applicable are analogous to those prescribed for motorized organizations. a. Headquarters battery, regiment. The formation for ceremonies and maneuvers is given in Plate 66. b. Battalion combat train. The formation for ceremonies and maneuvers is given in Plate 67. (118) - T • * - MOUNTED FORMATIONS AND MANEUVERS 295 à g–– § # X DX H O o O -º- § -—17—g 3. 5 Z . A Z ‘O "O g 8 º Plate 65. Order in Line, Battalion Headquarters Battery, Horse-Drawn Regiment. (For Legend, see Plate 4.) Note. At the discretion of the battalion commander, the trucks may form with the combat train. ! Detail supply and mainteriance sections Plate 66. Order in Line, Regimental Headquarters Battery, Horse-Drawn Regiment. (For Legend, see Plate 4.) Note. Three vehicles for the regimental commander and his commissioned and noncommissioned staff and the motorcycles with side cars have been omitted from this figure. sº Meintenance platoon Arn munition platoon H H Plate 67. Order in Line, Battalion Combat Train, Horse-Drawn Regiment. Note. Three motorcycles with side cars (not shown), if present, are posted as prescribed by the commanding officer. MOUNTED FORMATIONS AND MANEUVERS SECTION 3 THE BATTALION, REGIMENT, AND BRIGADE, TRUCK-AND HORSE-DRAWN CONTENTS & Paragraphs Chapter I. The Battalion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5 Chapter II. The Regiment and Brigade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10 CHAPTER I THE BATTALION 1. General. Formations and maneuvers for horse-drawn units apply with obvious modifications to horse artillery. Where, in the case of the horse-drawn battalion, the formation prescribed is impracticable for the combat train, the combat train will take an appropriate formation. (147) 2. Formations. a. Line. The battalion is in line, each battery in the order in line, the headquarters battery on the right, the combat train on the left, or in the reverse order. Normally, the interval between batteries is twice the interval between sections of the battery in the case of horse-drawn batteries and twice the interval between the vehicles in the case of truck-drawn batteries. b. Column of batteries. The battalion is in column, each battery in the order in line, headquarters battery leading, combat train last, or in the reverse order. The distance between batteries is one battery front unless closed in mass, when the distance becomes one carriage length for horse-drawn units and as may be prescribed for truck-drawn Uln1tS. - c. Column of batteries in double section line. This formation is applicable to horse- drawn units. Distances are as given in b above. d. Column of batteries in line of -vehicles. Each battery is formed in line of vehicles. Distances are as the battalion commander may prescribe. e. Line of section (double section) (flank) columns. Line of double section columns is applicable to horse-drawn units. The battalion is in line, each battery in the order in section (double section) (flank) column. Normal interval in each case is, respectively, such as would result if the batteries had executed a simultaneous change of direction to the flank from a formation of the battalion in the order in section, double section, on flank column. Closed interval is one carriage length or such as the battalion com- mander may prescribe. f. Section, double section, or flank column. The distance between batteries is as may be prescribed for truck-drawn units. (147) 3. Posts of Individuals. a. The battalion commander. (1) Order in line. Opposite the center and 30 yards in front of the line of battery commanders. (2) Column of batteries. Thirty yards in front of the battery commander of the leading battery. (3) Order in section column, double section column, and flank column. Thirty yards in front of the leading carriages or vehicles. b. Commissioned staff. (1) Horse-drawn battalions. In line 3 yards in rear of the battalion commander, the second officer from the right being immediately in rear of the battalion commander. Usually staff officers are arranged from right to left in order of rank, the senior on the right. They may be arranged as directed by the battalion commander. 297 298 MOUNTED FORMATIONS AND MANEUVERS (2) Motorized battalions. When dismounted, the staff is posted as in “Dismounted Drill.” The vehicles of the battalion commander and his staff are posted to his left rear, the car of those members of the commissioned staff not riding with the battalion commander being 5 yards behind the latter's car. When mounted, the battalion com- mander and his staff take post in the vehicles so placed. c. Noncommissioned staff and enlisted personnel. (1) Horse-drawn battalions. In line 2 yards in rear of the commissioned staff, agents on the left, buglers on their right. (2) Motorized battalions. When dismounted they are in line 1% paces in rear of the commissioned staff. Their vehicles are on the left of and in the same line as the vehicles of the commissioned staff. When mounted, they take post in the vehicles so placed. When moving out, these cars follow the cars of the commissioned staff. (147) 4. To Form the Battalion. In the order in line, when batteries are being alined, the battery commander of the right battery superintends the alinement from the flank nearer the point of rest; other battery commanders from the flank farther from the point of rest. Battalions may be formed in any convenient formation. When formed other than as prescribed below, the adjutant joins the battalion commander when the formation is completed and reports the battalion formed. a. Horse-drawn battalions. Adjutant's Call having been sounded, the adjutant and the sergeant major, respectively, post themselves facing each other 6 yards outside the points where the right and the left of the right battery of the battalion are to rest. Batteries approach the line from the rear and are posted in succession from right to left so that the heads of the lead horses will be on the line established by the adjutant and the sergeant major. When the right battery has been established, the sergeant major takes his post. All batteries are alined to the right. When the line has been formed, the adjutant moves at a trot or a gallop by the shortest line to a point opposite the center of the battalion and midway between the battalion com- mander and the line of battery commanders, halts, faces the battalion commander, salutes with the hand, and reports, “Sir, the battalion is formed.” The battalion commander returns the salute with the hand, and the adjutant then takes his post with the staff. When being formed for ceremonies as part of a regiment, the battalion is established in position in a manner similar to that prescribed above, except that the adjutant does not report the battalion formed. When the battalion has been formed, the adjutant moves directly to his post with the remainder of the staff, which is in position facing the front. When the adjutant reaches his post, the battalion commander faces to the front. º- b. Motorized battalions. These battalions are formed in a similar manner with the following exceptions: The adjutant and the sergeant major ride in motor vehicles. To establish the line, they place their motor vehicles in positions similar to the posi- tions of the adjutant and the sergeant major in horse-drawn organizations. During the alinement of the batteries of the battalion, they may dismount for the better performance of their duties. When the line has been formed, they move to their posts at a previously prescribed speed. When the adjutant's car reaches the point midway between the battalion commander and the line of battery commanders, it halts; the adjutant dismounts; the car proceeds immediately to its position in rear of the battalion commander's car. The adjutant makes his report as previously described for horse- drawn units and takes his post with the staff. The battalion commander and his staff dismount before receiving the report of the adjutant. Battery commanders and chiefs of subdivisions dismount to aline their respective units. Having performed this duty, they take their posts and remain dismounted until a movement has been ordered or a command to mount has been given. When a movement has been ordered, the staff mounts; the battalion commander, battery commanders, and chiefs of subdivisions mount, each as he gives the command of execution for the movement. c. To dismiss the battalion. The battalion commander commands: DISMISS YOUR BATTERIES, or sends appropriate instructions. (147) 5. Maneuvers. Commands of the battalion commander are transmitted by agents or are given by arm, bugle, or word of mouth. Battery commanders repeat commands or give such commands as may be necessary; bugles are not used by batteries when MOUNTED FORMATIONS AND MANEUVERS 299 maneuvering as part of a battalion. The battalion is maneuvered in accordance with the principles heretofore prescribed for a battery. (147) In the case of simultaneous movements, the command or signal of execution of the battalion com- mander is repeated immediately by the battery commanders and simultaneously executed by the bat- teries. In the case of successive movements, the battery commanders maneuver their batteries so as to cause them to arrive at their proper position by the shortest routes and in conformity with the principles of the rules of gaits. CHAPTER II THE REGIMENT AND BRIGADE 6. Formations. Formations of the regiment are similar to those prescribed for the battalion, the intervals and distances between battalions normally being twice those between batteries. In horse-drawn units, a formation in line with battalions closed in mass is termed “a line of masses.” The normal interval between battalions in this formation is two carriage lengths. The headquarters battery forms on the right of the battalions. At ceremonies the band is 30 yards to the right of the right battalion. In motorized regiments, or if the nature of the terrain or other considerations require it, the band may be otherwise disposed. In forming horse-drawn units for ceremonies, the regimental headquarters battery and the combat trains are normally formed into a provisional motorized battalion and formed on the left of the regiment. (148) 7. Posts of Individuals. At ceremonies, the post of the regimental commander is opposite the center of the regiment and 30 yards in front of the line of battalion com- manders. His staff takes post in general as prescribed for the battalion staff (par. 3). The post of the standards is between the battalions of a two-battalion regiment or between the batteries of the center battalion of a three-battalion regiment. (148) 8. To Form the Regiment. Battalion commanders are informed as to the place and order of formation and form their battalions accordingly. When forming in line, the adjutant indicates to the battalion commander of the right battalion the point of rest and the direction of the front. The adjutant then takes post facing the regiment, opposite its center and midway between the regimental commander and the line of battalion commanders. The regiment having been formed, the adjutant faces the regi- mental commander, salutes with the hand, and reports, “Sir, the regiment is formed.” The regimental commander returns the salute with the hand, and the adjutant takes his post with the staff. When the regiment is formed other than as above, the adjutant joins the regimental commander when the last unit is in place and reports the regiment formed. (148) * 9. Maneuvers. The commands of the regimental commander usually are transmitted by agents. Battalion commanders maneuver their battalions so as to place them in the formation desired. (148) 10. The Brigade. The brigade is formed as the brigade commander may direct. Commands of the brigade commander usually are transmitted by agents. (150) CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES CONTENTS Paragraphs Chapter I. Introduction . . . . . * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * s s a e º 'º a 1-9 Chapter II. Axles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Chapter III. Wheels, Tires, Brakes, and Steering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-13 Chapter IV. The Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-18 Chapter V. Power Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-22 Chapter VI. Bodies and Electrical System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-24 Chapter VII. Automotive Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-30 Chapter VIII. Maintenance Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51-54 Chapter IX. March Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-39 Chapter X. Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . " * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 40–45 Chapter XI. Inspections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46-49 Chapter XII. Records and Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50-53 Chapter XIII. The Motor Driver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54-71 Chapter XIV. Driving Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72-124 Chapter XV. Marches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125-129 Chapter XVI. Types of Movements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130-133 Chapter XVIII. Organization for a March . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139-154 Chapter XIX. Protective Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155-191 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1. Definition. The term “motor transport,” as used in the military service, applies to motor-propelled vehicles used for transporting military personnel, weapons and supplies, excluding essentially combat vehicles such as tanks, scout cars and armored cars. 2. Employment. a. Uses. Military motor transport is used for the movement of troops, matériel, and supplies in both strategic and tactical operations. All types of movements are included, from those of small units by organic transport to those of large forces by the army motor pool. b. Supplementary transportation. When commercial motor vehicles are used for emergency troop movements, special consideration must be given to their nonuniformity. 3. Motor Transport Pools. In general it will be found that a pooling of effort in the use of motor transport will give the most efficient and economical results (AR 850-15). a. Administrative pool. Ordinarily, when motor transport is pooled, it is done ad- ministratively. In this type of pool, the vehicles and personnel remain with the organizations to which they are assigned and operate from the organization motor parks. b. Physical pool. In some cases the actual forming of a physical pool of vehicles and personnel is advisable. This is normally confined to the pooling of motor transport units and on rare occasions to tactical vehicles, although a large pool of vehicles will be assigned for army use in actual combat. 4. Requirements for Efficient Operation. a. Assignment of drivers. A driver and, if authorized, an assistant driver should be assigned to each motor vehicle. Except for instruction, inspection, or other like purposes, the vehicle should not be operated by other drivers if it can be avoided. b. Vehicle abuse. Vehicle abuse is the chief cause of mechanical failures, excessive operating and maintenance costs, and general unsatisfactory performance of the motor vehicle and its component parts. The following forms of vehicle abuse should be prohibited: (1) Improper use of controls, particularly gear shift, clutch, brakes, and choke. 301 302 CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES * --" * - * * * * * * (2) Racing engine, especially when cold. (3) Overspeeding, particularly, over rough roads and across country. (4) Improper lubrication. * - - - T - - --> (5) Deferred maintenance, including lack of proper servicing and adjustments. (6) Lack of systematic inspection and follow-up. (7) Cverloading and improper loading. c. Speed limits. (1) The caution plate mounted on a motor vehicle indicates the maximum safe speed for which the vehicle is designed. In no case should this speed be exceeded. * (2) Fast driving over rough, slippery, or congested roads should not be permitted. (3) Applicable speed limits set by State or local regulations should not be exceeded. (4) Regulated governors, when installed, should be set and sealed at the maximum speed considered safe and not to exceed that indicated on the name and caution plate. (5) (a) Tanks and combat cars will be driven habitually by the tachometer in an appropriate gear and at not over the prescribed speed in engine revolutions per minute. b) In motor marches which contain tanks or combat cars, the pace will be set by a leading vehicle at Such a rate as will insure that all tanks or combat cars in the column can keep up without exceeding the prescribed economical speed in engine revolutions. (c) When passing through towns and villages, a proper reduction in speed will be directed by the column commander, who should control the march in such manner as to insure the safety of spectators and civilian traffic and to prevent prolonged opera- tion at low speeds in a low gear. These movements should be coordinated with local traffic authorities. º d. Factors affecting operation. (1) Factors which materially affect the service rendered by motor vehicles should be impressed on all operating and command personnel who are concerned with the supervision, operation, maintenance, and inspection of motor- transport equipment. These factors are: (a) Proper selection, training, and discipline of operating and maintenance personnel. (b) Strict supervision and control of operations by commissioned personnel. (c) Organized maintenance with adequate repair facilities and the performance of routine maintenance and inspection functions. (d) Serviceable mechanical condition of vehicles. (e) Recognition of the capabilities and limitations of all types of vehicles in operation. (f) Careful reconnaissance of routes to be traveled. (g) Recognition of the capabilities and limitations of the drivers. (h) Training and experience of the commissioned and noncommissioned personnel. (2) The necessity for control, for constant and intelligent supervision, and for proper selection, training, and discipline of the operating and maintenance personnel cannot be stressed too forcibly. The discipline required of personnel in organizations operating motor vehicles is that discipline which will guarantee strict adherence to the instructions received in training and will result in the proper operation and mainte- nance of motor transportation. Selection and training of personnel are covered in sub- sequent chapters. 5. Vehicle Units and Assemblies. There are many methods of grouping vehicle units and assemblies, but it is usual to have two primary groupings, the chassis group and the body group. These may be divided into subordinate units, assemblies, and acces. sories according to functional use, unit or assembly to which attached, or customary automotive practice. 6. Chassis Group. This primary group, consists of the units and assemblies briefly described below under the major assemblies, running gear, and power plant, with their respective units. - - - a. Running gear. This consists of frame, springs, axles, wheels, braking system, and steering mechanism. Some vehicles may also use torque tubes or torque arms and radius rods. CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES 303 (1) The frame is the structural unit about which a motor vehicle is assembled. It maintains proper relation between component parts of the vehicle and distributes the weight to various points of support. (2) Springs are flat or coiled flexible support units mounted between the frame and axles. They are designed to absorb shocks due to vehicle movement over irregular road surfaces. (3) Axles may be either dead (nondriving), or live (driving). (a) The dead axle is usually represented by the solid front axle of a vehicle. all axles of trailers, and the axles of a chain sprocket driven vehicle. This type of axle usually has no moving parts other than those necessary to turn and stop the vehicle. (b) The live axle contains the final driving mechanism that moves the vehicle. It normally consists of a housing, differential gear, and two axle shafts. (4) Wheels support the vehicle and are the means for moving it over the highway. (5) Braking systems are designed either to slow down or to stop a vehicle. When parking brakes are applied they prevent vehicle movement. A vehicle usually has brakes on at least 2 rear and 2 front wheels. However, any combination may be used. (6) Steering mechanism connects the steering wheel in the operator's cab (or com- partment) to the front wheels and provides a means for directing the vehicle. - ENGINE ºf 3 Cººr- Plate 1. Cargo Vehicle Showing Engine Compartment, Cab and Body, (7) Torque tubes or torque arms and radius rods may be attached to or made a part of the axle housing and frame or the frame members. They resist the force from propellor (drive) shaft or from any brake action which tends to rotate the axle. b. Power plant. This assembly consists of engine assembly, clutch, transmission, and transfer mechanism (the latter usually on heavy duty vehicles), propellor shaft or shafts with universal joint or joints, and diſſerential and final drive units. (1) Engine assembly is the source of motive power. It converts heat units into mechanical power by the internal combustion of a fuel. (2) The clutch unit engages or disengages the engine from the transmission. When engaging, it permits the load on the engine to be "picked up" gradually. It may also be disengaged so that none of the developed engine power is transmitted to the driving (or live) axles. - (3) Transmission and transfer mechanisms, by use of gear trains, allow the power developed in the engine to be applied to the driving (live) axles according to the speed, hill-climbing ability, and pulling capacity required. 304 CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES (4) Propeller shafts are used to transfer power from the transmission to the trans- fer case and to the driven axles. In order to provide angular (up and down or side) motion of the axle with respect to the frame, one or more universal joints may be used with the shafts. Universal joints are capable of transmitting power through angles within fixed angular limits of the joints. (5) Differential and final drive units are incorporated in the live axle units and combine to change direction of the power transmission from the propellor shaft to the axle shafts, as well as to adjust the amount of rotation between the right and left wheels on any one driven axle. 7. Body Group. (Plate 1). This primary group consists of the units and assemblies briefly described below. a. The cab assembly is the compartment usually provided for the driver of the vehicle. b. Controls and instruments required for the operation of the vehicle are usually lo- cated in the cab and on an instrument panel mounted on the dash. c. Cargo body or platform provides space for the payload. d. Sheet metal housing (fenders, hood, cowl, and similar metal parts), reduces wind resistance by “streamlining” and protects vital parts from the weather. 8. Accessories. These are units which, depending upon custom and practice, are not considered necessary for the proper functioning of a unit or assembly but which are. often desirable. They usually include oil filters, air filters, and other special equipment. 9. Electrical System. For convenience, automotive electricity should be considered under the single heading “electrical system”, without specific regard to individual units or assemblies with which it functions. Questions 1. What are the two primary groups of vehicle units and assemblies? 2. What is the running gear? 3. What two types of axles are there? 4. What is the purpose of the engine assembly? 5. What is the purpose of the clutch unit? CHAPTER II AXLES ! 10. Axles. The principle function of the axle is to carry the weight of the vehicle to the wheels. An axle which performs this function only is a dead axle (Plate 2). It may be of tubular or I-beam construction. a. Live axles. These axles carry the weight of the vehicle and also transfer power (or driving force) to the wheels. They are of tubular construction. The outer shell carries the weight of the vehicle and forms a housing for the driving axle shaft and the differential units. In addition to these functions, the outer ends of axles usually earry the fixed parts of the braking system and absorb the forces resulting from brake applications. Front driving axles correspond to rear driving axles except that provision must be made for steering. b. Parts. The rear axle assembly consists of the housing, the shafts, the bearings, the gaskets, and the oil retainers. * (1) The housing is of steel, malleable iron, or aluminum, either forged, pressed, or cast. The housing provides a seat for the other parts of the axle, serves as a con- tainer for lubricant, and furnishes brackets for the attachment of springs, shock absorbers, radius or distance rods, brakes, and ride stabilizers. It is subjected to various stresses and strains in the transmission of weight and driving or braking torque. (2) The axle shafts are steel forgings, the inner ends of which are squared or splined to fit into the side gears of the differential; the outer ends have a means for attaching the wheels. (3) The gaskets and oil retainers are especially important parts of the rear axle, - CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES 305 since they must retain the lubricant and prevent water or dirt reaching the moving parts. Lubricant which escapes at the chd of the axle usually ruins the brakes. c. Types. Depending upon the manner in which the above parts and the necessary bearings are assembled to take care of the various stresses, live axles are classified as plain and floating axles. steemasºckie - -TEERING --Nº-E LEFT -ºvº. Pºº" - Hº-1 sº-ERºº- ----------- ºn--- ºrsº- KNUCKLE ºntº-º: - - - º * - t-seam front axle- *-sail ºn steering gear connecting not - º * - Leº -º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º: Rºſ Sºtº-KNUCKLE ARM º *-isºr me not end *~sreenins-ºckie neº- ºr tº:-Roº ºwn –º Plate 2. An 1 peam Type Front Axle (Dead, Nondriving) and Attached Steering Parts. (1) The plain live axle is distinguished by the fact that the axle shaft is mounted in bearings within the housing, and the hubs and differential are carried by this shaft. The axle shaft therefore carries weight, is subjected to bending stresses, must deliver driving torque, and must withstand compression and tension stresses. Braking torque is carried by the housing. This type of axle is obsolete. 1. Spring seat, 6. Differential bearing. 2, Axle housing. 7. Differential case. 3. Wheel end bearing. 8. Side gear. 4. Axle shaft. 9. Axle-shaft retaining “C” ring. 5. Wheel spoke. 10, Spacer and thrust block. Plate 3. Semifloating Axle. (2) Floating axles are classed as semi-, three-quarter-, and full-floating axles. In all of them, the differential, rather than the inner end of the axle shaft, is mounted on bearings inside the housing. If the outer end of the axle shaft is mounted in a bearing (Plate 3) and also has the hub mounted only on the shaft, the axle is semifloating. The shaft then carries the load, resists bending, and delivers torque. If the wheel hub is mounted on a radial bearing on the exterior of the axle housing (Plate 4) and is also splined to the shaft, the axle is three-quarter floating. Load is transferred to the housing and then to the hub, but the shaft carries bending and torsional forces. Where the hub is mounted entirely on tapered bearings on the exterior of the axle housing (Plate 5) and the axle shaft merely drives the wheels, the axle is full floating. d. Front axles. These axles incorporate a portion of the steering mechanism in addi. 306 CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES tion to carrying the load. In many instances they provide power transmission, especially in tactical vehicles. e. Independent springing. Where “knee action” or similar methods of independent springing are used, the center section of the axle, as well as the entire axle structure, is sometimes eliminated. The load is passed from the frame to the wheel spindles by means of two or more flat or coiled springs and transverse linkages. / tºº F. == 2. * As º - - Nº ºr =ºffliº | tº ſºme s 1. Hub flange. 4. Axle shaft. 2. Axle housing. 5. Bearing retaining nut. 3. Bearing , , , in exterior of hnusing). Plate 4. Three-quarter-floating Axle. | O! L SEAL `-e GASKEIT O! L SEAL 2^ fi GASKET *:::::::: OIL SEAL THRUST BLOCK | * AND SCREW | STRADDLE MOUNTING HOUSING RING GEAR _>< Plate 5. Full-floating Rear Axle. * * * * * * = - j. Shock absorbers. Shock absorbing devices are used to control the action and re- action of the springs between the axles and the sprung load. These may be either single or double acting. The single acting shock absorber acts only on the rebound of the spring, while the double acting acts on both compression and rebound movements. Shock absorbers are normally used on all four wheels of passenger cars, but only on the front wheels of commercial vehicles. Questions 1. What is the principal function of the: a. Live axle? b. Dead axle? 2. Of what parts does the rear axle assembly consist? 3. What are the principal types of live axles? 4. A portion of what mechanism is incorporated in the front axle? 5. Name one type of individual springing? CHAPTER III WHEELS, TIRES, BRAKES AND STEERING 11. Wheels and Tires. The wheels of a motor vehicle must be light, yet strong enough to transmit driving power from the axles to the tires, carry the load, and resist side strains caused by skidding and rapid turning on curves and at corners. Wheels are made of wood, pressed steel, or of cast metal. The hub in the center of a wheel is the means by which the wheel is mounted on the spindle or axle shaft. 7?read Under Cover _º. Breaker Strip º lºº. § Cº. 32 º - & º- C º **, *. ºº:: § CCº. ºO Nº. &º § ſº-º & N º Sº # tº & tº-º-º-Rºm Aug Aoſt {2 #: ; ; % * º'-Wave Stern Zock Nut $7-Valve Cap Plate 6. Tire Construction. a. Rims secure the tires to the wheels. They are usually of the demountable, quick detachable, or drop center types. b. Tires may be either solid, cushion, or pneumatic. (1) Solid and cushion tires are still used to some extent on motor vehicles. Their principal use is on interior plant vehicles. (2) Pneumatic tires are used almost exclusively on modern motor vehicles. (Plate 6). They vary from the wide, thin wall, and low pressure balloon type on passenger cars to the heavy, thick wall, high air-pressure type used on commercial vehicles and heavy trucks. Air is confined to the inside of the tire by an inner tube which, when inflated, conforms to the inside contour of the tire and rim. Puncture resistant tubes have been developed with inner air chambers or layers of special rubber, which seal punctures and control escaping air in case of tire failure. When the traction provided by the regular tread of a tire is not sufficient under certain weather and terrain condi- tions, chains and mud cleats may be added or the vehicle may use full or half track laying mechanism. 12. Braking Systems. a. General. Brakes retard and stop a motor vehicle by acting on the wheels and in some cases on the transmission main shaft. (1) In order to stop or retard a moving vehicle, friction is developed between the brake drums and brake shoe linings. The heat resulting from the friction is dis- sipated by air currents that surround the brake drums. The brakes are applied by use 307 308 CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES of the hand lever or the brake pedal. This forces the brake shoes against the brake drum, and the resulting drag tends to stop the rotation of the wheel. (2) In a two-wheel braking system the rear wheels only are provided with brakes. In a four-wheel braking system all four wheels are equipped with brakes. The propeller shaft brake is usually known as a hand (or parking) brake. FRONT whe EU BRAKES - SHAFT A(supportED IN FRAME) Mechanical Brake System with Single Cross Shaft BRAkt RAND LEV ER Q-T º * * C R Art & 8 N $28. Of Al- 4 ' A gº 8 / ſº º 2-j ovt rRUNNING Fulcrutº º A. SUOTS º º ~ Sºlº 5-s/ º Cº. º REAR CROSS SHAFT f RONT CROSS SHAſ T A w ſº C C º INTER CONNECT NG ROO " Mechanical Brake System with Two Cross Shafts Plate 7. Linkage and Controls for Mechanical Brake Systems. (3) Braking action is usually initiated by operation of the foot pedal or hand lever by the driver. The pressure of the driver's foot on the brake pedal moves levers, rods, and cables in mechanical braking systems; a column of liquid (braking fluid) from the master cylinders in hydraulic braking systems; or air pressure from tanks in air-brake systems. Booster devices are frequently used to increase initial braking pressures. Many combinations of braking systems are available. Hydraulic brakes are commonly used on light motor vehicles; air brakes on many heavy duty vehicles. The hand lever usually operates a parking brake. (4) Brake types based on location and action of the braking surfaces may be classified as external contracting or internal expanding. The contracting type is seldom used as wheel brakes on modern motor vehicles because it is open to dirt and water. b. Mechanical brakes employ cables or rods to distribute the braking effort to the wheels. Pressure applied by the operator at the brake pedal is multiplied by the ratio of the lengths of the various brake arms before it is transmitted to the operating shafts. Most mechanical systems equalize the braking action on each wheel by a device known as an equalizing cross shaft or arm. Mechanical brake arrangements are shown in Plate 7. c. Hydraulic brakes are extensively used an passenger cars and light or medium weight trucks. Use of the brake pedal develops pressure in a master hydraulic cylinder. By hydraulic principles this pressure is increased and applied to each of the wheel cylinders through a system of brake tubes. The wheel cylinders are fitted with operating pistons that convert the hydraulic pressure into the mechanical power which expands the brake shoes. As soon as the pedal pressure is released, the return springs of the CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES 309 brake shoe act against the wheel cylinder pistons, ſorcing the brake fluid back into the master cylinder. Plate 8 shows a hydraulic braking system. d. Air brakes are used primarily on buses and heavy-duty trucks. Air pressure for operating an air brake system is supplied by an air compressor equipped with pressure governor (regulator) and driven by the vehicle engine (power plant) or by a separate Tº O Él. § -. § Q-CŞ Jáš-> S >: S - (l) CL s § _Y D & § 9 @ § - (O NI § | S$s (ſ) -ZT-T E 1– v) | () U) S § To (!) On ſū A- C D (0 ÖY 9 @ 9- ? -) A- -: 05 U) E O li– gº (U 4- <( () * Dr (ſ) (l) [D D § W W/ -C -S’ -C > <ſ (ſ) V***** GĐ º O O O O O g compressor. Compressed air is stored in a suitable tank (reservoir) equipped with a safety valve. Air is piped from the storage tank to a brake chamber at each wheel through a brake (control) valve. Plate 9 shows an air brake system. e. Electrical brakes are suitable for trailers or where remote control installations are needed. Electric brakes depend on the electrical (or a special) system of the vehicle 310 CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR vEHICLES GOVERNOR iAIR PRESSURE GAGE OUICK RELEASE VALVE / º 3. # § . %- º: º- ºº i: WHEEL CHAMBERS © sº fºº! Sº ë / § §: 2 T , & t ...ºr" - ºn WHEEL CHANABERS — R£5ERVOIR Plate 9. Diagrammatic Arrangement of an Air-operated Braking System. Steering Wheel. Front Wheel Steering cauma steering Gear Case Steering worn Axle Center — N Steering Gear Arm— N. N. Steering Gear Connecting Rod t Steering Knuckle t steering Worm Gear. Roller >> ~ - - - “Wheel Spindle - -- Knuckle Gear Rod Army wº Tie Rod Knuckle Arm (left) 5teering gear shaft Plate 10. Diagram and Nomenclature of Complete Steering Mechanism. - (Society of Automotive Engineers Nomenclature) CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES 311 for their operation. They are controlled through a rheostat either operated by hand or synchronized with the foot brake pedal. - f. Booster systems are often used to assist the operator in applying additional pressure when operating the brake. The commonest of these are the vacuum, mechanical, and servo-systems. The servo-system utilizes forces built up in the brake shoe itself to apply additional pressure. 13. Steering Mechanism. (Plate 10). a. A motor vehicle is steered by turning both front wheels. The wheels, which are mounted on movable steering knuckles (Plate 2), turn in vertical yokes at the ends of the front axle. The steering knuckles are held in the yokes by steering knuckle pivots (kingpins). The front wheels rotate on bearings which are mounted on the spindles of the steering knuckles. b. The steering knuckle pivots (kingpins) are generally set at an angle with the plane of the wheel; this angle is referred to as the pivot (or kingpin) inclination angle. The front axle is rotated backward at the top so that the pivots (or kingpins) have a slight backward tilt; this is the caster angle. The steering knuckle spindles are so adjusted that the front wheels are farther apart at the top than at the bottom; this dis- tance or angle that the wheel leans outward at the top is the camber angle. The tie rod between the steering knuckles is adjusted so that the front wheels are closer together at the front of the wheel than at the rear; this is the toe-in. c. This series of angles and their adjustments are called the steering geometry of the vehicle. They must be properly coordinated as designated by the vehicle manufacturer in order to obtain satisfactory steering and control of the vehicle. d. The steering knuckles, upon which the wheels are mounted, are connected by means of a tie rod located either in front or behind the axle. e. The steering arm on the left knuckle (left hand drive) is connected by a steerin gear connecting rod (or drag link) to the steering wheel gear arm (or pitman arm of the steering gear. The steering wheel, which controls movement of the steering gear, is mounted at the top, of the steering post. The steering gear mechanism is carried at the bottom of the steering column. In independent front suspension, modifications of this linkage are generally used. * Questions 1. Name four types of braking systems? 2. Name two types of brakes. 3. Are solid and cushion tires still used on tactical vehicics? CHAPreR IV THE ENGINE 14. General Principles. . a. The motive power, for the modern notor vehicle is usually furnished by an internal combustion engine in which a mixture of fuel and air is burned. The burning fuel-air mixture and the resulting expansion of heated gas and pressures, develops mechanical power by the use of reciprocating and rotating parts, such as pistons, connecting rods, and crankshafts. A reciprocating engine is one which converts linear motion into a motion of rotation. This is the most common type both in steam engines and internal combustion engines. The linear motion of a piston in a cylinder, through a connecting rod, causes the rotation of a shaft. The mechanical principle is illustrated in Plate 11. A stroke of the piston is a movement from one end of the cylinder to the other. It will be noted that it corresponds to half a turn of the crankshaft. Two strokes of the piston, one in each direction, correspond to one full turn of the shaft. b. Four stroke Otto cycle. Any gasoline engine that requires four strokes of the piston, two down and two up (consequently, two complete revolutions of the crank- shaft), to complete a cycle of events is called a four stroke cycle engine. Since the four stroke cycle employed in the modern gasoline engine follows closely a thermodynamic 312 CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES gº discovered by Dr. N. A. Otto in 1876, it is referred to as the four stroke Otto cycle. The fundamental working parts of a four stroke Ottocycle engine and their relation to each other are shown in Plate 12. It is essential that the cylinder be closed at one end and open at the other. The closed end has a threaded opening into which the spark plug is screwed and two openings in which two valves operate to control the intake and ex- haust passages of the cylinder. The valves are held closed by valve springs except when they are forced open mechanically by the valve operating mechanism. A piston is fitted into the cylinder so that it is free to move up and down. Piston rings are fitted into grooves around the piston to form a gastight seal between the piston and the cylinder wall. The open end of the cylinder is mounted directly above the crankshaft. The crankshaft is supported by, and rotates freely in, suitable bearings. In order to convert the reciprocating (up and down) motion of the piston into rotating motion, the piston is connected to the crankshaft by a connecting rod fastened to the piston by the piston pin and to the crankshaft by a split bearing over the crank pin. One end of the crank- shaft is ordinarily fitted with a ſly wheel to smooth out the power impulses and to con- tinue the rotation of the crankshaft between power impulses. Energy imparted to the flywheel by the power stroke is sufficient to keep it rotating through the exhaust, intake, and compression strokes. GAS PRESSURE IN CYLINDER º PISTON H- CONNECTING ROD FORCE * CRANK ARM /* SHAFT r- zº TORQUE OR TURNING EFFORT Plate 11. Reciprocating Motion. The first event in the cycle is the intake stroke, Plate 13. The piston starts from its topmost position or top dead center. With the exhaust valve closed and the intake valve open, the piston moves downward creating a partial vacuum or suction in the cylinder that draws a charge of fuel and air through the intake valve port into the cylinder. As the piston reaches the bottom of its stroke, or bottom dead center, the intake valve closes so that the cylinder full of fuel mixture is sealed. Valves are assumed to open and close at top or bottom dead center of the piston for purposes of explanation. The actual points of opening and closing vary widely. With both valves closed and the cylinder full of fuel mixture, the piston moves up- ward in the cylinder until it again reaches the topmost position. This event is called the compression stroke, Plate 13. During this stroke the fuel mixture is being constantly compressed into a smaller space in the combustion chamber. Upon completion of this stroke the crankshaft has revolved one complete turn or 360° and the piston has made two strokes, down and up. º CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES 313 At this point in the cycle the highly compressed fuel charge is ignited by the spark plug and combustion takes place. Due to the heat of combustion, the gaseous charge builds up an extremely high pressure and the piston is forced downward to the bottom dead center position. This event is called the power stroke of the engine. - º - -- º º * - i. º: 3 #: ** --- *--> * = * - --- º - ſº º, º: º 53. T º i As the piston reaches the bottom dead center position, the exhaust valve opens and the pressure on the piston is immediately relieved. The exhaust valve remains open while the piston again moves upward to the top dead center position forcing the burned gases out of the cylinder through the exhaust valve port. When the piston reaches the 314 cARE AND operation of Motor vehicles top the exhaust valve closes. This event is called the exhaust stroke of the engine Plate 13. The crankshaft has now made two complete revolutions or 720° of circular move- ment, and the cylinder begins a new cycle of operation. The camshaft has made only one revolution; the intake and the exhaust valve have each opened and closed only once. This order of events, intake, compression, power, and exhaust, is repeated over and over again as long as the engine operates. Regardless of the number of cylinders any one engine may have, each separate cylinder of the engine follows this cycle of operation in the four stroke Otto cycle. º exhaus, *A*.* ºf º - - º tº ºf º ºake stroke comesessºr snºoke ºf º żº ºssº ºf power stroke ExHAUST STROKE Plate 13. Events of one complete cycle of a four-stroke Otto cycle engine. An engine having only one cylinder would develop power only one fourth of the time. To keep such an engine running during its non-productive strokes the energy must be stored in a fly wheel or in the momentum of a moving vehicle. A multiple cylinder engine of course provides a more uniform flow of power. CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES 315 c. From the above it is evident that to make use of the expansive power of burning gases in an internal-combustion engine: (1) A combustible mixture of air and gasoline must be introduced into the cylinder, and the cylinder then sealed. (2) The charge of air and gas must be ignited. (3) The burned gases (the exhaust) must be expelled. (4) There must be a means of repeating these events to produce continuous rotary motion from the power strokes of the piston. d. Diesel cycle. The Diesel engine operates on a four-stroke cycle which differs from the gasoline engine cycle. In this engine the first (down) stroke draws in a charge of pure air. The second (up) stroke compresses this air to over 500 pounds per square inch, thus producing a high temperature. Fuel (a low grade of fuel oil or distillate) is injected at the beginning of the third (down) stroke. The high temperature existing within the cylinder causes an immediate ignition of the fuel which forces the piston down. The fourth (up) stroke expels the burned gas. The semi-Diesel or oil engine is an adaptation of gascline and Diesel engines. It operates at lower compression pressures than Diesel engines, and consequently the fuel has to be ignited by an electric spark as in the gasoline engine. Both Diesel and semi-Diesel engines require four events for the completion of each cycle and are manufactured in two- or four-stroke types. 15. Fuel System. This system supplies the engine with fuel. It necessitates a place for fuel storage, a method of transferring the fuel from the place of storage to the engine, and a means for mixing the fuel with air and feeding it to the cylinder. a. Fuel pump method. In most modern vehicles the fuel is transferred from the fuel tank to the engine by a fuel pump. Starting from the storage tank the fuel passes through fuel lines or tubes, through a filter and fuel pump to the carburetor, where it is mixed with air and passed through the inlet port into the cylinder. b. Other methods. Gravity, air pressure, and the vacuum are other means utilized to move the liquid fuel from the tank to the carburetor. c. Fuel injector method. In the Diesel engine the fuel is sprayed into the cylinder by a fuel injector. * 16. Exhaust System. This system conducts the hot exhaust gases from the engine to the rear of the vehicle and discharges them into the atmosphere after the noise produced by their rapid expansion has been controlled and quieted. Exhaust noises are minimized by piping the gases through a chamber known as the muffler, which to a great extent allows the gases to expand and cool before being discharged. In the older type of mufflers a labyrinth is provided for the gas to pass through. The newer types allow . . to pass “straight through” as they are cooled and toned by surrounding Cnam DerS. 17. Cooling System. This system includes those units of the vehicle which are used for the specific purpose of carrying away and dissipating the heat from the combustion chamber that is not transferred into power. The metal parts of the engine, which absorb the heat of the burning fuel, not only contract and expand over a wide temperature range, but also have diſſerent coefficients of expansion at the same temperature. In order to prevent damage to parts by preignition of the fuel and incorrect working clearances, it is necessary that excessive heat be dissipated. a. Water (or other liquid) is the usual agent for cooling engines. It is circulated through a water jacket around the cylinders and combustion chambers and absorbs the heat carried by the metal cylinder head and walls. b. The cooling system, includes a fan for creating air currents and a water pump for positive and ſorced circulation of the cooling agent. In most instances a thermostat control device prevents circulation of the liquid until correct operating temperatures have been reached. Plate 14 shows a typical liquid cooling system. The air stream drawn through the radiator actually cools the liquid during its passage down through the radiator core. - c. Air, without the use of a liquid as an intermediate agent, cools some engines 316 CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES by being forced in large quantities over the cylinders, which have been provided with metal cooling fins having high heat conductivity. 18. Engine Lubrication. Friction in the modern close-fitted, high-speed engine is great and can be controlled only by proper lubrication. An oil-distributing system for engine lubrication is necessary in order to maintain a film of oil on cylinder walls, bearings, and other points where moving parts come in contact. This may be a force feed (pump pressure) type, splash type, or a combination of both. Aé Sij N RADIATOR UPPER TANK WATER JACKET AROUND RADATOR UPPER HOSE COMBUSTION CHAMBERS, RADATOR CORE VALVES AND CYLINDERS. THERMOSTAT WATER PUNMP Q ſ inſt lſ. ºf-ſe . = sº & : ſ\º H RADATOR LOWER HOSE RADATOR LOWER TANK Plate 14. Typical Liquid Cooling System. a. In the force feed type, oil is pumped under pressure from the crankcase through oil tubes to all crankshaft bearings. In a full force feed system, the oil is pumped to the piston pin through the connecting rods. b. In the splash type, oil in the crankcase is splashed and converted into a fine mist by small devices called “dippers” located on the extreme lower end of each connecting rod bearing. Usually the oil is pumped into troughs directly under each connecting rod. The splashed oil settles on all moving parts and lubricates them. c. An oil filter is often added to pressure systems to filter all or part of the circulated oil each time it passes through the pump. d. Oil coolers are also used on some engines to assist in cooling the lubricant for more efficient lubrication. - CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES 317 e. A lubricating system of the full force feed type is shown in Plate 15. f. Correct engine lubrication is probably the most vital single factor in ensuring longer engine life. Oll. PRESSURE GAGE Piston Oil Pressure Rinq Lands equlator - - º º: Piston Pin St. º-r Rinq Grooves Relief Nalve Oil Spraq * >Oil film Main Dearing Rip Sapport º Connecting Rod “º oil Header Pipe tº w Arro([I5 Indicate à- Direction Of Oil Oil film flocſ/ craſk Shall Drilled ſº. * * Circulating Pump from Main Bearing * to Connecting Rod * Journals Oil Sºme s. º § Drain Plug Bedrinq\ jcre([]5 Plate 15. Full Force Feed Lubricating System. Questions 1. What is a reciprocating engine? 2. How many power strokes are there in the four strokes of a four cycle engine? 3. In most vehicles, how is the fuel transferred from the storage tank to the engine? 4. What are the two cooling systems in use? 5. What types of lubricating systems are there? CHAPTER V POWER TRANSMISSION 19. Power Transmission System. (Plate 16.) The power generated by the engine of a motor vehicle is delivered to the driving wheels or tracks through the power trans- mission system. The clutch, transmission, transfer case, universal joints, propeller shaft, final drives, differential, and axle shaſts comprise this system. a. Clutch. (1) In order that the operator may control his vehicle properly, it is necessary that he be able at will to connect or disconnect the engine from the propulsion units. This is accomplished by an assembly known as the clutch, Plate 17. When the clutch is engaged, it functions by means of the friction created between its driving and driven members. (2) The faces of the clutch disk are covered with a friction material similar to woven brake lining. The disk is held between the face of the flywheel and the clutch-pressure plate, which is spring loaded and rotates integrally with the flywheel. Other types of clutches are cone, hydraulic, multiple disk, and single and multiple disk clutches running in oil. b. Transmission mechanism. (1) The power requirements of a motor vehicle vary with the speeds of the vehicle, road conditions, and loads. Since an engine develops only a small fraction of its total power at low speed (revolutions per minute), it is *uuaņs&S uopsspuusuteu）, waawo， jo ºdſ）, ’91 øget， ſae·*3;&#wº （właeae ---- |（： ，ºntºvaſ ſaeſ?, ¿?， ） Łºwºs aº maºººº ！ºn Snoº Bºx»， }}\ſlºwłºs wantiago， º ?ſae.ſºſ， *：）*）： |-ſae |×|×Iš: ºžſºffſ， ſº ¿№ ſ';} Hi！ ºl º E. º 13 w Hs sºn xv， --- • Noissaewswww.i.~sunior ſwsusaſºn CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES 319 necessary for starting and for the lower speeds of vehicle movement to provide a variable gear ratio by sets of different transmission gear combinations It is common practice to provide at least three forward gear (speed) changes on passerger cars, plus neutral and reverse positions, and as many as five or more forward changes on trucks. A typical transmission case having three speeds forward and ome reverse is shown in Plate 18. (2) The lubricating system of a transmission gear assembly is usually self-con- tained. The assembly is in a closed case known as the transmission case and runs in a constant bath of oil. FLYWHEEL SSs CLUTCH FINGERS O & CLUTCH PILOT O X; CLUTCH FRESSURE PLATE BEARING wº CLUTCH VIBRATION & DAMPENER SPRINGS 2, 2 © " =\; - - sº Sº SS §§ §§ º LUTCH [V clutch coves pêº'searcs "...” “... ." FLYWHEEL RING GEAR Plate 17. Clutch. SHIFTER INTERLOCK GEAR SHIFT LEVER TRANSMISSION CASE GEAR SHIFT LEVER HOUSING REAR BEARING BEARING SPEEDOMETER DRIVEN GEAR UNIVERSAL JOINT BEARING RETAINER SECOND & THIRD SPEED CLUTCH CLUTCH TEETH MAIN SHAFT MAIN SHAFT COUNTER DRIVEN GEAR SECOND SPEED GEAR COUNTER LOW SPEED DRIVE GEAR FIRST & REVERSE GEAR COUNTER GEAR ASSEMBLY COUNTER SECOND SPEED GEAR Plate 18. Transmission. 320 CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES c. Auxiliary transmission and transfer mechanism (or case). (1) Heavy duty vehicles require a greater selection of gear changes than the transmission normally affords in order to meet power requirements ranging from a no-load condition on level highways to a full-load condition on steep hills or rough terrain. In order to meet these excep- tional requirements an extra gear case, usually known as an auxiliary transmission, is used between the regular transmission and the driven axle to provide additional gear changes. (2) The transfer mechanism (or case), usually located off center with relation to the engine and transmission, provides the means of driving both front and rear axles. A declutching device to disconnect the front driven axle is usually included. (3) “Power take off” for driving winches, hoists, and similar special equipment may also be included as part of these units. (4) In all-wheel driven vehicles, the auxiliary transmission (subtransmission) and the transfer mechanism may be combined in one unit. A sectional view of such a unit is shown in Plate 19. HIGH SPEED DRIVE GEAR |GH AND LOW LOW SPEED DRIVE GEAR SHIFT RAIL >=>—x- TO TRANSMISSION SPEEDOMETER DRIVE AXLE ONE OF 10 FRONT AX DISENGAGEMENT LEVER BEARINGS USED X-> TO FRONT AXLE -º-º-º TO REAR AXLE SPLINED COLLAR Plate 19. Transmission of All-Wheel Drive Vehicle. d. Propeller shaft and universal joint. (1) Power transmission between transmission cases and transfer cases or driven axle units is accomplished through universal joints and propellor shafts. A propeller shaft may be either a shaft running in the open between universal joints or an enclosed shaft (torque tube) type. It must be provided with a sliding or slip joint (spline) and universal joint to overcome the vari- ations in angles and distances between units rigidly mounted in the vehicle frame (transmissions and transfer mechanisms) and units mounted on the driven axle (pinion gears, spur gears, differential, or other final drive mechanism). These variations CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES 321 are caused by the flexing springs under road and weight (load) shocks. Unless pro- vision is made to offset these changes in the location of the driving axle and related units, mechanical or structural failure will result. Plate 20 shows a portion of a propeller shaft, its slip spline, and universal joint. (2) The ideal power transmission would be in a straight line. The driving axle, however, is generally set somewhat lower than the transmission, necessitating that the propeller shaft run down to the axle at an angle. This requires the use of one or UNIVERSAL JOINT SPIDER PROPELLER SHAFT SPLINED JOINT SEAL NEEDLE BEARINGS COMPANION FLANGE Plate 20. Propeller Shaft, Slip Spline and Universal Joint. ºf fººl ºf Aº Plate 21. Gears Used in Final Drives. more universal joints. A universal joint is substantially a double hinged joint with the pins of the hinges set at right angles. Several different methods are used to achieve this, but in each case, the basic principle is the same. 20. Final Drives and Differentials. Final drives and differentials are separate and dis- tinct mechanisms, each serving a different purpose. A final drive transmits power from the propeller shaft to the differential case and changes the direction of the power trans- FA2 (1) 322 CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES mitted by the propeller shaft through 90 to the driving axles. At the same time it provides a fixed reduction between the speed of the propeller shaft and the axle driving the wheels. A differential is a device which allows torque to be delivered to two shafts or wheels which may be turning at different speeds. - 21. Final Drives. a. General. Torque from the transmission is transmitted longi- tudinally along the chassis by means of the propeller shafts. At the axle the direction Piłłº BEARINGS vº Bever prºve 2 * - º offerential º / Pºtºs - Ž tapered - º-H.E.R. ºf FER:###A. Słºf 3:AR5 º N. case º - º * - ºn Plate 22. Differential with Part of Case Cut Away. of this force must be changed through a right angle to rotate the wheels. This is done by the final drive, which also provides an additional gear reduction. There are three general types of final drive: The bevel gear, the worm gear, and the hypoid gear. b. Bevel gear final drives (Plate 21) invariably use spiral-bevel gears to secure quiet operation and long wear. The drive pinion is built integral with either a short pinion shaft or with the propeller shaft. c. Worm gear final drives (Plate 21) are used on many trucks, since they permit the use of high reduction ratios. d. In a hypoid gear (Plate 21) the axis of the pinion gear is either above or below CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES 323 the center line of the bevel gear. Its principal advantages are greater tooth area in contact, quieter operation, and increased chassis clearance above the propeller shaft. This increased clearance permits construction of vehicles with chassis closer to the ground. 22. Differentials. When a column of marching men turns a corner, the man in the inside file must take short steps, almost marking time, while the man in the outside file must take long steps and walk a much greater distance to make the turn. When a motor vehicle turns a corner, the wheels on the outside of the turn must rotate faster and travel a greater distance than the wheels on the inside. This causes no difficulty with the front wheels of the usual passenger car which are not driven because each rotates independently of the other on opposite ends of a dead axle or on independent spindles (knee action). In order for the rear wheels to turn at different speeds, how- ever, their individual axle shafts must be connected to the bevel drive gear in such a way that each shaft can turn at a different rate of speed and still be driven as a single unit. This is the function of the differential. The type of differential in general use (Plate 22) consists of a differential case bolted or riveted to the bevel drive gear, and two or more differential pinions pivoted radially in the case and meshed with two differential side gears. These are splined to the two axle shafts which drive the wheels. The axle shafts pass through each side of the differential case but rotate independently of it. Spur bevel gears are almost always used for the differential pinions and side gears. Usually, either two or four differential pinions are employed. a. An actual differential, with the parts in their proper relative positions but without their housing, is shown in Plate 22. The differential pinions are pivoted on the trunnions of a spider. These trunnions extend outward beyond the pinions and their outer ends are held in recesses between the two parts of the case which holds the side gears in mesh with the pinions. The action of the differential is as follows: The drive pinion rotates the bevel drive gear and the differential case and spider which are attached to it. The power is transmitted to the axle shafts through the differential pinions and side gears. When there is equal resistance on each rear wheel, the differential pinions rotate the differential side gears and axle shafts at the same speed which is the speed of the bevel drive gear. In this case, there is no relative motion between the pinions and the side gears; that is, the pinions are not turning on the spider trunnions and their teeth are not moving over the teeth of the side gears. When the vehicle turns a corner, one wheel must turn faster than the other. Consequently there is a movement of the differential pinions around the spider trunnions and over the teeth of the side gears. This makes one side gear, axle shaft, and wheel revolve faster than the other. Any movement of the differential pinions over the side gears accelerates one axle shaft and retards the other. The average speed of the two side gears, axle shafts, and wheels is always the speed of the bevel drive gear. Questions 1. What comprises the power transmission system? 2. What is the purpose of the clutch? * 3. Why is it necessary for a truck to have several gear shifts (ratios)? 4. What two types of propeller shafts are there? 5. What is a universal joint? 6. What is the difference between a final drive and a differential? 7. What are three general types of final drive? 8. What are the principal advantages of the hypoid gear? CHAPTER VI BODIES AND ELECTRICAL SYSTEM 23. Bodies. Vehicle bodies (Plate 1) must afford comfort and safety to the operator and passengers. In passenger cars the body must also help support or stiffen the frame. Bodies are composite or all metal. However, composite bodies of steel, wood, and fabric are being rapidly replaced by all-steel bodies. The complete body assembly of a truck is considered as two distinct parts: the cab or operator's compartment and the cargo body. In panel delivery bodies the cab and cargo body are usually separated by a panel or wall. In many of the larger type trucks used for long distance highway hauling, space is provided for a bed in the operator's cab for a relief driver. This is usually found in the wheeled tractor type unit used for trailer work. The instrument panel, across the front of the cab within easy reach and vision of the operator, contains operating gages and instruments as well as engine controls. Many special types of cargo bodies have been produced, but the commonest are the platform, stake, panel, cargo, and tank types. DISTRIBUTOR IGNITION COIU |GN. SWITCH -tº TO GAGES OR OTHER ACCESSORIES CONTROLLED BY IGNITION SWITCH 3. * INST PANEL LIGHTS TO SPARK PLUGS e tº INST. GENERATOR STARTER AIMMETER ºfL ----- - Sº SWITCH : STARTER SWITCH HORN BUTTON 㺠LIGHT RELAY 8. º §§is O SWiTCH | FOOT DIMMER Plate 23. Wiring Diagram of Car Showing Principal Units and Circuits. 24. Electrical System. Any electrical unit of automotive equipment on the motor vehicle should be considered as part of the complete electrical system. This equip- ment is generally grouped by circuits according to functional use: storage battery; generating and lighting; ignition; starting motor; horn; protective devices; and mis- cellaneous, such as lamps, switches, and special devices. A typical wiring diagram of these circuits is shown in Plate 23. a. Storage battery. This unit may be considered the heart of the electrical system of a motor vehicle. It furnishes electrical energy for cranking the engine and also for the electrical units of the vehicle when the generator output is insufficient. It is charged by any excess current from the generator. A wet cell battery of the lead acid type has an inherent potential of approximately 2 volts per cell. Thus a 6-volt system will use a 3-cell battery composed of 3 individual cells in series mounted together in 324 VENT PLUG FILLING TUBE SººHº. SEAL NUT POSITIVE STRAP Fººt N \ntoºnve - ſº STRAP RUBEER I SEPARATOR P: N º NLevel or 1. ELECTROLYTE WOOD pºpº SEPARATOR 212. 21:1 21:13 ºve J11 & CASE * * S *RIB Plate 24. One Cell of Lead Acid Storage Battery Showing Relationship or Plates, Insulators, and Terminals. HIGH TENSION CABLE ſ CAM 2. A Ar- CONDENSER s ! is IGNITION COll- l. switch S-7 BREAKER _/ \\ º POINTS WIRE TO sparkplug 2 46. SPARK_2^ ſº To DistributoR AMMETER CO RE/ * ** * PLUG STARTER 4. = SWITCH ENGINE DISTRIBUTOR ROTOR BLOCK ARM SPARK FLUG GAP - BATTERY Plate 25. A Typicaſ Battery Ignition Circuit. 326 CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES a container, and connected as a single unit. A sectional view of a lead acid storage battery cell is shown in Plate 24. * Generatºr. A direct current generator with related control mechanism is usually attached to the engine of practically all motor vehicles in order to generate and supply electric current necessary to maintain the battery in a charged or nearly charged con. dition; otherwise, the battery would soon become discharged. The generator may be of 2- or 4-pole construction and may be driven by belt, chain, or direct gear drive. High current generators of the voltage regulated type are becoming more common because the modern motor vehicle requires a greater amount of current. T- tº-º tº º DISTRIBUTOR -- S. SAFTY SPARK GAP BRUSH HOLDER INTERRUPTER." COLLE DENSER RING - " GROUND GRC) 'ND Plate 26. Typical Magneto Circuit. c. Lighting circuits. These circuits include head lamps, tail lamps, stop lamps, and any instrument lamps necessary for the night operation of the motor vehicle. Light switches are usually considered with the circuit of the lamp or lamps which they control. d. Ignition system. (1) In the gasoline engine the charge of compressed fuel is ignited by an electric spark. This ignition spark is created and controlled by an ignition sys- tem composed of the battery, ignition switch; coil, condenser, breaker (interrupter), distributor, spark plugs, and the necessary wire to connect them. A typical battery ignition circuit is shown in Plate 25. (2) The magneto is another type of ignition system frequently used. It is self- contained, as the current that is ordinarily supplied by the battery (in a battery ignition system) is generated within the magneto. Plate 26 shows a typical magneto circuit. e. Starting motor. Electric motors with high torque characteristics are used almost universally for cranking the engines of motor vehicles. The starting motor may drive the engine by a silent chain and overrunning clutch, or by a pinion gear attached to the motor armature shaft, which is brought into mesh with teeth cut on the rim of the engine flywheel. However, the pinion method is used almost exclusively. The pinion gear is engaged with the flywheel either by being shifted along the armature shaft by a combined shifting yoke and switch operating mechanism or by being run into mesh along a screw shaft through a driving spring as the armature picks up speed. CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES 327 The latter type is known as a Bendix drive. This type of drive assembled on a start- ing motor shaft is shown in Plate 27. t f. Horns. Horns or warning devices on motor vehicles are normally operated by elec- tricity. Usually they consist of an electromagnet equipped with an interrupter device and arranged in such a way that the electromagnet vibrates a thin metal diaphragm. A projector or bell placed over the diaphragm amplifies the sound and directs it for- ward. STARTER TERMINAL DRIVING STOP CONNECTION TO scFEw SHAFT BOLT CONNECTION TO AUTOMATIC ARMATURE SHAFT ARMATURE SHAFT STARTING MOTOR FRAME. GEAR DR1FT PIN AND END PLATE SPRING SCREW SHAFT SLEEVE DRIVING DRIVING *{EAD SPRING Plate 27. Bendix Drive. g. Protective devices. Devices such as fuses or magnetic circuit breakers are placed in the electrical circuits of the motor vehicle to protect the wiring and battery from overloads or short circuits. Too heavy a current will melt the fuse and open the circuit or will separate (open) the points of the circuit breaker. h. Miscellaneous. This group includes lamps, fuel gages, turn indicators, and other electrical accessories, or special devices operating from the motor vehicle electrical system. Questions What may be considered as the heart of the electrical system of the motor vehicle? What is the purpose of the generator? What makes up the usual ignition system? What other types of ignition system is found sometimes? What type of starting motor is usually used? : CHAPTER VII AUTOMOTIVE MAINTENANCE 25. Basic Principles. a. The purpose of motor maintenance is to keep vehicles rolling with a minimum loss of time from avoidable repairs. The Army system of automotive maintenance is based on: (1) Scheduled preventive maintenance operations, unit replacements, repairs, and inspections with the primary objective of economical, uninterrupted vehicle service. (2) Systematic detection and correction of incipient causes of vehicle failures be- fore they occur and the operations necessary to maintain satisfactory day-to-day operation. 328 CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES b. The Principle of unit replacement rather than major repair of a unit while installed in the vehicle is practiced in all cases where such assembly is available. 6. Within the motor maintenance system of operating organizations will be included only the tools, equipment, and personnel which are necessary to insure combat efficiency. It will be predicated upon: (1) Close and adequate support by the supply service motor maintenance units. (2) Meeting the normal needs of operation (not the unusual needs). (3) Minimum decentralization within the regiment, battalion, squadron or similar organization. (4) The expectation of a certain proportion of motor-vehicle casualties. The avail- able elements essential to maintenance will determine in each case whether these casualties will be repaired by the organization or by the supporting service. (5) Replacement of vehicles which cannot be repaired within the time element in the particular situation. (6) The economic factors in peace affect all phases of motor maintenance as a function of garrison or post routine. This must not obscure the correct conception of motor maintenance under field service conditions. The shop equipment usually used in post shops is inadequate or incorrectly designed for field use. To insure efficient field motor maintenance, garrison training must stress the use of the specialized field maintenance tools and equipment. (7) Care must be exercised by all concerned to retain the distinction between or- ganizational maintenance and service maintenance. Under field conditions, organiza- tional maintenance activities must not exceed their prescribed scope. The facilities of the higher service echelons (quartermaster and ordnance) must be fully used. 26. The Echelon System of Maintenance. Motor maintenance is divided into two main divisions—organizational and service—which consist of the first, second, third, and fourth echelons (AR 850-15). a. Responsibility. The first and second echelons of maintenance are the responsibility of the using arms and services, while the third and fourth echelons are the responsibility of the supply services. b. Essential elements. There are four elements essential to maintenance functions: personnel, equipment, supplies, and time. The work to be performed in the various echelons is limited by restrictions of one or more of these elements. c. Functioning. The succeeding paragraphs of this chapter are devoted to the detailed functioning of the first and second echelons and to a broad presentation of the third and fourth echelons. 27. Organizational Maintenance. First Echelon–Driver and Assistant Driver. The first echelon (preventive) maintenance is drivers' maintenance. It covers the simple operations that can be trusted to the skill of the average driver using tools and supplies available on the vehicle. These operations may include: drivers' inspections; servicing (replenishment of gasoline, oil, water, antifreeze, and air); cleaning, lubrication, except items requiring special lubricants, equipment, or technical knowledge; tightening or replacement of nuts, bolts, screws, and studs; preparation of the vehicle for mainte- nance operations and for command and technical inspections; and care of tools and equipment of the vehicle to include the storage battery. 28. Organizational Maintenance. Second Echelon. The second echelon (Preventive) maintenance is that maintenance other than first echelon maintenance performed by the using arms and services. It embraces preventive maintenance, minor repairs, unit re- placements, and inspections within the limits of time available. When vehicles are pooled or are in one special organization, the first and all the second echelon functions are combined. On the other hand when a company or battery of a regiment has vehicles assigned to it, the second echelon functions are usually divided between the company or battery and the regiment. The organization to which the vehicles are assigned is responsible for first echelon maintenance and certain portions of the second echelon, limited as hereafter provided, by the tools, light portable equipment, parts and me- CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES 329 ORGANIZATION WITHIN THE COMPANY TROOP OR BATTERY FOR FIRST AND SECOND ECHELON MAINTENANCE UNIT COMMANDER, MOTOR OFFICER Vehicle operation Maintenance Supply Records Training Inspection Reports FIRST SERGEANT Truckmaster VEHICLE MAINTENANCE SUPPLY OPERATION CHIEF MECHANIC SUPPLY CHIEF OF SERGEANT SECTION MOTOR. SERGEANT Property records SQUAD LEADER Requisitions Storage and issue Supervision Shop foreman Operation Inspections #; ections Maintenance Reports Reports RECORDS AND Training drivers Records REPORTS {— Operation Maintenance Dispatching Caretaking Minor repairs Reports Inspection Special lubrication Records Driver lubrication Inspection Clerical Work Servicing Reports (trip and accidents) chanics authorized. The regiment, on the other hand, with its separate maintenance section, performs the operations requiring either more skill or special tools. a. Company or battery. (1) Unit commander. The unit commander is directly responsible for the first and part of or all the second echelon maintenance. He normally has the assistance of a motor officer, a motor sergeant, and motor mechanics. In order to insure a high state of operating efficiency the unit commander must— (a) Separate, so far as possible, the operating and maintenance functions of his personnel and establish definite responsibility for each function. (b) Establish and maintain uniformly high standards for all work. (c) Make vehicles and time available for maintenance operations. (d) Enforce a simple but thorough method of record keeping. (e) Conduct schools to insure uniform training of drivers (see Chapters XIII and XIV) and mechanics, and to supply replacements for personnel losses. (f) Provide necessary lubrication, maintenance, and inspection guides. (g) Establish and enforce routine scheduled maintenance operations. 330 CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES (h) Make such inspections as are necessary to insure the proper coordination and functioning of all personnel. Maintenance is a function of command. Continued successful operation by a motorized unit requires that the personnel in command positions give to the activities of mainte- nance the time and effort necessary to meet the needs of operation. (2) Motor officer. The motor officer should be selected from those officers having either special motor training or aptitude. He should be familiar with all the peculiarities of his vehicles and should be able to inform his seniors at any time of the exact condition of each vehicle. He is responsible to his immediate commander for the technical opera- tion and maintenance of the vehicles. His duties include— (a) Organizing and supervising the maintenance, repair, and servicing of vehicles. (b) Instructing the drivers and assistants until they are fully qualified. (c) Being in charge of all caretaking. (d) Inspecting before leaving park, on the road, at the halt, at the end of the march; inspecting vehicles in storage; and making maintenance inspections. (e) Assisting in making command inspections. (f) Seeing that all parts and supplies are procured. (g) Routing vehicles to a higher echelon. (h) Supervising the keeping of forms and records. (i) Instructing all maintenance personnel in their duties. (j) Spot checking all maintenance operations. (k) Carefully watching the lubrication services and checking the lubricants for type and condition. (l) Having all fire hazards removed. (m) Observing the drivers whenever practical. (n) Directing the transfer of loads in case of break-down. (o) Giving proper instruction in case any personnel is left behind on a march. (p) Giving proper instructions to expedite any road repair or rescue. (q) Planning and coordinating motor marches. (r) Riding usually at the tail of the column. (3) Truckmaster. The truckmaster of a truck company and similar organizations, acting as first sergeant, is the intermediary between the company commander and the enlisted men of the organization. He also acts as the direct supervisor of motor transport operation, assisting the company commander in coordinating and controlling such activities. In some instances, especially in organizations having two or more interrelated functions, such as a field artillery battery, signal corps company, or mechanized cavalry troop, the first sergeant essentially assists the commander in the performance of the battery's or troop's combat mission and the motor sergeant then acts as truckmaster. The combined duties of a motor sergeant, as a truckmaster and as a chief mechanic are shown in e (5) below. - (4) Motor sergeant. The motor sergeant, in smaller organizations, can be con- sidered as a combination truckmaster and chief mechanic. He should be selected for his technical knowledge, his mechanical ability and his aptitude for organizing and super- vising. He should be well versed in field expedients and in the methods used to get vehicles through when they are stalled or when the going is bad. (a) As truckmaster, his duties include— º Principal assistant to the motor officer. Direct supervision of the vehicle motor park. Assisting, when required, in making inspections. Supervising and checking vehicle operation. Reporting evidence of neglect, abuse or carelessness to his superior officer. Supervising, through subordinate noncommissioned officers, all personnel assigned to motor transport duties. Keeping or supervising the recording of vehicle operation, fuel and oil used and supplies (through the supply sergeant and clerk). CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES 331 (b) As chief mechanic, his duties include— Supervision of mechanics and their work. Enforcement of scheduled maintenance work. Supervision and checking of adjustments and repairs. Observing vehicle operation on the march and taking prompt corrective action when necessary. Supervising the rescue or removal of stalled and disabled vehicles. Checking, or requiring mechanics to check, all vehicles during any march halt and upon completion of the day's run. Particular attention should be paid to excessively heated parts (gears, wheel bearing, engines, brakes, and the like). Supervising starting of vehicle engines for prompt starting, proper warming up and for continued operation. & Riding, usually, at the tail of the column as a part of the maintenance group. Allotting work to mechanics and inspecting their work during actual per- formance and when it is completed. Diagnosing mechanical failures and when necessary giving mechanics in- struction as to proper corrective action. Making prescribed records and reports on scheduled preventive mainte- nance, servicing and repair work satisfactorily completed. Coordinating the technical phases of motor supply with motor mainte- nance activities. Establishing, in the absence of the regimental motor officer and any com- missioned assistants, the maintenance set-up in the field and notifying all concerned of its location. (5) Chief mechanic. The chief mechanic is the technical supervisor of the main- tenance work of the organization. His duties are detailed in the paragraph above. (6) Mechanics. Mechanics are detailed to organizations in accordance with Tables of Organization based on the number of vehicles to be maintained and the type of repair work to be done. For obvious reasons, they should be the best qualified mechanics in the regiment or similar organization. Mechanics make necessary repairs and adjustments under the direction of the motor sergeant or the chief mechanic. They perform scheduled preventive maintenance work, where specialized technical knowledge is a requisite to its proper performance. They observe vehicles during march for signs of probable failures or defects. They assist section chiefs and squad leaders, when detailed, in making adjustments and in servicing vehicles. Mechanics usually ride on the march with the motor maintenance group. (7) Chief of sections and squad leaders. These noncommissioned officers super- vise and control their respective sections and/or squads to coordinate all motor transport activities within their groups and as part of the entire organization. They should see that all instructions on cleaning, tightening, servicing, and lubricating vehicles of their groups are complied with. They control the march of their sections and squads as to gear selections, distances, safety, operating speeds, and similar matters. Their duties include: Responsibility for supervising and directing driver (first echelon) maintenance. Prompt reporting of vehicle defects and failures to the truckmaster the chief mechanic or motor sergeant, as may be required. e Responsibility for checking the supply of gasoline, oil, water, and other supplies re- quired for vehicle operations. Riding, usually, in the first vehicle of their section or squad. (8) Other personnel. Drivers, assistant drivers and other personnel of motorized and mechanized organizations perform duties as indicated by their designation or as directed by the commissioned and noncommissioned officers over them. 332 CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES (9) Supply. Unit supply officer. The regimental or similar unit supply officer is usually charged with procuring, requisitioning and issuing fuel, lubricants, antifreeze, cleaning and preserving supplies, and similar motor transport items required by the batteries, companies or troops. In preparing requisitions and whenever otherwise re- quired, he should utilize the technical experience and knowledge of the motor officer and his assistants, especially as to kind, type and quality, even to quantity, of motor supplies needed. The responsibility of the supply officer for such supply activities in no way changes those of the motor officer. (10) Tools and equipment. Tables of Basic Allowances prescribe the authorized allowance of tools and equipment for all echelons of maintenance, including the first and second (organizational) echelons. Each general motor mechanic authorized in Tables of Organization is allowed a “motor vehicle mechanic's set of about 50 hand tools; included are a tool bag (box end, engineer); pipe, socket and crescent wrenches; hammers, punches, files, drifts, screw drivers, thickness gages, chisels and pliers. These sets are issued individually on memorandum receipt. As a rule the mechanic carries his set of tools with him wherever he is on duty. In addition to these motor vehicle mechanics tool sets, special tools or kits for ignition, carburetor, brake and other repairs or maintenance work demanding them, may be issued. Depending upon the number of motor vehicles in its fleet, organizations performing first and second echelon repairs are authorized to use Unit Set No. 1 (for 20 to 30 or less vehicles) and Unit Set No. 2 (for fleets of about 60 vehicles). To augment these sets the following additional equipment when authorized may be furnished organizations: Unit Set No. 3 (air equipment set) Unit set No. 4 (block and tackle set) Unit set No. 5 (welding equipment set) Unit set No. 6 (electric generator set) Unit set No. 7 (wrecking set) These are essentially intended for field service but may also be used for maintenance work in garrison. One or more mechanics or repair trucks are authorized for organization to carry the mechanics, the tools and equipment, and the parts and other supplies. If unit set No. 7 (wrecking set) is authorized, an extra vehicle is required as a wrecker. (11) Spare parts and supplies. To prevent their hoarding, dispersion or dissipa- tion, the stock of spare subassemblies, units, parts and supplies, in organizational mainte- nance echelons (first and second) is generally limited to that required for prompt and immediate repairs and for other necessary maintenance functions. The stock required will vary with the number, makes, types and age of vehicles, and with the efficiency of personnel and of such operating conditions as cold, sand, mud and hilly or poor terrain. As a rule, the following items are stocked in organizational maintenance echelons: Spark plugs Hose and clamps Cotter keys Condensers gaskets Fittings Fuzes Gas and oil lines Packings Lamps (light bulbs) Electric wiring Bolts Fan belts Caps, (hub, gas tank, etc.) Washers Ignition and battery cables Nuts Screws The above list is not all inclusive but includes items normally known as “Parts common” or as “High mortality parts.” The bulk of these supplies is carried within the regimental motor maintenance section, platoon, or similar group. Unserviceable units are replaced as soon as possible by serviceable ones. The un- serviceable units should be sent to the third (or fourth) echelon for exchange; for repair and return; for repair and stock; or for disposition by action of an inspector or a sur- veying officer. b. Regiment. In most arms and services there is provided by the Tables of Organiza- CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES 333 tion a regimental second echelon maintenance organization. The personnel are a part of the headquarters company, battery, or like unit of the regiment and are administered by the commanding officer of that unit. The regimental commander is directly responsible for the operation of the regimental second echelon. (1) Regimental motor officer. The regimental motor officer must be a highly trained full-time motor officer to command the motor-maintenance personnel and super- vise its functions. His duties include: (a) Being in charge of the regimental motor maintenance section or platoon. (b) Coordinating and consolidating all requests for third echelon repairs. Co- operating with third echelon shops on requirements for repairs. (c) Supervising replacements and maintenance operations. (d) Making maintenance inspections as required. (e) Supervising the keeping of motor-vehicle operation and maintenance records. (f) Coordinating and consolidating all requisitions for motor transport parts and supplies, other than those handled by the unit supply officer. (g) Supervising the supply and issue of motor transport supplies within the regiment, other than those handled by the unit supply officer. (h) Keeping a record of expenditure of funds allotted. (i) Checking upon the units to prevent the hoarding of parts and supplies to the detriment of other units. (j) Prorating the budget allowance in money value for cleaning and preserving material and parts, as directed by regimental commander. (k) Keeping in touch with all maintenance establishments that operate with the organization. (l) Preparing all records and reports in regard to motor transportation required to be forwarded to higher headquarters. (m) Supervising the unit motor schools. (n) Keeping in touch with the utilization and circulation of vehicles of the units. (o) Assisting the commanding officer in making command inspections. (p) Notifying all organizations of the location of his repair facilities in the field. (q) Riding at the tail of the column, ordinarily allowing none to fall behind him, except those vehicles beyond repair. In time of peace he makes suitable arrangements for repair or salvage of vehicles so damaged that towing is not practicable. (r) Examining driver candidates, and keeping record of and issuing W. D., Q. M. C. Form No. 228 (U. S. Army Motor Vehicle Operator's Permit), in accordance with AR 850-15. (s) Preparing scheduled maintenance guides for the various units under his technical supervision, as well as for the regimental maintenance section's operation. (t) Keeping unit commanders informed as to the efficiency of maintenance of their motor vehicles. (u) Insuring that information issued in technical service bulletins or regulations reaches all maintenance personnel in the regiment. (v) Making frequent visits to the unit motor maintenance personnel to render such assistance and advice as may be needed. (2) Regimental motor sergeant. The regimental motor sergeant is the principal assistant of the regimental motor officer. He is in direct charge of the mechanics and assigns and supervises their work. He coordinates the duties of the supply personnel with those of the maintenance personnel. He prepares the maintenance records and re- ports required. In the absence of the regimental motor officer, he takes over his duties, establishes the maintenance set-up in the field, and notifies all organizations of his location. (3) Regimental motor mechanics. The regimental motor mechanics should be among the best qualified mechanics in the regiment, thus making the services of the best mechanics available to all units. (4) Regimental supply officer. The regimental supply officer is directly charged with the procurement and issue of fuel, lubricants, antifreeze solutions, cleaning and preserving materials, and similar items directly to the operating units. He should utilize 334 CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES the services of the regimental motor officer in preparing recommendations as to the quan- tity and quality of operating supplies and the quantity of maintenance supplies. The duties of the regimental motor officer in no way change the duties and responsibilities of the regimental supply officer. (5) Spare parts and supplies. The bulk of the spare units, parts, and supplies for the entire regiment is carried in the regimental section or platoon. This prevents dissipation of the stock available and yet allows any portion of it to be readily available to the organ- izations. Ordinarily an unserviceable unit is replaced by a spare unit, if one is available, and the damaged unit is then returned by the regiment to the third echelon for exchange. 29. Service Maintenance. Third Echelon. Third echelon maintenance is that normally performed in the field by quartermaster and ordnance personnel. It embraces prin- cipally the replacement of unserviceable unit assemblies by similar unit assemblies held in third echelon stock. In addition to unit replacement, the third echelon supports and extends maintenance facilities to the using arms and services by making repairs in- volving the use of medium mobile shop equipment and by the services of general mechanics and a limited number of trade specialists; by the supply of unit assemblies and parts to the second echelon; and by the evacuation to the third and fourth echelon shops of vehicles which require repairs beyond the scope of second and third echelon facilities. 30. Service Maintenance. Fourth Echelon. The fourth echelon maintenance is that normally performed in the rear areas by the quartermaster or ordnance personnel. It embraces the tear-down and repair of any or all unit assemblies which are used in the motor vehicles of the command to which the fourth echelon shop is assigned. Essentially this consists of major unit repair. It also includes salvage and reclamation service. Questions 1. Upon what is the Army system of automotive maintenance based? 2. What are the four divisions of Army maintenance called? 3. The various echelons are the responsibility of what using arm, service, and supply services? 4. What are the four elements essential to maintenance functions? 5. What is the first echelon? 6. For what echelons is the unit commander responsible? 7. What is third echelon maintenance? CHAPTER VIII MAINTENANCE OPERATIONS 31. Definitions. a. Repairs. Repair consists of adjusting, tightening, replacing, or reconditioning any part, subassembly, or assembly of a motor vehicle. b. Adjustments. Adjustment consists of placing parts, subassemblies, or assemblies in correct working relation to each other and securing them in that position. c. Tightening. Tightening consists of drawing up nuts and screws where adjustment is not involved. This is usually the duty of the driver; therefore, a clear distinction should be made between tightening and adjusting. The latter requires knowledge, experience, and often special tools and is usually performed by fully qualified repair rsonnel. º Replacing. Replacing consists of exchanging any part, subassembly, or assembly, and placing them in proper adjustment. . g º e. Reconditioning. Reconditioning consists of restoring any part, subassembly, or assembly to a state of serviceability. & 32. Scheduled Operations. In order to maintain the vehicles in as near perfect op- erating condition as possible, scheduled maintenance operations followed by main- tenance inspections are necessary. These should be positive operations performed in accordance with a definite schedule based on time, mileage, or a combination of both. CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES 335 This schedule must be planned well in advance and coordinated with anticipated de- mands for vehicles. Scheduled maintenance operations for all vehicles, except those special purpose and combat vehicles for which maintenance operations are prescribed in service manuals and handbooks, are divided into five general classifications as follows: a. Daily. Daily maintenance consists of cleaning, servicing, tightening, and emergency repairs. Cleaning, servicing, and tightening are duties of the driver under the direct supervision of the chief of section and under the technical supervision of the motor maintenance personnel. - b. Weekly. Weekly maintenance is a continuation and a check of the drivers' daily maintenance. It will be performed at least once each week by the driver under the direct supervision of the chief of section and under the technical supervision of the motor maintenance personnel. c. Lubrication. Lubrication operations should be performed by designated personnel in accordance with a lubrication guide furnished with each type of vehicle. This guide represents the minimum requirements and must be increased to meet severe operating conditions. d. Monthly (1000-mile). This maintenance operation is normally performed by the company, battery, or similar unit mechanics under the supervision of the motor ser- geant. A record is made to show the defects that could not be corrected, the time of accomplishment, the mechanic who performed the operation, and the officer who made the maintenance inspection. This record should be retained until the semiannual (6000-mile) maintenance operations and technical inspection, at which time it may be disposed of as the unit commander sees fit. Pertinent data from the record are entered in the vehicle service record. A guide for this maintenance, which should be modified as necessary for a particular type of vehicle, follows. Tolerances and clearances might well be added. Items marked with an asterisk (*) may require tools and parts not available or authorized, in which case the defect should be corrected by the next higher echelon: (1) Road test. (a) 1. Bring engine to operating temperature and examine for smoke or fumes. Examine condition of oil on measuring stick. Observe any evidences of blow-by or leaks. 2. Test horns, lights, windshield wiper, and other safety devices. (b) Drive vehicles. . Test for proper steering. . Observe engine for power delivery, acceleration, and unusual noises. . Test clutch action. Stop and investigate unusual noises. . Test gear sets and final drives for ease of shifting and unusual noises. . Test brakes for equalization, stopping distance, pedal travel, and pedal “feel.” Observe action of instruments on dash. - . Observe the final drive and power transmission units while another person drives or while the vehicle is blocked up with the wheels off the floor. Note any overheating of units. (c) Check lubrication levels after return to motor park. (2) Maintenance operations, general. (a) Clean and tighten storage battery, terminals, and carrier bolts. Test battery and refill to proper level. (b) Tighten body bolts, fenders, running boards, splash pan joints, bumpers, brush guards, head lamp brackets, mirrors, tow hooks, pintles, body parts, radiator shell, and hardware. *(c) Repair body injuries. (d) Replace unserviceable instruments or safety devices. (e) Adjust lights. (3) Wheels, brakes, and springs. *(a) Replace worn brake lining. (b) Correct overlubrication or leakage of lubricant. 336 CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES (c) Remove looseness or bind from wheel bearings. (d) Tighten wheel stud nuts. . . (e) Correct any leaks in hydraulic or air brake system. (f) Fill master cylinder to proper level. (g) Centralize and adjust brakes. (h) Replace unserviceable shock absorbers and linkage; replenish fluid. (i) Repair broken or loose spring hold-down bolts, rebound clips, and center bolts. Tighten loose shackle bolts. (j) Correct any malfunctioning of the brake system. (4) Steering mechanism. (a) Remove by adjustment or repair any excessive play in: . Steering knuckle bearings. . Tie rod ends. . Bushings. . King pin wedge bolts. . Drag link or connecting link. . Pittman arm or sector shaft. . Steering gear. (b) Tighten attachment of steering mechanism to frame, and of steering column to body. (c) Replace any excessively worn or bent parts. (d) Tighten, replace, or properly secure all lock washers, cotter keys, nuts, and similar items. *(e) Adjust wheel stops when turning radius is incorrect. (Note any wear on drag link.) (f) Lubricate entire mechanism while front wheels are off the floor. Turn wheels from side to side to insure distribution of lubricant and to ascertain whether or not the entire mechanism works freely. (5) Driving axles. (a) Tighten loose driving flange nuts and cap screws. (b) Tighten and properly secure all assembly, pinion carrier, cover plate, spring seat, and other bolts and nuts. t *(c) Correct any leakage of lubricant. *(d) Remove any excessive play or backlash. (6) Clutch, transmission, transfer case, propeller shafts, and universal joints. (a) Adjust incorrect, clutch free travel and floor clearance. *(b) Repair defective reverse shifter stop, and malfunctioning shifter mechanisms. (c) Tighten all loose bolts and nuts, assembly support, carrier, and cover plate. *(d) Correct any leakage of lubricant. (e) Correct misalinement of universal joints. *(f) Repair all fractures. - *(g) Replace excessively worn spline and universal joints. *(h) Repair all evidences of slackness, looseness, or leakage. (i) Open clutch housing drain vent. (j) Repair or replace muffler or tail pipe. (7) Cooling system. (a) Tighten radiator supports, braces, and attachment of shell to core. (b) Adjust fit of hood on shell and fit of hood locks. (c) Replace unserviceable hose and hose clamps. *(d) Correct all evidences of water leakage. (e) Adjust incorrect fan-belt tension; replace unserviceable fan belt. (8) Fuel system. - (a) Clean dirty sediment bowls. *(b) Correct any leakage in or around the fuel pump. (c) Tighten connections; repair or replace leaking lines, *(d) Correct any malfunctioning of fuel pump. ſ CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES 337 (9) Engine. (a) Service all air filters; replace oil filter if required. (b) Tighten engine mountings, flywheel housing, oil pan, flywheel cover, timing- case cover, manifolds, accessory attachments, and other bolts and nuts. *(c) Correct all breakage, cracks, or leaks. (d) Set manifold heat valve to seasonal adjustment. *(e) Repair unserviceable breaker points. (f) Replace all damaged wiring. *(g) Correct malfunctioning generator or starter. *(h) Correct generator output. (i) Adjust noisy valves. *(i) If on the road test any missing occurs, the entire ignition system should be carefully checked and spark plugs removed, examined, cleaned, reset, and serviceable ones reinstalled. *(k) Remove causes of other knocks, noises, and unsatisfactory engine performance. (Vacuum gauge is valuable for diagnosis of troubles). (l) Repair looseness in any controls. (10) Road test. Check repairs. (11) Record. Prepare a record as follows: (a) Defects not corrected. Unit Defect • e s a e s e o e s e s e s e e s • e s s e e e s • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * a e s s e s s a s e s e e e s e e e s e s e s e e s e º e < e < e < * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * • * * * * * * e s a s e s e s a e s e s e e s = e s = e s e e s ∈ e º e s a s e º e s a s e s = * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * (b) Mechanic's and motor sergeant's certificate. I have performed the maintenance operations as outlined in the guide for monthly (1000-mile) maintenance operations, and so far as can be determined this vehicle can be expected to give 30 days, or 1000 miles, of satisfactory service, except as indicated under defects. Date . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Signature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Signature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (Mechanic) (Motor sergeant) (c) Maintenance inspection certificate. I certify that I have performed the maintenance inspection on this vehicle as re- quired by AR 850-15 and that it can be expected to give 30 days or 1000 miles of satisfactory service. Date . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * - - - - - - - Signature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 (Motor officer) e. Semiannual (6000-mile) maintenance operations. These maintenance operations are normally performed by the regimental second echelon of maintenance. Under extremely severe operating conditions certain items may have to be checked every two or three months. An instructional guide similar to that used for the monthly (1000- mile) maintenance operations should be drawn up. These maintenance operations differ from the monthly operations in that all accessory units and some other parts are disassembled, cleaned, inspected, and lubricated. They are then repaired or exchanged if necessary. Semiannual (6000-mile) maintenance operations are thus more complete than are those performed monthly or every 1000 miles, and should assure reasonable vehicle service if the monthly (1000-mile) maintenance operations are carefully per- formed. If a shop card is not made out to show the repairs, the mechanic, the items not corrected, and the completion of the inspection, a record similar to that used in conjunction with the monthly (1000-mile) maintenance operations should be prepared and retained until after the technical inspection. Maintenance operations that should normally be included in the 6-month (6000-mile) service are: (1) Records to include inspection of vehicle repair and operating records for the past six months (6000 miles), followed by a road test similar to the monthly (1000- mile) maintenance. 338 CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES (2) Engine tune-up to include check of oil and air filters, a vacuum and com- pression test, cleaning of oil pan and interior of engine, adjustment of valves, adjust- ment of spark plugs, reconditioning of ignition wiring, generator servicing, starter servicing, ignition servicing, carburetor servicing, and check of tightness and service- ability of all parts and accessories. (3) Fuel system to include examination and servicing of fuel pump, gas lines, carburetor, and tank. (4) Cooling system to include radiator service and check of thermostat, fan belt, and water pump. (5) Instruments and electrical systems to include check, service, or replacement of horn, lights, wiring, windshield wiper, and dash instruments. (6) Clutch, transmission, and transfer case to include clutch travel and floor clear- ance, reverse shifter stop, transmission and transfer case supports, grease seals, tightness, and lubrication. (7) Propeller shafts and universal joints to include slackness, free movement of spline joints, grease seals, and lubrication. (8) Driving axles to include back lash, inspection, lubrication, and adjustment of wheel bearings, spring clips, spring hold-down bolts, spring shackles, driving flanges, leaks, grease seals, and lubrication. (9) Steering mechanism to include attachment of steering mechanism and column, pitman arm, play in steering mechanism, steering linkage, steering stops, turning angle of front-drive axle, and lubrication. (10) Front end to include spring hold-down bolts, rebound clips, shackles, shock absorbers, lubrication and adjustment of wheel bearings, tie rods, and tires for wear and alinement. ge (11) Wheels and brakes to include hub bolts, grease seals, brake lining, brake linkage and lines, and brake cylinders. g (12) General to include storage battery, body and attachments, curtains, muffler, and tail pipe. (13) Engine check by bringing engine up to operating temperature and checking results of engine tune-up for quietness; idling speed; acceleration; and leaks in car- buretor, fuel pump, gas lines, cooling system, oil pressure lines, and oil seals. (14) Road test. (15) Record of operation. f. Seasonal maintenance. As vehicles are prepared for the different operating con- ditions of summer and winter, opportunity is afforded for the following (to be done during a service operation if possible): Remove all wheels and examine brake drums, linings, and bearings. Repack bearings with proper grade of wheel bearing lubricant and adjust the bearings. Drain transmission, also transfer case and power to take-off unit, check for leaks, loose hanger bolts, misalined shafts; note tooth wear; refill with proper winter (or summer) lubricant (EP. lubricant if required). Drain differentials, check for backlash and proper tooth engagement, note tooth wear; leaks; refill with proper winter (or summer) lubricant (EP. lubricant if required) Carburetor, clean and adjust. Drain, flush, and thoroughly clean engine cooling systems; replace and tighten hose connections if required; refill with antifreeze (if for freezing weather). Liquid cooled engine operating temperatures should be maintained at 140° F to 160°F in cold weather. This may be accomplished by keeping thermostats in workable condition, closing louvres, and partially covering radiator. g. Lubrication of vehicles. This operation is usually performed by the first echelon but special service conditions may make it necessary to assign this responsibility to technical personnel of the second echelon to assure correct lubrication and to meet un- usual requirements. TM 10-540 contains detailed information on general application of lubricants. Specific information on a particular make or model of vehicle can be found in the vehicle's service record (W.D. Q.M.C. Form No. 248), and in technical manual CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES 339 for that vehicle. In the case of ordnance vehicles, general information on lubrication is found in OFSB (6-series). - 33. New Vehicles. During the break-in period, new vehicles usually require special maintenance operations. War Department instructions, if issued for the particular vehicle, and the manufacturer's recommendations should be followed. Prior to oper- ating the vehicle and again at the end of the break-in-period, a complete mechanical inspection is made. All shortages, defective parts, and malfunctions are entered on the inspection report and action taken to replace or correct them. 34. Company or Battery and Regimental Second Echelon Repairs. The following ex- amples do not indicate all the operations performed but show some of the common ones. Circular 1-10, OQMG, covers the operations in detail for the entire second echelon. -- a. Company or battery. (1) Adjustments. Wheel bearings, pedal clearances, steering gear and linkage, fan belt, water pump, spring shackles, and lights. (2) Replacements. Carburetor, generator, distributor cap and rotor, fuel pumps, batteries and cables, manifolds, instruments and switches, oil lines and filters, and brake shoes. b. Regiment. (1) Adjustments. Steering geometry, voltage regulator, carburetors, generators, valve tappets, and timing. (2) Replacements. Tie rods, distributor points, valve springs, carburetors, thermo- stats, fuel pump diaphragm, and governors. Questions 1. Of what does daily maintenance consist? 2. What other types of maintenance are there? 3. When are special maintenance operations required? b 4. Name some of the operations in second echelon maintenance by company or attery. CHAPTER IX MARCH MAINTENANCE 35. General. Maintenance while on a march presents special problems, although, in general, the principles already described apply. The speed maintained, especially on long marches, causes disabled vehicles to become separated from their units by con- siderable distances in a very short time. This must be considered in making decisions concerning the vehicles and any personnel left with them, especially on sections of road which will soon pass to the control of other units. Personnel and maintenance facilities may become so far separated from their respective units as to endanger their return. Because of the unpredictable nature of marches near the enemy, every op- portunity for motor maintenance should be used, even if it is impossible to complete the work at one time. 36. Maintenance Personnel, Equipment, Spare Parts and Units. Where marches of tactical units are involved, each organization will have the maintenance personnel allowed by Tables of Organization, arid possibly some attached third echelon personnel. Maintenance personnel of batteries, companies, or similar units normally ride at the tail of their respective units, while the regimental motor maintenance personnel ride at the tail of the regiment. The repair equipment available consists of the tools and equipment allotted by the Table of Basic Allowances for each organization. The parts and units carried should be sufficient to cover all work that experience indicates will probably occur. When small organizations such as batteries, companies or , similar organizations operate by themselves, a minimum of spare parts and units should be furnished from the regimental second echelon. 37. Repair Procedure. a. During marches, roadside repairs to disabled vehicles are 340 CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES frequently temporary in character. The necessity of keeping the vehicles under control often requires hasty repairs sufficient only to complete the trip. Upon reaching its destination, the vehicle should be repaired properly. When a vehicle drops out of its battery, company, or similar unit, the maintenance personnel at the tail of the unit attempt to diagnose the trouble quickly. b. If the diagnosis shows that the vehicle needs a minor repair only, a mechanic with a kit of tools and spare parts is dropped off with the vehicle. In all cases where the vehicle is towing a gun or transporting troops its tactical cargo or tow is removed and loaded or attached to another vehicle. The driver always remains with the vehicle unless ordered by competent authority to abandon it. When a vehicle drops out, it is driven, pushed, or towed off and well to the right of the road, so that other vehicles may pass around without halting. If the vehicle is repaired by the mechanic who was dropped off, it resumes the march at the maximum authorized speed to rejoin the rear of the last unit that has passed. It does not take its customary place in column but remains at the rear of the first unit ahead until the next halt. If march orders so per- mit, it then doubles the column and proceeds to its organization. If the mechanic is unable to make the repair, the vehicle is either repaired or towed by the regimental motor-maintenance platoon bringing up the rear of the column. c. If the mechanical crew of the battery, company, or similar unit decides that imme- diate repair is not possible, the vehicle may be towed and repairs made later, or it may be abandoned to regimental motor maintenance or to a higher echelon. The decision in all cases is made by the motor officer or, in his absence, by the motor sergeant. When repair personnel are working by the side of the road, warning guards, signs, or flags must be put out unless the vehicle is completely off the road. At night, red lanterns should be utilized. Whenever a battery, company, or similar unit mainte- nance crew stops to diagnose the trouble of a vehicle that has fallen out, care must be exercised that the whole crew does not become separated from its organization. If such were the case, the unit would have no maintenance personnel with it to care for the remaining vehicles of the organization. Maintenance personnel should always be with the organization when it arrives in bivouac, to assist in the inspection, repair, and servicing of the organization vehicles. 38. Towing Disabled Vehicles. Arrangements in any column for towing disabled vehicles will depend upon the type of vehicle, road conditions, type of march, and other considerations. Certain vehicles may march at the tail of the column for this particular purpose. Some vehicle or vehicles near the rear of each organization should be designated as towing vehicles, if vehicles for that particular purpose are not avail- able, so that when a vehicle falls out a towing vehicle near the rear will halt to tow it if towing is required. Such an arrangement prevents confusion and possible loss of a vehicle for the lack of a towing vehicle. These towing vehicles should be pro- vided with tow bars, tow ropes, or tow chains. 39. Abandoning Vehicles. a. When vehicles on the march become disabled and for some reason are not towed or are not capable of being towed with vehicles within the organization, they may be abandoned either temporarily or permanently. (1) When the abandonment is temporary, the driver and possibly a mechanic are left with the vehicle. In the combat zone consideration must be given to the possibility of not recovering the personnel and facilities thus detached. If a gun prime mover fails, the gun should be coupled to any available vehicle and accompany its organiza- tion. Every effort should be made to remove to other vehicles all essential combat equipment prior to abandonment of the vehicle. A driver left with a vehicle awaiting maintenance or salvage personnel should be given explicit orders concerning the removal of the load. - (2) If the abandonment is permanent, the proper steps should be taken to comply with orders covering such action. Vehicles should be tagged to show the reason of their unserviceability. In time of active operations, supply services will provide measures making it convenient to turn over to them any disabled vehicles. When vehicles are left for the disposition of the supply services, the commander should make arrange- ments for replacements as soon as possible. When operating units abandon vehicles, CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES 341 the supply service concerned must be furnished accurate reports as soon as practicable of the location and general condition of such vehicles. b. In all cases when a disabled vehicle constitutes a road obstruction it will be removed from the road. Questions 1. Where do the maintenance personnel of companies, batteries, etc., usually ride? 2. What happens to the tactical cargo of a disabled vehicle? 3. What happens to a vehicle on the march that develops the need of a temporary repair? - 4. Does the driver of a disabled vehicle remain with it? 5. Upon what do any arrangements for towing disabled vehicles depend? CHAPTER X LUBRICATION 40. General. a. Lubrication is one of the most important duties charged to personnel of organizations operating motor vehicles. It is an essential part of preventive main- tenance; to a great extent it determines serviceability of parts and assemblies; it mate- rially influences repair and operation costs; and it is one of the most important factors affecting dependable mobility and useful vehicle life. Training, supervision, supplies, and equipment are required for the performance of correct lubrication. b. Correct lubrication provides and maintains under all conditions of operation a suitable oil film between friction surfaces where necessary. c. Details and methods of lubrication are found in the various vehicle maintenance manuals, in TM 10-540, in Motor Transport Technical Service Bulletins, and for ord- nance vehicles in OFSB (6- series). 41. Methods. a. Lubrication operations may be decentralized or centralized. In either case the unit commander assigns definite responsibility for these functions. The motor officer, assisted by the motor sergeant, prepares lubrication schedules, supervises lubri- cation, and makes frequent inspections to assure himself that all vehicles are properly lubricated. Good teamwork must be developed if the desired results are to be ac- complished. (1) Decentralized lubrication. This method is particularly applicable to field serv- ice operations, and will give excellent results when personnel are properly trained and supervised and lubrication schedules are carefully followed. Responsibility is divided as follows: (a) The driver performs the prescribed driver's lubrication functions. (b) The mechanics perform special lubrication to include gear cases, steering gear housing, wheel bearings, universal joints, starting motor, generator, distributor, clutch release bearing, water pump, fan, air cleaner, and changes of crankcase oil. (c) Squad leaders, chiefs of sections, motor sergeants, chief mechanics and truck masters are charged with direct supervision of driver lubrication. They should make frequent inspections to insure correct lubrication in accordance with the lubrication schedule. (2) Centralized lubrication. When this method is employed, all lubricating func- tions are carried on at a central point and drivers are relieved of all responsibility for lubrication except the replenishment of crankcase oil. When centralized lubrication is applied to a small fleet, responsibility for correct lubrication should be charged to one qualified individual; when the fleet is too large to be lubricated correctly by one individual, assistants should be provided and definite responsibilities should be assigned to each. Vehicles should be sent to the central station when lubrication is required, and should be accompanied by the driver. The driver's services should be utilized to expedite the work. Centralized lubrication is not recommended for field service operations. b. When motor vehicles are detached from their organizations for such periods of 342 CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES time that they will miss their scheduled lubrication service, provision should be made for the performance of the lubrication functions. This should be accomplished in one of the following ways: (1) Send qualified personnel and the necessary supplies and equipment with the vehicles. (2) Arrange for the vehicles to be lubricated by other units. (3) Provide the necessary supplies and equipment, and direct the driver to per- form the lubrication. (4) During cross country operations involving low gear operation, consideration should be given to more frequent oil changes. 42. Schedules. a. Lubrication schedules should be prepared for each make of vehicle assigned to an operating unit. b. Lubrication periods recommended by the manufacturer are generally too infrequent to provide correct lubrication for military motor vehicles and should be modified to meet operating conditions. In general, the chassis and slow-motion parts should be lubricated after every 15 days or 100 hours of vehicle operation; the crankcase oil should be checked frequently and changed after 500 to 1000 miles of operation, especially if operated for considerable periods across country or in low gear. The gear lubricants should be checked weekly and changed seasonally, unless operating mileage requires more frequent changes. e 43. Records. A compiete record of lubrication should be kept. Responsible personnel should report when lubrication duties have been completed in order that proper entries may be made. 44. Lubricants. a. General. Lubricants used on military motor vehicles should con- form to the recommendations of vehicle manufacturers or of the supply services con- cerned. During field service it may be impossible to supply a complete assortment of lubricants which meet the above recommendations and it will be necessary to make the best use of those available. b. Types and uses. Correct lubrication of motor vehicles requires the use of several types of lubricants and the application of each type in accordance with a lubrication schedule. Types of lubricants and their general uses are as follows: (1) Lubricating ous. Lubricating oils used on military motor vehicles are exclusively mineral oils obtained by distilling crude petroleum oils. In general, oils are employed to lubricate engine bearings; starting motors; generators; slow-moving surfaces such as brake pedal pivots and brake linkage, door hinges, and locks; some fan bearings; some water pumps; and some transmissions. Different makes of oils should not be mixed. (2) Gear lubricants. Gear lubricants are heavy bodied oils, pure mineral oil or pure mineral oil to which materials have been added, used for the lubrication of parts where a strong oil film is required. In general, they are employed for the lubrication of final drives and differentials, transmissions, auxiliary transmissions, transfers, steering gear housings, some wheel bearings, and some universal joints. (3) Greases. Greases are usually made by compounding mineral oil with a soap. The load-carrying properties of greases, except graphite grease, are determined by the oil used in compounding the grease. Greases are used to lubricate surfaces where pure mineral oil or gear lubricants cannot be retained. s (4) Miscellaneous lubricants and fluids. (a) Spring lubricant. Graphite grease, a mixture of grease and graphite, is generally used for the lubrication of spring leaves. It is not to be used for general lubrication purposes. (b) Penetrating oil. This oil is used principally to get into places that have be- come very dry or rusty, such as brake linkage and nuts or bolts that cannot be loosened or tightened with a reasonable amount of force. - (c) Petrolatum or vaseline. Petrolatum or vaseline is used to coat battery ter- minals and connections to reduce corrosion. It is also used to lubricate the fiber block on the movable breaker point arm in the distributor housing. (d) Kerosene. Kerosene may be used to thin engine lubricating oil in very cold CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES 343 weather. Approved recommendations should be followed closely when it is necessary to resort to this practice. (e) Cleaning solvent. Cleaning solvent is a compound fluid used for washing engines, parts, and assemblies. It is not highly inflammable; however, it should be employed with caution when used for cleaning hot engines. When cleaning solvent is not available kerosene may be used. Gasoline must never be used. (f) Alcohol. Hydraulic-brake parts should be cleaned with denatured alcohol. Gasoline, kerosene, cleaning solvents, and oils are harmful to these parts and must not be used for this cleaning. 45. Means of Application. Lubricants are applied to the motor vehicle by employing the equipment provided by Tables of Basic Allowances, and in accordance with the Maintenance Manual or TM 10-540. a. Lubricating oils. Oil should be placed in the engine crankcase through the crank- case filler pipe. Extreme care should be taken to prevent dirt and other foreign materials from entering the crankcase. Oil measures and funnels should be scrupulously clean. Oil is applied to other required surfaces by using an oil or squirt can. b. Gear lubricants. Gear lubricants should be introduced into gear cases through their filler pipes. If a gear lubricant bucket with pump is available it should be used to expedite the work. Care should be taken to prevent overfilling, and the level should be checked after the mechanism has been warmed in operation. c. Chassis lubricants. Chassis lubricants should be applied by using a high-pressure hand gun or a power-operated grease gun. Lubrication fittings should be cleaned before the grease is applied. Grease should be forced through the bearing until clean grease is visible on both ends of the bearing. d. Cup grease. Cup grease is applied by removing, filling, replacing, and screwing down the grease cups. e. Water-pump grease. Water-pump grease, when required, should be applied by using a pressure hand gun or by using the grease cup, depending on the lubrication fitting. When the hand gun is used, care must be taken that the pump housing and the gland packings are not damaged. f. Fiber greases. Fiber greases should be applied to universal joints and clutch release bearings by using a low-pressure hand grease gun or by using the grease cups provided. Care should be taken that grease seals are not damaged. g. Miscellaneous lubricants and fluids. (1) Spring lubricant. If the spring is provided with a spring cover, the lubricant should be applied with a grease gun. If no cover is provided, the spring should, when necessary, be removed, disassembled, cleaned, and thoroughly lubricated. Partial lubrication may be achieved by jacking up the vehicle, separating the spring leaves, and applying lubricant between the leaves with a putty knife. (2) Penetrating oil. If supplied in small quantities, the penetrating oil will usually be furnished in a can, similar to a squirt can, ready for use. If furnished in quart or larger containers, the oil should be removed from its container, as required, and applied with a squirt can. (3) Petrolatum or vaseline. Petrolatum or vaseline should be applied with a brush or by using small quantities applied by hand. (4) Cleaning solvent. Cleaning solvent should be used with a stiff bristle brush or applied by an air-operated cleaning gun. Metal brushes should never be used when cleaning an engine. Questions 1. Into what two classes are lubrication operations divided? 2. When is each type used? & 3. Is the schedule of lubrication recommended by the manufacturer usually followed? 4. Should the lubricants recommended by the manufacturer or the supply services be used? 5. Name several types of lubricants. CHAPTER XI INSPECTIONS 46. General. A thorough and comprehensive system of inspections is a primary requisite for the satisfactory operation of motor vehicles. Inspection has as its purpose the detection of deficiencies of mechanical condition, quality of maintenance operation, appear- ance, servicing, and operation of motor vehicles, and the recommendation of corrective measures to prevent recurrence of such deficiencies. While the appearance of the vehicle as a whole is of some concern, the important inspection is that which covers the normal adjustments and mechanical condition of operating units, and that which investigates the lubrication requirements of a vehicle with a view to maintaining the standards of re- liability and performance originally built into the vehicle. Such inspections are classified as command, maintenance, and technical inspections. See Chapter XIII for the Pre- ventive Maintenance inspections performed by the driver. 47. Command Inspections. It is the duty of all commanders to make regular and frequent inspections of their motor vehicles and of the operating and maintenance ac- tivities of their commands. 48. Maintenance Inspections. Maintenance inspections are a part of scheduled mainte- nance operations and normally should be performed by personnel of the operating organization during and upon completion of these operations. a. Daily inspections. Daily maintenance inspections normally are made by the chief of section under the supervision of company, battery, or similar unit officers. They consist in checking and supervising the work of the vehicle operator in his performance of daily maintenance operations. b. Weekly inspections. Weekly maintenance inspections normally are made by the chief of section under supervision of company, battery, or similar unit officers. They consist of checking and supervising the work of the vehicle operator in his performance of weekly maintenance operations. In addition, the chief of section should examine the less accessible places, looking for rust spots, leaks, breaks, and excessive or deficient lubrication. The serviceability and completeness of tools and other equipment should be thoroughly checked. A guide for his weekly inspection should be drawn up and issued to him to fit the particular vehicle or vehicles he is assigned. A suggested guide is as follows: Accident report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - Appearance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mats * * * * * * * Body bolts and screws . . . . . . . . . . . . Rear-view mirror . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Running boards . . . . . . . . . . Brakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Running gear * * * * * * * * * = • , , Broken metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Seat brackets . . . . . . Bumper and tow hooks . . . . . . . . . . . Servicing • * * * Canvas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - Special mountings . - Chains . . . . . • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Springs . . . . . . * * * * * * * * * * . . . . . . Condition of motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . Steering - Curtain fasteners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Straps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Doors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tail gate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Driver's permit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tires: Extinguisher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fender bolts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Inflation . . . . . . . . . . . Fenders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - º Unusual wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Floor boards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tool brackets Glass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • Tools • * * Handle and latches . . . . . . . . . . • * * Traction devices Hood fasteners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Unholstering Horn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wheel lugs . . . . . . Insulating material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Windshield wiper . . . . . . . Keys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Defects to be corrected: Leaks on ground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES 345 (1) Lubrication inspections. All lubrication operations performed by the driver nor- mally are inspected by the chief of section. The motor sergeant inspects all lubrication, including that performed by the driver, if any, and that performed by unit maintenance personnel. c. Monthly (1000-mile) inspections. The monthly (1000-mile) maintenance inspection is a check on company, battery, or similar unit maintenance. It normally is made by the motor officer of that unit but may be made by the regimental, battalion, or similar unit motor officer. Before reporting a vehicle to the motor officer for maintenance in- spection, the motor sergeant assures himself that the work of his mechanics has been properly performed and that no items have been overlooked. The motor officer spot checks such items as he believes necessary, including those that are inaccessible or frequently neglected. He should make a short road test of the vehicle. d. Six-months (6000-mile) inspections. The six-months (6000-mile) maintenance in- spection is a check on the maintenance work performed by the regiment, battalion, or similar unit. It will be made by the unit motor officer, assisted by qualified enlisted personnel, upon completion of the six-months (6000-mile) maintenance operation in a manner similar to that described for the monthly (1000-mile) maintenance inspection. 49. Technical Inspections. Technical inspections are made by fully qualified technical personnel of the supply services to determine the vehicle condition. These inspections are covered in AR 850-15 and in Circular 1-10, OQMG and TM 10-545. W. D. Q. M. C. Form No. 260 is used. Questions . Who makes the daily inspection? . Who makes the weekly inspection? . Who inspects lubrication? . Who makes the monthly inspections? . Who makes technical inspections? : CHAPTER XII RECORDS AND REPORTS 50. General. In maintaining a fleet of motor vehicles, certain reports and records are indispensable. They must be simple and complete, and must be prepared by qualified personnel. The regimental motor officer should periodically assemble all personnel of the regiment who prepare these records and reports, and explain and demonstrate the proper yet simplest manner of keeping them. Posting of all reports daily or at proper intervals should be enforced by supervisory personnel, and a careful check should be maintained by the commanding officers of all units operating and maintaining motor transportation. Records often clearly indicate items that require attention. Usually low gasoline or oil mileage might indicate poor motor-vehicle performance or unauthorized disposition of gas or oil by the driver. Excessive repairs might indicate careless driving. The records as a whole keep the organization commander informed of the general con- dition of the vehicles and assist him in making timely request for overhaul and replace- IIICIlt. 51. Reports and Records Required by Regulations. a. Driver's Report—Accident, Motor Transportation (Standard Form No. 26). Plate 28. This form will be carried on every military motor vehicle. b. Investigating Officer's Report—Accident, Motor Transportation (Standard Form No. 27). Plate 29. The officer designated to investigate an accident will submit his report on this form (AR 850-15). (1) Action to be taken in case of traffic accident. (a) By the driver. In case of injury to persor or property the driver of a motor vehicle will stop the vehicle and render such assistance as may be needed, complying with state and local regulations relative to reporting accidents. He will fill out immediately at the scene of the accident Standard Form No. 26 (Driver's Report—Accident, Motor Transportation) and deliver it to his commanding officer immediately on returning to his station. This must be done in every case regardless of how trivial the accident may appear to be or whether Government property or personnel only is injured. PAGE 4 |PAGE I 17. Was an investigation made by a policeman (civil or mill- tary) 7 . . y € $ tº If so, state Nume Şt. Vaſ nº. Pri © & No. ..!é* * * * * * * * * * * * * l"recitºvt or station Phex,yx.C. ty. * * * * * * * * * * 1S. Names aud addresses of persons other than driver in Gov- critiment war : ................ ..... ................. . ..... ... ... .. * * * * * * * * ... $4t...Haxx.y.92ss................... tº e < e < e s e e s : * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * g = < * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * as I certify that the above report was delivered to me on the .............. ....... . day of , 10 at ............. .............. o'clock .................... (Official title) tº tº tº e º e º & 8 & B 8 e º º º 'º º º is 4 & © º ºs e º & 8 a. s. 3 & 4 & 9 º' < * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * s a tº e º 'º e º 'º & º: w June 10, 1927 DRIVER'S REPORT-ACCIDENT MOTOR TRANSPORTATION INSTRUCTIONS TO DRIVERS In case of injury to person or damage to property: A. Stop car and render such assistance as may be needed. B. Fill out this form, ON THE SPOT, so far as possible. C. Deliver this report promptly to your immediate superior. Fº to observe these instructions will result in disciplinary & Cº. 1. Name of Government driver. Pºt. Havvy Jones . Stationed at Fox # Be nºn v YYA h. Gºal. 2 3 M {l k C. § º d t y p e O f G O w © r Il Dºl e º t w e h ic! e A. £ W. ye. 2. I £. f- ...l.ºz.Tan...Tº c. R. service number....W.- 3.1.1.0.4........ 4 . Name and address of owner of other vehicle (or owner of 5 6 N &l YU, © & In d {l d (lre S 3 O f d r i w e r O f O t h e r y e h i cl € . License of other vehicle : State .....: 3.44.éaxa.a.l. No. .311:.4/9 Place of accident : City Pheni X Cº. v. 7 (Government department or establishment) 8. & NOTE.-This report should be attached to report of Investigating Officer. Street / 4/ th Sºy- 10-1810 tº is ºftwººtºft Paſtºfrº gºtº gº? 10-1810 PAGE 2 PAGE 3 9. Date of accident Aay...l.9e e ºs e º ºgº & p 10.3.7. Hour #A M. 13. What signal was given by each driver prior to accident? 10. Names and addresses of persons injured ; nature of injuries • 1. Describe damage to Government vehicle Rear. left. £ender. Crºws he 4.- Tai l.44% Af.º. 1 2. Describe damage to privately owned vehicle, or other property : Burn ter, R. Fender ºf R. Head. 111 #.texx...off....B.Whe ºl. 4.... . Tire. Darna 1 & 4. (1437. Chev. Sedan) 1 \\- Drive r Arony VeA, cle. Pa * Left. Hand...out...indicati n1.5 to P 14. State condition of light, weather, and roadway : ................... 4.1% hf. -.9.0.24.J.W.e.&# h 4... Çle &T, Rºad way.-.g.expert,.... ... 15. Explain how accident happened : @o Yt. True k in. Çany ey...sta AAs4.4%. Trºff, *.414AF CŞy...ca.r.h. h.Nº e a Y of 6 o V. Tru c k. 16, Label streets and indicate measurements ; show the position of each vehicle at the time of the accident and show b dotted lines the course of each vehicle just before an just after the collision. N A. Gowr, tvwe k , frivate 3. º: #ie i Indicate points of compass N. E. S. W. 10–1810 * =gºº Plate 28. Standard Form No. 26. w * FRC, tº T º INVESTIGATING OFFICER'S REPf)FT-ACCIDENT June 10, 1927 MOTOR TRANSPORTA'ſ iON This report, together with the driver's report (Form No. 26), must be submitted promptly in accordance with department regulations. Date - “…------ - --------- - - - ---------------------, 10 Hour ---------...-------...M. Accipient Place: City or town .................. ---...---------------------. State Street --~~~~...~...~~~~ -------------------as-- Weather .....--..... ......— ... .... --...-- ... .... Coutlition of roadway ..... .. - ** ** - - - - - - - - - - -º-º-º-º-º-ºw a Make and type of vehicle .... Service No. --------------. . . .----. $º, oRiver Name of driver —-----------~~~~~. ... --------, - ----- - ----------- **** His title and station ... . . ............... . . . . ...— . . ...........------- ....... - .... - - ---- * * * * * * Make and type of vehicle ...... ....... -- License No. ...........….....— .........-- Owner: Name ............. ---............--. Private VeriCLE §§§ Žºn Address . ---- ** ****** - Driver: Name ................................ Address --- ------------------------ -------- License No. . . . . . . . . . . . . .- . . . . . ... .... ** ** **** * *- -->4)- (-º'-- ~ *** * * * * ****** *w- - - - Names and addresses and extent of injuries ...— ................................. -- PERSON3 ºn Junºtro ; -------------- - ------ - ----------4----4-------------------------- If medical aid was rendered, state by whom . ........ - “.…. --~~~...~- ~~~~ DAMAGs to ------- - •--- ***ssessee-ºve-e Gov. ERNMENT W. Ehicle - - - -------ee-essessee-saw -----------------saesse-eeeeee-eaeº-a-ee------------- DAMAGE TO - --~~~~ * * ********** * *** lºtti VAtely (*WN ºn Wienicle OR toºther - • *** *** - Property ALWAYS SECURE NAMES AND ADDRESSES OF WITNESSES Names Addresses w it NFsses - ºve ** wee- *-*** **** ****** * * ******** ***** * * *********** ***** **** *** ***** * *------------ * * * * ***** * tº raportant } POLICE REPORT Init} city or State police report the accident? ---..... ... ….........…--------------~~~~...~~~~ lf report was made, attach copy Government car was proceeding from ........................--.. . . . . . . ... to ....................... . . ... ....................ºr- ©Pºlicial DUTY Was driver performing official duty ? * * * * * * * v- - - - - ---- * * • **** - - - - -ºº ºt-sº-ºw • * * * * * * * * * * *** ****** *** ludicate the duty.' ........ ........ ... . • * * * * * * * * - ------- ---- **** * * * ********** **---- - - -- * * * * * * * * ** -- - - - - - - - - - 44 evºº-º-º-º-º: sº tº-letº [ovrn) Plate 29, BACK INVESTIGATING OFFICER'S SKETCH Show in black the relative positions of the colliding vehicles, or of the vehicle and pedestrian, just before the collision, and at the time of the collision. Show in red their relative positions just after the collision. Label the streets and every object depicted, and indicate measurements; show by dotted lines the course followed by each vehicle, and add any explanatory statement that would aid in an understanding of the OCCurrence. * \\ N *:::::::: * If the above diagram is not applicable, attach substitute diagram. I hereby certify that the foregoing is a true and correct report of the accident, according to the best of my knowledge and belief, based upon investigation made by me personally. Attached hereto as a part hereof are the following papers: .............. & Investſgating Officer. INSTRUCTIONS TO INVESTIGATING OFFICER 1. Attach driver's accident report, with supplemental signed statement from driver. Among other things, the driver's statement should describe the course of the Government car, and the course of the vehicle or person collided with, just before and at the time of the collision; the rates of speed and how estimated; the signals of warning; condition of brakes, of lights, of streets as to being slippery; efforts made by driver to avoid collision; facts showing whether or not other driver, or person was in fault, etc. 2. Attach signed statement fron each witness. 3. Attach copy of traffic regulation violated, if any. 4. Attach photographs of scene of accident and of damaged cars, if any taken. 5. Attach Findings and Recommendations of Investigating Officer. * * º ºs ºf tº tº-º Standard Form No. 27. *4.Jodº? 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Jl^{9^4）^ Caeſº）, O03 ºo^t touro， Oſtrò ！Nț¢ © ® ° C I （IVAA CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES 349 (2) By the commanding officer. Upon receipt of Standard Form No. 26, the immediate command- ing officer will at once notify his commanding officer. The latter will make an investigation of the accident or detail an officer to do so when the reports show personal injury, damage to private property, or damage to Government property in excess of $1 o for material and commercial labor. A complete and detailed report will be made to the investigating officer on Standard Form No. 27 (Investigating Officer's Report—Accident, Motor Transportation). Par. 17, AR 850-15. c. Permit for Motor Vehicle Operators (W. D., Q. M. C. Form No. 228). This permit must be in the possession of the vehicle operator at all times when he is oper- ating the motor vehicle. Motor vehicle operator's permits are issued only to individuals who have satisfactorily passed an examination conducted by a qualified commissioned officer covering the fol- lowing subjects: (1) Mechanical. Nomenclature and functions of major units of the motor vehicle. (2) Operation. (a) Actual driving of the vehicle, involving use of controls, reversing, and park- ing under usual conditions of traffic and terrain. (b) Traffic regulations, road procedure, safety precautions, speed limits, and vehicle abuse. (3) Maintenance. First echelon (vehicle operator's maintenance). Possession of a motor vehicle operator's permit should be a guarantee that the in- dividual is a qualified driver. Accordingly, the permit will be suspended or revoked when an accident or other cause so warrants. d. Motor Vehicle Technical Inspection Report (W. D., Q. M. C., Form No. 260). (Plate 30.) This form will be used in recording the technical inspections required by AR 850-15. e. Driver's Trip Ticket and Performance Record (W. D., Q. M. C. Form No. 237). No vehicle will be dispatched unless a trip ticket accompanies the vehicle. Drivers should be required to complete the form in full detail. These forms provide informa- tion required in the vehicle service record books. It is sometimes more convenient to make up a form for local use. f. Motor Vehicle Service Record Book (W. D., Q. M. C. Form No. 248). This record will be kept for every quartermaster motor vehicle in operation. It constitutes the service record of the vehicle and will be transferred with it. Instructions relative to the posting of this record are contained in the book itself. This is a most important record, and must be accurately and promptly posted. g. Ordnance Motor Book (W. D., O. O. Form No. 5956). This record will be kept for every ordnance vehicle in operation. It constitutes the service record of the vehicle and will be transferred with it. Instructions relative to the posting of this record are contained in the book itself. This is a most important record, and must be accuratelv and promptly posted. 52. Other Forms. Other prescribed forms are: (1) Data for U. S. Registration Number (W. D., Q. M. C. Form No. 220). (2) Motor Vehicle Transfer Form (W. D., Q. M. C. Form No. 221). (3) Report of Motor Vehicles on Hand (W. D., Q. M. C. Form No. 252). (4) Report of Changes of Motor Vehicles (W. D., Q. M. C. Form No. 253). (5) Gasoline and Lubricant Issue Slip (W. D., Q. M. C. Form No. 231). (6) W. D. Q. M. C. Form No. 231 (Gasoline and Lubricant Issue Slip), W. D. Q. M. C. Form No. 437 (Delivery Order and Receipt), W. D. Q. M. C. Form No. 438 (Daily Abstract of Issues of Fuel, Forage, Gasoline and Oils, and Operating supplies), and W. D. Q. M. C. Form No. 425 (Abstract of Property not Otherwise Accounted For). W. D. Q. M. C. Form No. 231 should be used when required as a requisition on the gasoline filling station to supply fuel and lubricants required. Under Change No. 5, Circular 1-5, O. Q. M. G. 1940 after issues are made, they are receipted for on Form No. 437. These Forms No. 437 are posted daily to Form No. 438 as evidenced by the original Form No. 437. The totals of the daily abstract Form No. 438 in turn are posted on Form No. 440. At the end of the month Form No. 440 will be totaled, the issues will be certified by the quartermaster and the quantities dropped from Form No. 425. 350 CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES (7) Dispatching Record (Motor Pools) (W. D., Q. M. C. Form No. 254). 53. Special Forms. Special forms necessary or beneficial in keeping the above records or making the above reports should be obtained from the supply services charged with third and fourth echelon maintenance functions when available. Otherwise such forms or charts must be prepared by the second echelon, normally under the direction of the regimental motor officers. Included are such forms as: a. Automotive operations sheet. A major part of the data for the Motor Vehicle Service Record book W. D. Q. M. C. Form 248 is abstracted from the driver's trip tickets. Where the entries on this record book are made monthly, a bulky stack of trip tickets accumulates before the entries can be made in the record book. To obviate this condition and to require all operating, inspection, and maintenance data to be con- solidated up to date, the operations sheet may be utilized. One of these is required for each vehicle, and is an invaluable aid to the maintenance personnel. DAILY REPORT-STATUS OF MOTOR, VEHICLES (9:00 AM) Post Garage, Fort Blank, Maryland (Organization and Station) December 21, 1940 (Date) Condition of vehicles Total T 9.S.- ran- Type vehicle sery. Needs Needs signed slºt Remarks ºilºlº his hº Passenger cars. - - - - 6 I 1 8 ------- %-ton pick-ups. - - - . 12 3 I------- 15 ||------- %-ton cornmand--- 12 l------- *1 13 1 | *On I and I report. 1%-ton cargo.------ 124 6 2 132 *12 | "Arrived 4 P.M.–12/20/40 2%-ton cargo------ 16 l-------|------- 16 l------- 4-ton cargo-------- 10 2 - - - - - - 12 ------- %-ton trailers------ 80 |:------ *2 82 |------- * At Fort Meade LM ShopS. 4-ton wreckers----- * -------------- 4 *1 | *Arrived 1 PM–12/20/40 Field ambulances - 3 -------------- 3 ------- *Indicates note made in column “Remarks.” NOTES.—One of the 1% -ton cargo trucks has been in local repair shops since Dec. 11, 1940. J. T. SMITH, (Truckmaster or motor sergeant). b. Preventive maintenance operations guides. These should be similar to the guide shown in paragraph 32. c. Lubrication guides. A lubrication guide should be prepared for each class and type of vehicle. d. Unserviceable vehicle tags. This tag, conspicuously attached to a vehicle, indicates a disabled vehicle and provides a ready means of locating the trouble. a. The form shown above can be adopted to local needs to give a day by day report on the status of motor vehicles. Question 1. Name several reports and records required by regulations. CHAPTER XIII THE MOTOR DRIVER 54. Training. The manner in which the individual drivers perform their duties de- termines the mobility and dependability of the motor vehicle fleet as well as that of the single vehicle. Information on training methods will be found in TF 11-228 and FM 21-5. 55. Assignment of Drivers. A driver and, if authorized, an assistant driver should be assigned to each motor vehicle. Except for instruction, inspection, or other like pur- poses, the vehicle should not be operated by other drivers if it can be avoided. 56. Motor Vehicle Abuse. a. Territorial commanders and commanding officers of or- ganizations, posts, camps, and stations are responsible for the careful operation of motor vehicles under their jurisdiction. This responsibility is primarily one of prevent- ing improper use and vehicle abuse. Mechanical failures occurring during the ordinary life of a unit assembly of a motor vehicle which are found not to be due to defective material or workmanship, or to service requirements, are to be considered prima facie indication of the existence of vehicle abuse. The most important forms of abuse are: (1) Excessive speeds, particularly over rough roads and across country. (2) Improper use of controls, particularly gear shift, clutch, brakes, and choke. (3) Racing engine, particularly when cold. (4) Overloading and improper loading. (5) Lack of lubrication or use of improper lubricants. (6) Lack of inspection, particularly systematic inspection. (7) Deferred maintenance, including lack of proper servicing and adjustments. (8) Accidents. b. Motor vehicle abuse when found due to carelessness or indifference of responsible personnel will be considered cause for disciplinary action. 57. Safety Precautions. Rules for road procedure will be published in appropriate manuals. Failure to observe any one of the following, rules will be considered cause for disciplinary action: (1) Military or civil police on duty will be strictly obeyed and state and local highway regulations will be carefully observed. (2) A vehicle will never double (pass traffic moving in the same direction)— (a) When going around a corner or blind curve. (b) In ascending or descending hills unless safe passage is assured. (c) At street intersections or crossroads. (d) Unless the road is wide enough to allow at least two feet between vehicles. (3) Vehicles will be halted at railroad crossings not guarded by military personnel or civilian watchman. (4) Vehicles will be slowed down to a safe stopping speed at all road intersections not covered by traffic control personnel or traffic control devices. (5) Drivers will not permit their vehicles to coast down hills with clutch disen- gaged or gear shift lever in neutral. - 58. Fire Precautions and Fire Fighting. a. Motor vehicles, shops, and parks are con- stantly exposed to fires. Drivers must, therefore, be instructed in and required to comply with pertinent fire-prevention regulations. In addition they must be instructed and drilled in the use of fire-fighting equipment and in removing vehicles and other property from the danger area. (1) Gasoline tanks will not be filled nor will work be performed on the carburetor or fuel system of a motor vehicle in the presence of a flame. If illumination is required to perform the work, an electric light will be used. (2) Every motor-propelled vehicle will be equipped with an approved type of fire extinguisher. (3) Water will not be used on a gasoline or oil fire as it will spread the fire. Fire extinguishers of the types prescribed in the existing Table of Allowances will be used. 351 352 CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES A box or bucket of sand with suitable scoop for spreading is also effective in extin- guishing gasoline fires. (4) A waste can will be kept in the shop or garage, and all greasy and oily rags will be placed therein. Before closing time this can together with pans containing oil, gasoline, or other inflammable materials will be removed from the shop or garage and placed in some open space where there is no fire hazard. All trash will be disposed of daily. (5) The two and one-half gallon foam extinguisher will be protected from freezing. (6) All rags partially stained with grease or linseed oil, but of further use, will be put in a place where they are not likely to cause a fire. (7) Trucks loaded with inflammable rubbish, such as excelsior, paper, or packing material, will be unloaded before parking for the night. (8) Gasoline will not be used for cleaning purposes in shops or garages. b. Asphyxiation by exhaust gases of motor vehicle engines. Garages, shops, and vehicles carrying personnel will in all cases be well ventilated. No motor vehicle engine will be run in a garage or shop longer than necessary to move the vehicle in or out, un- less it is standing near wide-open doors, or the exhaust is conducted through an aperture. 59. Antifreeze Precautions. Officers responsible for the operation and maintenance of motor vehicles will see that all necessary precautions are taken to prevent damage in- cident to the freezing of water in cooling systems of motor vehicles. 60. Accident Prevention. The formulation and observance of definite rules will elimi- nate the majority of accidents incident to the operation and maintenance of motor ve- hicles. These rules should include the following: a. Place the transmission gear-shift lever in neutral and set the hand brake before hand cranking an engine or starting it with the starting motor. b. Make sure the way is clear before a vehicle is moved. If the driver cannot see the road, he should be directed by a dismounted individual. This is particularly important when a vehicle is backed or is moved through bivouac areas and across country at night without lights. c. Stop the engine before anyone gets under a vehicle. If it is necessary for a mechanic to work under the vehicle while the engine is running, precaution must be taken that the vehicle cannot move accidentally. d. Block up a vehicle safely before the wheels are removed. Do not place reliance on jacks. e. Remove the battery when a vehicle is taken into the shop for major repairs. f. Provide ample ventilation for garages, shops, vehicle cabs, and vehicles carrying personnel. g. Do not operate motor vehicle engines in a garage or shop longer than necessary to move the vehicle in or out, unless the vehicle is standing near wide open doors or the exhaust gases are removed through a safe outlet fixture. h. In case of carbon monoxide poisoning, remove the patient to open air, keep him quiet, apply artificial respiration and warmth, and obtain medical assistance as soon as possible. 61. Speed Limits. a. The caution plate mounted on a motor vehicle indicates the maximum safe speed for which the vehicle is designed. This speed presumes good oper- ating condition of vehicles, good road, load, normal traffic conditions, and skilled driving. It will not be exceeded. b. Fast driving over rough, slippery, or congested roads is prohibited and the fact that the vehicle was being operated within the authorized speed limit will not be accepted as an excuse for such driving. c. Speeds will not exceed the limits set by law or regulations of the States or towns in which the vehicle is being operated. d. Regulated governors, when installed, will be set and sealed at the maximum speed considered safe and not to exceed that indicated on the name and caution plate. Tamper- ing with sealed governors will be considered cause for disciplinary action. CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES 353 e. Subject to the above limitations, corps area and exempted station commanders may establish such further limits as, in their opinion, conditions in their respective commands may warrant. 62. Nomenclature and General Purpose of Major Units of the Motor Vehicle. Pre- liminary instruction should cover the nomenclature and purpose of major assemblies only, in order that the driver may become familiar with his vehicle without being confused by details. Detailed instruction in nomenclature, function, operation, use, lubrication, maintenance, and limitations of motor vehicles, and the nomenclature, care, and use of vehicular tools and equipment should be given in subsequent periods. 63. Motor Vehicle Controls. The day-to-day condition and the ultimate service of a motor vehicle, as well as safety to life and property, depend upon the condition and proper use of the controls. Consequently, careful instruction and supervision are necessary to insure the correct use of these important devices. The following controls should be explained and demonstrated: a. Carburetor choke control (if not automatic). b. Carburetor throttle control, to include accelerator. c. Ignition switch. d. Spark control (if not automatic). e. Transmission gearshift lever. f. Transfer case gearshift lever. g. Clutch pedal. h. Steering wheel. i. Brakes, hand and foot. j. Winch controls. k. Dump controls. l. Front wheel declutching lever. 64. Aids to Motor Vehicle Control. Although the devices given below cannot be classed as controls, they aid in motor vehicle control and should be explained and demonstrated. a. Light switches, including blackout. b. Horn button. c. Rear-view mirror. d. Windshield wiper. e. Speedometer. f. Blackout devices. 65. Instrument-Board Gages. Gages are placed on the instrument panel in plain view of the driver to give information concerning certain assemblies and systems of the motor vehicle. The instructor should explain the purpose of each gage, give its normal reading, and tell the driver what to do when an abnormal reading is observed. 66. Clutch, Transmission, and Brakes. a. Drivers should familiarize themselves with the location and manipulation of the clutch pedal, the transmission gear shift lever, and the brake lever and brake pedal before actual driving instruction starts. For this pur- pose the motor vehicles should be blocked up securely with all wheels off the ground. b. When the candidate first gets into the driver's seat, he should be required to assume the correct position; that is, sit erect, without stiffness, squarely behind the steering wheel; head erect, eyes looking to the front; hand on opposite sides of the steering wheel, on a horizontal line generally through the center of the wheel, grasping the steering wheel rim firmly but without tenseness; both feet flat on the floor boards except when actually manipulating the accelerator, the clutch and brake pedals, or the starter switch. & c. After the candidate has familiarized himself with the location and manipulation of the controls, the instructor should start and warm up the engine. He should then demonstrate the operation of the accelerator; coordinated movements of the accelerator, clutch pedal, and transmission gear shift lever; gear shifting, to include reverse; opera- tion of the brake controls; manipulation of the steering wheel; and the use of the engine as a brake. Upon completion of the demonstration, the candidate should take the FA2 (1) 354 CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES driver's seat and practice manipulating the controls until he becomes reasonably pro- ficient. Careful supervision should be exercised to insure correct performance. d. Careful supervision should be exercised over the following: (1) Engine speeds. The engine must not be raced. During the preliminary in- struction period, the accelerator may be blocked to limit the engine speed. The accel- erator should be released when shifting gears (except when double clutching), and de- pressed gradually when the load is applied to the engine. (2) Clutch pedal. To disengage the clutch, the clutch pedal should be depressed to the limit of its travel. To engage the clutch, the clutch pedal should be released grad- ually. The results to be anticipated if the clutch pedal is released too rapidly, and the injurious effects of allowing the foot to rest on the clutch pedal should be explained. (3) Transmission gear shift lever. The lever should be moved smoothly but firmly from one position to another and must never be forced. (4) Position of the feet. While actually driving, the right foot should rest on the accelerator and the left foot on the floor boards. The feet should be placed on the control pedals only when the pedals are to be operated. (5) Brakes. Brakes should be applied gradually with just enough pressure to accomplish the desired results. The braking effort of the engine should be used when retarding the vehicle speed, the clutch being disengaged in time to prevent stalling the engine. 67. Inspection Before Operation. A motor vehicle is not ready for service until certain items have been checked and certain Preventive Maintenance inspections have been made. Before moving his vehicle from its overnight parking position, the driver, under proper supervision, makes this “Before Operation” Preventive Maintenance inspection and reports the results to his chief of section or other designated individual. The driver is held strictly responsible that all requirements are met. Items are checked as follows: a. Before starting engine— (1) The surface (ground or floor) under the vehicle for evidence of leaks. (2) The radiator for proper amount of water and to see that air passages are open. (3) The gasoline tank for proper amount of gasoline. (4) The crankcase for lubricating oil. Spare oil if required. (5) The engine for loose parts or electrical connections. (6) Pneumatic tires, including spares, for proper inflation. (7) The horn and all lights for proper functioning. (8) Front axle and steering linkage. (9) Tools and necessary equipment. (10) Carried load for condition and distribution. -k (11) Towed load for condition, attachment to prime mover, and brake connections. (12) All transmissions and power take-offs in neutral. (13) Drain valve in air brake storage tanks closed. b. After starting engine— (1) Fan operation. (2) Engine for loose parts and unusual noises. (3) Proper functioning of all dashboard instruments as engine comes to operating temperature. • * (4) Action of windshield wiper. º The vehicle is moved, and the clutch, transmission, steering, and brakes are tested. 68. Starting and Warming Up the Engine. Special attention should be devoted to the proper starting and warm-up period in order that unnecessary engine wear may be pre- vented. The procedure outlined below is satisfactory under average operating condi- tions: a. Set the hand brake. b. Place the transmission and power takeoffs in the neutral position. c. Set the choke control and the hand throttle control. Consider the peculiarities of CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES 355 the engine, engine temperature, fuel, and manufacturer's instructions. Care should be taken to avoid excessive use of the choke. d. Disengage the clutch. e. Turn on the ignition. f. Engage the starter switch contacts. Release the starter switch contacts as soon as the engine starts. (1) If the starter device fails to engage the engine flywheel, release the starter switch contacts and allow the starter armature to come to rest. Try again. If the device still fails to engage, report to the chief of section or other designated person. (2) If the starter device engages the engine flywheel and locks, release the starter switch contacts, turn off the ignition, place the transmission in high gear, release the brake, and rock the vehicle backward. If the starter device fails to disengage, place the transmission in neutral and report as above. (3) If the starter device engages the engine flywheel and the engine fails to start after several attempts, report as above. The starter switch contacts should not be en- gaged for periods longer than 10 to 15 seconds. g. If the engine is magneto equipped and hand cranking is necessary, follow the manu- facturer's instructions. h. Adjust the setting of the dash throttle control to give the desired engine speed. Release the clutch pedal. i. Allow the engine to warm up to the proper operating temperature, opening the choke as rapidly as the engine temperature permits. The choke should be closed, or par- tially closed, only as long as necessary and should never be used excessively. The engine has reached a safe operating temperature when upon acceleration with the choke wide open there is no backfiring, and when the oil pressure needle remains below the maxi- mum reading on the oil pressure gage scale with the engine running at its normal oper- ating speed. 69. Inspection During Operation. During operation the driver should be alert to de- tect malfunctioning of the engine. He should be trained to detect unusual engine sounds or noises and to follow the proper procedure when they occur. He should frequently glance at the instrument panel gages and know what to do when abnormal readings are observed. Before vehicles start on a march or are dispatched on individual missions, careful instructions should be given to drivers concerning the action to be taken when operating troubles occur. Only under exceptional circumstances should a motor vehicle be operated after trouble has developed which will prove serious if opera- tion is continued. When in doubt, the engine should be stopped and assistance ob- tained. Inspection during operation applies to the entire vehicle and should be em- phasized throughout the driving instruction period. 70. Inspection at the Halt. At each scheduled halt during the march or at intervals during a day's work on dispatch, the driver should make a careful inspection of his vehicle to determine its general mechanical condition. Detection and correction of de- fects should give reasonable assurance that the vehicle is ready for continued operation. If the defects cannot be corrected during the halt, proper disposition of the vehicle should be made so that unnecessary delay may be avoided and a major failure prevented. Drivers and maintenance personnel should make full use of halt periods to place all vehicles in condition for continued uninterrupted service. A suitable general routine, the sequence of which may be altered to suit a particular type of vehicle, is as follows: a. Allow the engine to run a short time. Listen for unusual noises. b. Walk around the vehicle, looking carefully for fuel, oil, and water leaks. c. Inspect all tires for inflation, cuts, nails, stones, and indications of misalinement. On track-laying vehicles, examine tracks for adjustment and for worn, loose, broken, or missing parts. Note condition of traction devices, if used. d. Feel brake bands, wheel hubs, and gear cases for evidence of overheating. e. Inspect the lights, if traveling at night with lights. f. Check the amount of fuel in the tank. g. Check the quantity of water in the radiator. 356 CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES h. Check the quantity and condition of the oil in the crankcase or oil reservoir. Add oil if necessary. i. Inspect the condition of the cargo and towed load, if any. j. Report promptly the result of the inspection to the chief of section or other desig- nated individual. 71. Inspection After Operation. At the conclusion of the day's work, the driver should make an inspection similar to that made at halts but more thorough and detailed. Re- pair operations performed by the driver are determined by his ability and the equip- ment available for his use. If defects cannot be corrected, they should be reported promptly to the chief of section or other designated individual. The inspection should be followed by preventive maintenance. A suitable routine is as follows: a. Check all items included in the inspection at the halt, testing lights in all cases. b. Raise the hood and look for loose, missing or broken parts, and indications of improper operation. c. Examine grease seals for evidence of failure or over-lubrication. d. Check front axle, steering gear, and linkage, and front springs for condition, aline- ment, and attachment. e. Check rear axle and rear springs for condition, alinement, and attachment. f. Examine propeller shaft for condition, tightness of connections, and foreign materials wrapped around the shaft. g. Examine brake linkage for loose, worn, lost, or broken parts. h. Check body bolts; tighten or replace as required. i. Check tools and equipment. j. Report results. Questions 1. Upon what does the mobility and dependability of the motor vehicle fleet depend? 2. Name the most important forms of motor vehicle abuse. 3. Name the safety precautions to be observed by drivers. CHAPTER XIV DRIVING INSTRUCTION 72. General Rule. Careful instruction and painstaking supervision must be the rule during the driving instruction period to insure that the driver learns the correct per- formance of his duties and forms the proper habits. This chapter on driving instruction of necessity contains valuable information on the conduct of motor marches. 73. Gear Shifting and Use of Clutch. a. Preliminary driving should be conducted on a large open field where steering is of secondary importance. A qualified instructor should accompany each candidate to explain procedure, demonstrate application, and insure correct driver performance. Candidates should be permitted to drive at will with the transmission in the lower gear ratios until they are reasonably familiar with the operation and control of their vehicles, after which the driving should become progressively more difficult. b. After the driver has become reasonably proficient in shifting from lower to higher gears, he should receive instruction in double clutching, the procedure for which is as follows: (1) Disengage the clutch and shift to neutral; at the same time decelerate the engine. (2) Engage the clutch and accelerate to an engine speed slightly in excess of that required in the lower gear to maintain the vehicle speed. (3) Disengage the clutch and shift to the next lower gear; at the same time slightly decelerate the engine. 4. (4) Engage the clutch; at the same time accelerate the engine to effect clutch en- gagement without shock to the power transmission system. CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES 357 (5) Practice double clutching until proficient in shifting from a higher to a lower gear. - c. On medium and heavy vehicles it is sometimes difficult to shift from a low gear to a higher gear without clashing the gear teeth. The clashing may be avoided by using the double-clutching procedure without accelerating the engine during the shift. 74. Use of Transmission and Auxiliary Transmission. a. A transmission is provided so that the engine may be permitted to run at a speed at which sufficient horsepower is developed, and at the same time permit the vehicle to travel at a speed commensurate with the road and load conditions. The addition of an auxiliary transmission, some- times included as a part of the power transmission system, increases the number of gear ratios available and permits greater flexibility in the transmission of power. b. Drivers should understand what happens when the gear shift lever is moved and must be practiced in the manipulation of the controls and the proper use of the trans- mission and auxiliary transmission. An engine should never be permitted to labor un- duly when a change in transmission-gear ratios would lighten the load. c. The auxiliary transmission normally provided on military motor vehicles has two gear ratios: high, which does not change the gear ratios provided by the main trans- mission; and low, which gives a greater gear reduction (higher reduction ratio) than that provided by the main transmission. The auxiliary transmission is controlled by a gearshift lever in the driver's compartment. The high range is used for normal operation and the low range for heavy duty. The ratios in the auxiliary transmission of most types of vehicles should not be changed when the vehicle is in motion. 75. Use of Brakes. a. The brakes should be in such condition that a hard application will cause all wheels to be locked, but the driver must realize that the maximum re- tarding effect occurs just before the wheels lock. Intermittent applications will reduce the wear of brake linings and drums. Application of the brakes should be gradual and with just enough force to accomplish the desired result. b. Judicious use of the braking effect of the engine will increase the serviceable life of the brake linings and drums. When the driver anticipates a stop, he should make full use of the engine braking effect, disengaging the clutch in time to avoid stalling the engine. When descending hills, a driver should use the engine as a brake by select- ing and engaging the proper gear ratio, and use the intermittent application of the brakes to prevent overspeeding the engine. The ignition should not be turned off. The engine speed when descending a hill should be no greater than the speed necessary to ascend the hill when using the same transmission gear ratio. On steep hills the gear train necessary to give the desired results should be engaged before the vehicle is com- mitted to the hill. Attempting to shift gears after the vehicle has started down a steep slope may result in a runaway vehicle. c. At all times a driver should know the performance and the general condition of his vehicle brakes. When operating conditions require vehicles to move through water, the brakes become very inefficient because of moisture on the brake linings and in the brake drums. . If the distance to be traversed is short, considerable water may be kept out of the brake assemblies by a slight application of the brakes while the vehicle is in the water. After passing through water, the brakes should be set slightly and the vehicle operated until sufficient heat has been generated to dry the brakes. d. Vehicle stopping distances are dependent upon the nature and condition of the road surface, the condition of the brakes, the weight of the load, and the kind and condition of tire treads. When operating at a speed of 20 miles per hour on a dry, smooth, level road free from loose material, every motor vehicle or combination of motor vehicles should be capable, at all times and under all conditions of loading, of stopping within the following distances when the foot brake is applied: Vehicles or combination of vehicles having brakes on all wheels .... 30 feet Vehicles or combination of vehicles not having brakes on all wheels . . 45 feet e: Drivers should be cautioned against the use of brakes when a vehicle is skidding and when it is being operated on ice-covered roads, 358 CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES, 76. Turning, Backing, and Parking. a. After the driver has acquired facility in start- ing, simple driving, and stopping his vehicle, he should be practiced in maneuvering in difficult places. The ability to turn his vehicle in a tonfined space, to back it ac- curately, and to park it properly under various conditions are essential requirements for the motor vehicle driver. - - a – É. (The figure should be symmetrical, with the stakes placed to allow an Over-all side clearance of approximately 18 inches.) Plate 31. Reverse Turning Course. b. Turns should be made at speeds commensurate with the road, load, and traffic con- ditions. A vehicle driver should always give the appropriate arm, electrical, or me- chanical signal in sufficient time to aſſord ample warning that a change in direction is to be made. Turns should start and end in appropriate traſfic lanes and should be made with as little confusion to other traſfic as possible. At least one hand should be kept on the steering wheel when the vehicle is in motion. } 2O FEET FINISH (The figure should be symmetrical, with the stakes placed to allow an over-all side clearance of approximately 18 inches.) $ Plate 32. Backing Course. c. A driver should never back a vehicle until he is certain that the way is clear. When the driver's view is obstructed, he should act as directed by an assistant on the ground. When backing unassisted, the driver should always give warning of the movement by sounding his horn. Considerable practice is necessary to back a vehicle safely and accurately. This is particularly true when the driver is required to back a towed load. CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES 359 d. Parking includes turning and forward or backward movement of the vehicle in more or less restricted spaces. Factors which should be given consideration when park- ing are space for maneuver of vehicle, solid standing, interference with other traffic, and cover if applicable. e. The use of stake driving courses will permit instruction and practice without other traffic interference and will make closer supervision possible. The instruction courses shown in Plates 31, 32, and 33 are recommended. s Top * f X----, | | l | | l l | | | | | | | | & | | | | | | | | l -- | | | M Q RAAAL | | ROAD | | w O T H | X X (Stakes should be placed so that when parked the vehicle will have an over-all longitudinal clearance of approximately 10 feet and a lateral clearance of approximately 3 feet.) Plate 33. Parking Course. 77. Starting Engine Under Unusual Operating Conditions. a. Gasoline boiling in carburetor. Some engines when stopped after having reached an operating temperature radiate enough heat to boil the gasoline in the carburetor float chamber. This condition, which is not uncommon during hot weather operation, causes a rich mixture in the intake manifold. To start the engine, the hand throttle is fully opened, the carburetor choke is left in the normal operating position, and the engine started. The throttle should be adjusted to the desired engine speed only after the engine begins to run smoothly. Intermittent depression of the accelerator when the engine is not running will also produce a rich mixture in the intake manifold; the procedure outlined above should be followed in starting the engine. b. Vapor lock. Vapor lock is caused by vaporization of the fuel before it leaves the carburetor jets. This condition results in a mixture that is too lean to sustain engine operation. The best solution is to wait until the fuel cools and returns to liquid form. After liquefaction takes place, the engine may be started in the normal manner. 78. Signals. a. Drivers' arm signals. Before a driver changes the direction or slows the speed of his vehicle, he should give the appropriate arm signal to warn other drivers of the contemplated change. Arm signals should be clearly made and should be given in time to aſſord ample warning. There is as yet no standard set of drivers' arm signals. Drivers, of military vehicles operated in civilian traffic should use the arm signals prescribed for the locality in which the vehicle is being operated. Drivers' arm signals which are satisfactory for military use are: (1) Turn right. Extend, the left arm outward at an angle of 45° above the horizontal. * 360 CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES (2) Turn left. Extend the left arm outward horizontally. (3) Slow or stop. Extend the left arm outward to an angle of 45° below the horizontal. (4) Pass and keep going. Extend the left arm horizontally and describe small circles toward the front with the hand. b. Command and signals commonly used in a motorized unit are: (1) Start engine. Simulate cranking. (2) Report when ready to move (given by unit commander). Extend the arm vertically, fingers extended and joined. - (3) Ready to start. Senior in truck stands on running board, faces leader, and extends the arm vertically, fingers extended and joined, palm toward the leader. (4) Stop engines. Cross arms in front of body at the waist and then move them sharply to the side. Repeat several times. (5) Increase speed. Carry closed fist to the shoulder and rapidly thrust it vertically upward several times to the full extent of the arm. (6) Decrease speed. Extend arm horizontally from shoulder, palm to front and move up and down vertically about 24". Continue motion as long as decrease of speed is desired. (7) Prepare to mount. Extend the arm horizontally to the side, palm up, and wave the arm upward several times. Mount. Same signal with both arms. (8) Prepare to dismount. Extend the arm diagonally upward to the side, palm down, and wave the arm downward several times. Dismount. Same signal with both 3III].S. (9) Close up. Extend the arm horizontally to the side, palm to front, then describe a 2-foot vertical circle. Each driver repeats. (10) Open up. Extend the arm horizontally to the side, palm to front, then move the arm down to a vertical position and up to the horizontal, describing a 90° arc. Each driver repeats. (11) Immediate danger. Use three long blasts of whistle or automobile horn re- peated several times, or three equally spaced shots with rifle or pistol. The person giving the signal points in the direction of impending danger. This signal is reversed for warning of air, mechanized attack, or other immediate and grave danger. (12) Drivers to turn around simultaneously. Extend both arms horizontally toward the drivers and describe small vertical circles, then signal forward in the desired new direction. When the distance between vehicles permits and the convoy is long, this signal may be given by a motorcycle messenger passing back along the column. c. Other authorized signals may be found in the manuals for the arms and services. d. Electrical and mechanical signals should be used, but not depended upon, when vehicles are so equipped. 79. Road Rules and Traffic Regulations. Observance of prescribed road rules and traffic regulations permits the movement of traffic with a maximum of safety and a minimum of confusion and traffic direction. The following general rules should be ob- served by all drivers: a. Vehicles will keep to the right of the road. b. The appropriate warning signal will be given before changing direction, slowing down, or stopping. c. The driver will be alert and pay attention to road signs, convoy signals, and traffic directions. * d. The right-of-way will be given promptly to faster moving vehicles. e. Speed will be reduced on dry, dusty roads. f. Speeds for night driving, without lights, will be determined by road conditions, degree of visibility, and skill of the drivers. g. Lights will be dimmed when meeting another vehicle, if driving at night with lights. h. Unnecessary use of horns is prohibited. i. A disabled vehicle will not delay unnecessarily the march of a column. j. A vehicle will never pass traffic moving in the same direction— (1) When going around a corner or blind curve. CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES 361 (2) When ascending or descending hills unless safe passage is assured. (3) At street intersections or crossroads. (4) When the road is not wide enough to allow at least 2 feet between vehicles. k. A driver who has been assigned a place in a column will not pass another vehicle in the same column unless that vehicle is disabled or he receives a signal to pass. l. A driver when meeting and passing an oncoming vehicle will— (1) Pass on the right giving at least half the road. (2) Slow down if operating conditions are hazardous. (3) Permit the vehicle having a clear road ahead to have the right-of-way. m. Vehicles will be halted at railroad crossings not guarded by military personnel or civilian watchmen. n. Vehicles will be slowed down to a safe stopping speed at all road intersections not covered by traffic control personnel or traffic control devices. o. Vehicles will not be permitted to coast down hills with the clutch disengaged or the transmission in neutral. p. Vehicles will clear the roadway before being halted. q. Vehicles will not be halted on bridges, in defiles, at points where the vision of other drivers is restricted, or in such manner as to block cross traffic or entering side traffic. r. During the halt.— . (l) The engine will be stopped if the vehicle is to stand longer than a few minutes. (2) All personnel will keep to the right of the vehicles. (3) The prescribed inspection and maintenance functions will be performed. s. Passengers will not mount or dismount from moving vehicles. t. State and local traffic regulations will be observed unless otherwise ordered. u. Under blackout conditions, conform strictly to all restrictions on use of ordinary and blackout lights. 80. Marching. a. Successful marching requires well-trained drivers and teamwork on the part of all elements of the command. Drivers must therefore be trained in march organization, march formations, march regulations, camouflage and concealment of vehicles, and procedure in case of air or mechanized attack. Through instruction and the enforcement of regulations, a degree of march discipline is attained which enables an organization to pass over roads with a maximum of speed and safety and a minimum of interference with other traffic, and to arrive at its destination in the best possible condition. b. During training in close column marching, special attention should be paid to safe driving distances between vehicles. These distances, which vary with vehicle speeds, should be prescribed initially to aid the driver in visualizing his proper place. The fol- lowing rule, properly modified to meet special conditions, gives the minimum distances for safe marching: The distance in yards between vehicles should be twice the speedometer reading. c. When marching over rolling terrain, a higher rate of march and smoother marching may be attained if drivers are permitted, within maximum prescribed speed, to increase the speed of their vehicles before commencing to climb. Vehicles should be slowed down while going down grades to compensate for the distance gained when running a hill. This practice will prevent excessive jamming and will allow drivers to take advantage of power and momentum to negotiate hills without excessive shifting of gears. Run- ning hills is particularly advantageous when march columns are made up of mixed vehicles. 81. Chains and Traction Devices. Chains and traction devices should always accom- pany the vehicle to which they pertain. They should be kept in serviceable condition and in proper adjustment to permit installation with a minimum of delay. Chains and traction devices should be removed when the necessity for their use no longer exists in order to prevent unnecessary damage to roads. a. Chains. Chains are generally necessary in mud, sand, snow, or slush ice. Chains should not be used on ice-covered roads when they cannot bite into the ice. The following general rules apply to the application and use of chains: (1) The chains are applied before the vehicle becomes mired. 362 CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES (2) The chains are so applied that rotation of the wheel tends to close the chain fastenings. If improperly installed, rotation of the wheel opens the fastening and the chain will be lost. (3) Fairly loose adjustment gives better traction and less tire wear than tight adjustment. - - - - Plate 35. Traction Devices. - (4) On all wheel-drive vehicles without center differential or other compensating device, chains must be installed on all wheels to prevent unnecessary strain. (5) When only single chains are provided for dual-tired wheels, they should be installed on the outside tires. - - CARE AND: OPERATION OF MOTOR 'VEHICLES 363 b. Traction devices. (1) Giant tire lugs. Plate 34. Giant tire lugs provided for some military motor vehicles give better traction without increasing ſlotation. They are made for use on dual-tired wheels. The general rules for the application and use of chains apply, with few exceptions, to the application and use of giant tire lugs. (2) Traction bands. Plate 35. Traction devices such as circular and oval bands are provided for some military motor vehicles to give increased traction and flotation. Cir- cular bands should be chained to the wheel to prevent slippage of the tires inside the band. Oval bands are used on bogie axles and should be applied and adjusted in ac- cordance with manufacturers' instructions. (3) Tractor grousers. Grousers increase traction but do not improve the flotation qualities of the vehicle. Two general types of grousers, removable and integral, are used on tractors provided for the military service. The removable type should be ap- plied when necessity for their use arises. The integral type grouser is a part of the track shoe and cannot be removed, but the grouser action may be eliminated by the use of street plates bolted to the track shoes. Plate 36. Lug Plate. 82. Grouser Ropes or Chains, and Lug Plates. (Plate 36.) Improvised single grouser ropes or heavy single chains may be carricq when a driver is operating a passenger vehicle alone. If the vehicle stalls on a muddy road, the traction of one or more wheels may be increased by the use of these devices. Makeshifts such as a short piece of rope or web belts may be used for the same purpose in case of an emergency. These should be applied only after chains have failed to give sufficient traction. 83. Grouser Bars. (Plate 37.) For track-laying vehicles, grouser bars may be im- provised. A grouser bar is installed across both tracks by means of the grousers after the vehicle is stalled in a mired position. The vehicle: is rolled over it and the bar removed before it strikes the back of the vehicle. A pole or piece of timber, may be secured across the tracks to serve the same purpose. 364 CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES 84. Wheel Mats. Flat mats improvised by boarding together strands of rope, or pieces of heavy canvas, with ropes attached to the four corners are useful to place under the wheels where the going is soft. When a vehicle is stalled with wheels slipping, wheel mats may be used by attaching them to the wheels at one end, or they may be laid down in front of the wheels with the end away staked down. To increase traction over a soft or slippery spot, one or several of these mats may be tied end to end. They may then be staked down or maneuvered ahead of the wheels. Sacks or, in an emergency, blankets and like articles may be used to serve the same purpose. Rollrood rollf _<-Tock grousers Tº Plate 37. Grouser Bar. 85. Cross Country Driving. a. After the driver has acquired facility in driving and maneuvering, he should be taken through a series of increasingly difficult cross country operations, such as ditches, ruts, chuckholes, woods, slippery roads, mud, difficult curves, and up and down steep slopes until he becomes reasonably proficient in handling his vehicle under all conditions. This training should include field expedients and the application and use of chains and tractor devices. b. The training should start with individual performances and empty vehicles and should progress to group performances with loaded vehicles and with towed loads if used in the organization. 86. Trouble Truck. Although equipment in different types of motorized units will vary, each organization will generally have one trouble truck, usually equipped with a winch. All drivers should be taught winch operation, and be governed by the following principles: a. The winch truck should be taken across the obstacle first. b. When necessary, the winch truck is backed across an obstacle under the assisting power of the winch with cable attached to a deadman or tree. The power of the drive wheels should assist the winch, but the gears must be so chosen that the wheels will cover ground faster than the winch cable is pulled in. c. The same principle should be applied when pulling in a vehicle with the winch; that is, the towed vehicle should assist with its maximum traction. The best power combination generally results if the winch is operated in the highest gear that will give sufficient power and the towed truck is pulling in lowest gear. d. After the winch truck has crossed an obstacle, the cable may be run out, the winch locked, and the truck used as a towing vehicle, or the truck may be halted and the winch utilized. 4. e. When the winch is used on a difficult pull, the winch truck may be held in place by use of the brakes, wheel blocks, or by anchoring to a tree or deadman. Traction devices will assist in holding the vehicle in place. f. Certain precautions are necessary in the proper use of the winch cable. Whenever the towing cable is slipped over the ground it should be protected by placing pieces of wood under it. Power must be applied to the cable gradually. As a precaution against the lashing ends of a broken cable, all men should stand clear before the winch cable is tightened. - CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES 365 87. Hoist Attachment and Wrecking Crane. a. A hoist attachment may be issued to units. This equipment is intended primarily for use with the maintenance section. It may be mounted in either the trouble truck or the tender carrying the equipment of the maintenance section. b. A wrecking crane may be improvised to serve the same purpose as the hoist at- tachment. The crane is installed so that it extends over the tail gate approximately 4 inches. The winch cable is placed over the crane only when necessary to get an up- ward towing lift. *ś b *alſº Figure 1. Clove Hitch (End Not Pulled Through). Figure 2. Single Blackwall Knot. Plate 38. Knots. c. Either the hoist attachment or the wrecking crane will assist in towing a disabled vehicle in an elevated position when the steering mechanism or the axle is damaged. They may often be of use to give a towing lift on a mired vehicle. Care must be taken not to attempt to lift too heavy loads, which will nose-up the hoisting vehicle. 88. Track-Laying Tractors. Where available, tractors will serve as powerful towing 366 CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES expedients. They have good flotation and powerful traction. Once the tracks begin to slip, the clutch should be quickly disengaged and the tractor moved out in the opposite direction. A new trial is then made on new footing, inserting a tow chain or cable between the tractor and towed load if necessary. The tractor has little if any more hill-climbing ability than a truck. When needed as a tow in such cases it should be moved to a position where it can pull without climbing a steep slope. 89. Tow Chains or Cables. Tow chains or cables should be about 25 feet long and should have a hook on one end and a ring or loop on the other. Cables and chains % to 9% inch give sufficient strength. 90. Spreader Bars. To prevent the frame from being bent inward in front, im- provised spreader bars should always be used to attach a cable or tow chain to both tow hooks. 91. Prolonges. A prolonge is made from a piece of rope about 30 feet long by making a loop at one end. With this, man power or a tow from another vehicle may be most efficiently and quickly applied. A detail of men may drop a prolonge over a tow hook before a vehicle is completely stalled and help it past a difficult point. Tow ropes can most safely be attached to tow hooks, pintles, or around the spring shackle. Knots easily untied, such as the clove hitch with end left through to form a bow, should be used. The double Blackwall knot for attachment to tow hooks and the single Blackwall knot for attachment to the pintle are the easiest to untie, but may occasionally slip. (Plate 38.) A 1-inch rope will safely stand a tension of about one ton. , Larger or smaller ropes increase or decrease in safe tension limits by 500 pounds for each /4-inch difference in size from a 1-inch rope. The vehicle being towed should always assist with its own power. sº Jº dº A” sº. “%d wº * < x_* ...” *** ** Figure 3. Double Blackwall Knot. Plate 38. Knots—Continued. 92. Block and Tackle. Where a winch truck is not available, a block and tackle is carried in the trouble truck. Attached to a tree, anchored stake, or deadman it is useful to multiply the towing power of either manpower or a towing vehicle. 93. Towing Bars. Towing bars are used when a vehicle is to be towed. 94. A-Frame. (Plate 39.) An A-frame is an expedient which combines both a lift and a tow. It is easily constructed with two poles approximately 12 feet long and two tow chains or cables. Holes are dug as supports for the foot of the frame, or a cross chain or plank is used to prevent the poles from spreading. Care must be taken to place the A-frame far enough away from the towed vehicle so that, when it is lifted over, the foot of the legs will not damage the front of the vehicle. This simple device is a useful CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES 367 expedient, when a wrecking crane or hoist attachment is not available to lift a vehicle out of and over a ditch or hole. It is also of use when a heavy vehicle is completely mired. . T^*~ *-ºs- ATT ACHEO TO REAR OF YOw NG v El- Cu tº --~~~~ T º y ſº º ! !'... . ." ". . . . gº ºr. 2” “* - ... • , , ~ * ~ * zº * - ** as & - - 9. § t * , "... -- ; -- J . . . Ž ~– - -:4% vul!! Hall...., *** *** * * * •uºtºiº. as gº & *** ** . . . *~ ; * ' ' ' ' -- . ~ * *~ \----- ------. T-4 Tº “truſt, ſtill gººse - - f *-* T.,...,aſº,”::::"... ... —-2- : *: #dº * .” - # e. , * * as it; 74) iſſus /* # *lºgº---------e. * * * * *-i-4----— -º-, "tº ſº-0. ºff,”, %. {{#ſºha. *tvº. Plate 39. A-Frame. 95. Deadman Installations. (Plates 40 and 41.) A deadman gives a firm anchor for various towing operations. To get the best results the following points are essential: a. Position. A position for the deadman is best if chosen at least a yard behind a natural crest or mound. It should be far enough back so that it will not interfere with the vehicles clearing the obstacles and the attached cable or chain will not exert an upward pull. Plate 40. Deadman. b. Digging. A hole is dug about 1 foot deep and long and wide enough for the dead- man. The bank in the direction of pull is cut straight and is slanted away about 15° to the vertical. The bottom of the hole is cleared at a right angle to this bank. To assist in strengthening the top edge of the hole on the side in the direction of pull, two stakes are usually driven on either side of the cable at a slightly greater angle to the vertical than the bank. They are driven flush with the slanted bank near the top. A trench for the cable is cut from the hole through the crest of the hill or mound. This should be slightly deeper than the bottom of the hole at the beginning and should continue out in a descending slope. 368 CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES c. Cable attachment. A rectangular tie or larger timber of the type used for a wheel block is most suitable for the deadman, since it presents the maximum surface to op- pose the direction of pull. The cable or chain is attached to the deadman so that the largest dimension is vertical and the pull on the cable is exerted along the bottom surface. ...tº, ºrotº- ; ::3%. º, S. w ge º § #! ; º º } §: º º º ####### § § º sº sº º º § #. Ú - Bº e i = fºº # * *A 3º gº a º a ſº Hºº º, 3 tº hº º: *ś - sºsº. ſº º º Plate 41. “Deadman” Type of Anchorage. 96. Anchored Stake. (Plate 42.) a. Two stakes and a rope lashing may be used to quickly install an anchored stake which will withstand considerable tension. The first stake is driven into the ground at a little greater than a right angle from the direction of pull. The second stake is driven at an angle slightly closer to the ground at 3 to 6 feet away from the direction of pull. A rope is used to anchor the top of the first stake to the bottom of the second. In order that this rope will not slip down on the first stake, it is first tied to the bottom of the second, then wrapped over itself with a one-half clove hitch at the top of the first stake. The rope then is passed around the second and an- º QS S. ES- Sº - § ºw N. gºº: $ ſº esºrº. * º, SS #, <> §§ : ** * ºs - §§§ Şs &A º Sº Rºs - º tºº.&- s - * Š &º *... & º ºn º Sºś * *gº sº ºš $e - Plate 42. Anchored Stake. other half clove hitch is completed over the first, wrapping the rope around below the first hitch. This lashing is completed a number of times before the rope is secured to the second stake. A third stake may then be used to twist the lashing tight, after which it is driven into the ground. b. Luminous paints which emit a faint glow in darkness may be used to replace night-lighting devices and may also be used on panels temporarily placed on the ground to guide a unit at night. * x CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES 369 97. Mechanical Expedients. The usual limitations for repair of the vehicle by the driver are stated in Paragraphs 27 and 117. However, the following repairs can be made in the field in case of an emergency: 3. a. Broken spring leaves are splinted by means of strong pieces of wood or metal held in place with wire. One or several tent pins may be used. If necessary, a block of wood is secured between the frame and axle to prevent spring action. When necessary, displacement of the axle is prevented by running a wire around the front spring hanger and the axle. b. When the light fuze is burned out, it may be temporarily replaced with tinfoil. This should be done only after the short in the system has been corrected. c. A fan belt may be replaced with rope or the old one fastened together with wire. Friction tape may be wrapped around the belt to hold it in place. d. When water has shorted the ignition system, it should be wiped away from the spark plugs. The wires should then be removed from the distributor head and wiped dry. 98. Points to be Observed. In training drivers for difficult operations the following points should be observed by officers and noncommissioned officers: a. The column leader should have a good driver and a vehicle in good mechanical condition. b. On approaching doubtful crossings or steep hills, a quick reconnaissance to deter- mine the best route is made on foot ahead of the first vehicle. c. Guards are dropped where drivers in rear should be cautioned. d. While moving, a driver is given freedom in the operation of his vehicle within the limits prescribed by the commander to insure safe and efficient operation of the column. t e. When a vehicle is stalled, the driver must be given advice and help. A decision is required at once as to whether or not it can be moved by the next vehicle or by men at hand. If it cannot be moved without holding up the column, it is left for the crew with the trouble truck. f. The column must be kept moving. When the road is blocked, a new route around is immediately found for other vehicles. g. When the column comes to a halt, officers and section leaders should move for- ward to assist in carrying out the above principles. 99. Power, Momentum, Traction, and Flotation. The ability of a motor vehicle to negotiate difficult terrain depends upon its power, momentum, traction, and flotation. A proper appreciation of these related factors will assist military personnel in the choice of a practical expedient to meet most road difficulties. a. Power in any gasoline-propelled vehicle depends primarily upon maintaining sufficient engine speed. A shift to a lower gear allows the application of more power, but with a loss of forward momentum. b. Momentum is the energy stored up by the weight in motion of the vehicle. It increases with the speed of the vehicle. c. Traction is the maximum wheel or track thrust that may be applied to the ground surface without slipping. d. Flotation is the ability of a wheel or track to ride the ground surface. 100. Ascending Steep Slopes. a. Approaching normal hill. On approaching the usual hill, the leading driver should select a sufficiently low gear and proceed to the top without attempting to race his engine to keep up the normal rate of march. The driver of each succeeding vehicle closes up as the ascent begins and loses distance as the vehicle ahead picks up speed at the crest. b. Approaching difficult hill. Where the grade is slippery or the slope particularly steep, the leading driver on approaching the hill should select a sufficiently low gear and continue on to gain the maximum momentum which his load and the condition of the road permit. The driver of the next vehicle should slow up and halt before he arrives at the approach. He should wait long enough to see that the vehicle ahead has cleared the crest. The driver of each succeeding vehicle should close up, halt, and follow only after being certain that the vehicle ahead will negotiate the hill. 370 CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES c. Overcoming failure. On a steep ascent, stalling usually occurs because of either power or traction failure. Four solutions are presented: another run in a lower gear may be made, the load may be decreased or increased, traction devices may be added, or towing power may be applied. (1) Taking another run. If a driver has failed to give his vehicle the maximum momentum practical on the approach or if a shift has been made at the last moment in an effort to increase the power, the driver is usually at fault. Another trial, with the maximum momentum practicable or with a lower gear ratio, may succeed. (2) Increasing or decreasing load. If power fails with maximum momentum and the lowest gear ratio, the load may be decreased. However, if failure is due to loss of traction and flotation is good, sufficient traction may be gained by increasing the load. This is usually done by loading men over the driving axle or axles. This solution will often be successful on vehicles with two-wheel drives, and on other vehicles not loaded but with heavy towed loads. On nontowing vehicles having front-wheel drives, the addition of more than the normal load is seldom advisable, because these vehicles will have sufficient traction to pull to the limit of their power. (3) Applying traction devices. If the road is soft or slippery, chains or other traction devices should be installed. & (4) Applying towing power. Usually the most expeditious method of getting over a difficult ascent is to apply towing power, utilizing manpower, the winch, or an- other vehicle. (a) If the hill or critical ascent is short, the use of manpower applied through prolonges is usually the quickest and most practical method. (d) If the hill is long and a winch truck is available, it should go up first and then pull the other vehicles over. (c) If one truck can be pulled over, a long cable or chain may be used to con- nect each vehicle in turn so that each helps the next over the ascent. (d) Towed loads may be disconnected and pulled up separately. If necessary, several vehicles may be connected in tandem to pull up a towed load. d. Failure precaution. As a precaution, when a vehicle stalls on a hill, the driver should not shift gears until he has tested the brakes by disengaging the clutch gradually. After the brakes have been tested and found to hold, the driver should shift to reverse and back the vehicle down the hill or to the side of the road in gear. 101. Descending Steep Slopes. Descents should be approached similarly to ascents. The following principles should be observed: a. Choosing descent. Very steep slopes should be descended straight down, so that in case sliding occurs the vehicle will not get out of control. All personnel except the. driver should be dismounted. b. Braking. Hills should always be descended in gear. The correct gear for the descent of a steep slope should be chosen during the approach and should not be changed until the bottom of the hill is reached. As a rule, the same gear is required in going down a hill as would be used in coming up the same hill. A sufficiently low gear should be selected so that the brakes need not be used. However, when necessary, brakes should be applied intermittently, being careful not to lock the wheels. In the descent of a hill, no attempt should be made to maintain the normal rate of march by racing the engine. The ignition should not be turned off. c. Assistance. Outside assistance should be given to vehicles descending steep slopes. It may be applied as follows: f (1) By manpower through the use of prolonges or block and tackle. A rope may often be snubbed around a tree or post. - (2) By use of another vehicle on top of the hill, moving forward in lowest gear, connected by chain, cable, or rope to the vehicle descending: (3) By use of the winch, the cable being run out in gear, the descending truck operating in the lowest gear. (4) By setting brakes on towed loads and attaching a safety rope or tackle. When necessary, towed loads should be disconnected and let down separately. CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR, VEHICLES 371 102. Muddy Roads. The usual muddy road that will be encountered is soft and slip- pery on the surface, while underneath it is generally hard or will pack sufficiently to support a vehicle. Soft spots will allow spinning wheels to quickly dig in. The follow- ing principles are applicable to negotiating this type of muddy going: a. Traction aids. Chains usually give the best aid to traction and prevent skidding. b. Gear. In general, the highest gear that will give sufficient power is selected. As the loss of momentum and the sudden application of increased power at a critical point start the wheels to spin, the need for a gear reduction must be anticipated. c. Momentum. Momentum should be maintained across slippery places and up grades. Usually when slipping occurs, the speed of engine should immediately be de- creased so that the wheels can take hold. d. Choice of track. Old ruts are the hardest packed and should generally be chosen. This principle usually holds for all vehicles following. The exception to this rule is covered in paragraph 103. Where road centers are high, ruts should be straddled or a new track should be made. e. Procedure on stalling. Once a vehicle has come to a complete stall in mud, the clutch is disengaged at once. No new trial is attempted until an outside check-up is made. Proper procedure for quickly extricating a stalled vehicle is dependent upon judgment and experience. The following possibilities are suggested: (1) Dismounting personnel. If personnel are carried, they should dismount and try to push the vehicle out. Often the lightened load and this applied power will be sufficient. In making a try with outside aid, the driver should apply power to the wheels gradually by easing in the clutch. This trial should not be continued to such an extent that the wheels dig in. (2) Selecting best way out. Usually a vehicle can be moved backward for a new trial easier than it can be moved forward. (3) Use of manpower. If prolonges and sufficient men are available, an immediate attempt should be made to move the vehicle by manpower. (4) Applying nearest suitable tow. If a light tow will probably succeed, the next suitable vehicle ahead or behind may be used. Often the next vehicle can be detoured and used for a tow. Where the vehicle has slid off a highly crowned road, men with prolonges attached to the sides may assist in helping the vehicle back onto the road. f. Stalled vehicle. (1) Where the vehicle is found to be hopelessly stalled, a winch, tractor, vehicles in tandem, or a block and tackle must be used. (2) Where a vehicle operating alone becomes stalled in mud, the driver and any personnel that may be with him are dependent on one of the following methods of extricating it: (a) Improving traction. Any additional traction devices such as wheel mats, lug plates, or grouser ropes may be applied. Often one or more drive wheels must be jacked up and traction and flotation increased by placing brush, boards, rocks, or similar material under the wheels. When possible, a pole used as a lever inserted under the hub or in place of the wheel cap is the easiest method of raising the wheels. (b) Digging out. , Ditches dug in the direction that the wheels are expected to move assist in moving the vehicle out. When wheels are in deep ruts, usually cross ditches dug at an angle to the ruts with dirt thrown into the ruts are necessary to carry the wheels back on to a straddle position over the rut. (c) Windlass method. The windlass method of having a dual-wheel truck pull itself out of a bad mud hole is simple and rather certain of success. A single long cable with loops on each end, or two tow cables, and four stakes are required. The vehicle may be pulled out either backward or forward. Two anchored stakes are installed on the bank at the same distance apart as the wheels and directly in front of or behind the vehicle. The loop ends of the cables are taken in between the tires of each dual wheel and secured by passing the loop btween the spokes and over the hub. The cables are then attached to the anchor stakes. The vehicle is then pulled out on its own power by allowing the cable to wind up between the dual wheels whenever slipping occurs. 372 CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES (d) Pole method. A similar principle may sometimes be applied by inserting a pole as a track between the dual wheels that are slipping. This method may be made more efficient with track-laying vehicles by attaching the pole to the track. The vehicle is rolled over it and the attachment is removed before strain is placed on the track. CAUTION: Because of the danger of slipping under the vehicle, personnel should be cautioned against pushing on the side of a moving vehicle that has slipped into the ditch from a high crown road or on a vehicle that has slipped into old wheel ruts. 103. Swampy or Boggy Ground. Where water has been standing for a considerable time and swamp grass has grown, a surface crust has formed on top of a bottomless soil. Certain variations in principles and procedure apply in this exceptional type of muddy going. a. Avoiding swamps. Boggy or swampy soil may usually be avoided. Every effort should be made to move over the highest ground available. b. Traction devices. The addition of dual wheels in front, traction bands, and any other aids which increase the wheel surface in contact with the ground are a distinct advantage. c. Personnel dismount. Personnel should dismount and assist with prolonges at critical points. d. Maintaining momentum. The main requirement in moving over a boggy piece of ground is to move over it rapidly without stopping. Wheel spinning should be kept at a miſl1murn. e. New tracks selected. The grassy crust may carry one vehicle but may not support another in the same track. Therefore each vehicle should follow a separate track. A guide should precede each vehicle on foot, locating the hard ground and guiding the driver carefully over the best route. * f. Stalling. When a vehicle comes to a traction stall, the clutch should be disengaged at once. No attempt should ever be made to move it without outside power. g. Towed loads. To pull towed loads, several trucks may sometimes be hooked in tandem; or they may be pulled abreast, with the towed load attached by a pulley sliding on a cable between the two trucks. - - 104. Gumbo and Other Sticky Soils. Gumbo and other sticky soils present a problem similar to that of boggy ground. In addition these soils give little traction and stick to the tires and wheels in great masses. Boards, shovels, knives, and the like may be fastened to cut the mud from the wheels. Whenever possible, old, hard-packed roads should be selected through these areas. 105. Passing Through Sand. Flotation in sand increases more or less below the surface. Usually sand will support a vehicle moving rapidly. However, traction is very limited because wheels are continually slipping. As soon as a drive wheel begins to spin it digs in fast. Although the difficulties in passing through sand vary between those described in paragraphs 102 and 103, several additional principles are possible in overcoming traction failures in sand: a. Increasing tire surface. In exceptional circumstances air pressure may be decreased in the tires to give sufficient flotation. b. Digging vehicle out. When the sand is somewhat encrusted below the surface, the vehicle will continue to creep while the wheels spin. As long as the vehicle con- tinues to move, the wheels may be kept slowly spinning, allowing the vehicle to dig itself out. c. Using same track. In order to reduce road friction, vehicles should follow exactly the tracks of the vehicle ahead. d. Making roads. Hog or chicken wire fencing staked on the surface of sand will usually make a satisfactory surface for movement of motor vehicles. 106. Driving on Snow and Ice. On soft snow flotation is at a minimum, while on ice traction is at a minimum. In addition to many of the principles already listed in paragraph 102, the following are applicable to winter driving: a. Traction aids. Chains on all wheels are usually the best safeguard in normal Aº CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES 373 winter driving. However, on ice they add little or no traction and are apt to give a false feeling of security, because they increase skidding. b. Moving over fresh snow. When breaking freshly fallen snow, manpower should be readily available to push the first vehicle or to tow it with prolonges where the snow is deep. Other vehicles, following exactly in track, usually move under their own power if they are able to gain momentum in approaching difficult slopes and crossings. c. Braking. The engine should be used as a brake. The driver shifts to a lower gear when more braking power is needed. When used, brakes should be applied lightly and released quickly if skidding begins. d. Accelerating. Rapid acceleration should not be attempted, as it may cause one drive wheel to spin, thus losing traction or causing skidding. e. Overcoming skidding. If skidding occurs, the brake or clutch should not be touched. The accelerator should gradually be released. The front wheels are turned in the same direction the hind wheels are skidding, so that the vehicle will be carried forward with the momentum in a straight line parallel to its original path. f. Holding vehicles on road. Where necessary, men with prolonges may hold vehicles on dangerous icy roads. 107. Crossing Ditches and Deep Ravines. a. Narrow or shallow ditches. Ditches in width up to nearly the diameter of the tire and wider shallow ditches should always be traversed at an angle, so that the drive wheel on one side will take hold of the far edge of the ditch at the same time that the opposite wheel is going into it. As this angle of crossing is a severe strain on the frame, springs, and driving mechanism, per- sonnel should be dismounted to assist by pushing at the critical point. Ditches must be crossed slowly. b. Wide ditches or ravines. When a ditch is wider than the diameter of the tire and deeper than the running board or undercarriage clearance, no attempt should be made to pass it until the banks are thrown in and the bottom filled up. Such ditches should be crossed at right angles. If they are wet, they should be approached slowly and the vehicle speeded up without wheel slipping just as the front wheels cross the lowest point. Tell-rope CreW Plate 43. Tackle for Deep Stream Crossing. 108. Fording Shallow Streams. Fordings should be attempted only after careful re- connaissance. The following points are to be observed: a. Cross slowly. As a rule nothing is to be gained by attempting to use momentum in crossing streams. They should be crossed slowly in a low gear. b. Disconnect fan. If there is any danger of the water surging or splashing to the 374 CARE AND OPERATION'-OF MOTOR. VEHICLES fan, it should be disconnected for the crossing, usually by loosening a bolt and raising the generator. d c. Dry brakes. After crossing a stream brakes should be applied intermittently until dry enough to hold. ! t * d. Check lubrication. At the first opportunity, wheels, crankcase, universal joint, differential, transmission, and subtransmission should be checked for proper lubrication. e. Exhaust manifold. If streams are wide, disconnect the exhaust manifold. 109. Deep-Stream Crossings. When the situation demands that streams too deep for fording be crossed, the first consideration should be to obtain ponton bridges, bridging materials, ferries, or rafts. However, even if none of these are available, motor vehicles can be taken across streams of almost any depth without serious damage if suitable precautions are taken. The tackle and tow indicated in Plate 43 are used. The vehicle must be properly prepared for submersion by closing all openings and removing such parts as will be seriously harmed or rendered inoperative by moisture. After crossing, the vehicle should be thoroughly serviced and water removed from units. 110. Bridges. Speed caution signs should be carefully observed, as well as the signs showing maximum capacity. When the capacity of a bridge is not sufficient, the towed load should be pulled across separately. Track-laying vehicles should be started across a bridge so that they will not have to be turned, because steering them places a severe strain on the bridge. w * , * * * - a-- * **** **" ºr w - - - a... it w * * ***** ***... . . . *\ta- zºº. Fºy -- - - - , “ . ********s, * * *. *a *~ : * ~3: “- ~ * ** * * * *... *$k *-* T - ------ee-w * At - ~~ * * ~ *-*.*.*.** ** . $5.2 * * * -r-, * . . ** < x . . $ *::::::::::: **": "…... -- ****, *.x: ºr **** *. ~5- -- * P —P- *~, '*- : . “...~ º “..., * ..., *. ’’--.. " " . *: Plate 44. Righting an Overturned Vehicle. 111. Driving on Curves. Skidding on slippery curves is avoided by a reduction of speed before the vehicle goes into the turn. The importance of this consideration de- pends upon two factors: - a. Centrifugal force, which tends to throw a vehicle to the outside of a curve, varies as the square of the speed. b. When the brakes are applied the weight of the load is shifted from the rear wheels to the front wheels, reducing the traction on the rear wheels and increasing the tendency to skid. When the brakes on a towed load are not applied, the tendency to skid is increased. - * f * = . . . . . . . * * * * * CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES 375 112. Negotiating Turns With a Towed Load. If a curve is too sharp for truck and towed load, it is usually possible to uncouple the truck and drive it around the turn, and then by use of a tow cable or block and tackle to pull the towed load around the tuſſl. - 113. Righting an Overturned Vehicle. (Plate 44.) In order to get a maximum lever- age on an overturned vehicle, a cradle of two ropes should be passed over the body of the vehicle, one in front of the windshield and the other in rear of the center of the vehicle. Both should preferably be tied to the body frame or spring shackle. Brakes should be applied before the vehicle is righted. Any of the towing means may be used on the ropes. Holding lines should be used to prevent damage to the vehicle from setting too rapidly. Before the vehicle is moved under its own power necessary oil and gas, battery and radiator water should be replaced, and a careful inspection should be made to determine the damage done. 114. Night Driving. a. Movements under cover of darkness are frequently necessary in order to escape observation and gain security. In forward areas, movements must be made without lights if casualties are to be minimized and secrecy preserved. Night movements are particularly difficult because of the limited control that can be exercised and the obstacles that must be overcome. Before such movements are undertaken, drivers should be given thorough training in marching, with and without lights. b. Training in night driving should start with empty vehicles operated over good roads with lights. Careful instructions should be issued and the road should be well marked. After the drivers have become reasonably skilled in driving with lights, they should be required to traverse the same route without lights. Provision should be made to prevent flashing of the stop light. The routes traversed should become progressively more difficult until drivers are proficient in handling their vehicles under all probable operating conditions. During this training, special attention should be paid to march discipline, to the prevention of smoking, and the use of lights. When a movement with lights is to be continued without lights, time should be allowed to accustom drivers' eyes to the changed conditions. 115. Loads and Loading. (Plate 45.) In order that vehicle capacity and cargo space may be efficiently used, it is necessary that drivers have a knowledge of loads and load- ing. The driver ordinarily should not be required to handle cargo during the loading and unloading operations, but he should be directly charged with the following responsi- bilities: a. Maximum authorized load not exceeded unless ordered by proper authority. The maximum pay load, road and cross-country, and the maximum tow load are shown on the vehicle name and caution plate. These loads should not be exceeded except in case of emergency, and then only when specially authorized. Lack of knowledge of cargo weight is not an acceptable excuse for overloading. When scales are not available and cargo weight is unknown, adherence to the following general rule will prevent overloading: The position of the rear springs should be determined with the maximum authorized load. The position of the spring ends below this line indicates that the vehicle is overloaded. - b. Proper location and reasonable distribution within the body. Efficient loading in- sures maximum use of cargo-carrying capacity and safety in transit. One loose piece of cargo may release an entire load; and, if the load is unbalanced, the vehicle is in danger of overturning, is difficult to handle, and is a menace to traffic. The following principles should be observed for correct loading: (1) Heavy supplies should be placed at the bottom of the load and properly dis- tributed. (2) In building up the load, place cargo carefully to avoid shifting and distribute the weight equally on both sides of the body. (3) Loads should not be built up too high. High loads cause swaying and danger of overturning and make the vehicle hard to handle. (4) If the truck is not a covered vehicle, a tarpaulin should be placed over the cargo as a protection against sun, dust, or rain. lº- * . $ \ ºs---> <--º • * [… tº Headed barrels—pyramid load- ing; tail gate lowered and tar- paulin partially cut to reveal manner Of loading. 2 ſº f & Tºrºſſrººtsiuniſºº; tºº. | . º ğ. ſº. tºº Bags and bundles—pyramid loading; tail gate lowered and tarpaulin partially cut to reveal manner of loading. º',' ºil '' º | "Wºº | Fº º '" º, º | | º *: º N | º |º Improper loading—load not ; | #. | balanced; tail gate not shown to lº | | | | reveal details of loading. | | || |; | | | § º --> º ºilſ; |||ſiſ) 3 * > # ºf --~. A 'º. º Keeping weight or cargo off ... 'ſ tall gate and preventing shifting of load; cutaway view showing load support inside vehicle, Plate 45. Loading of Vehicles. CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES 377 c. Proper security of the load to the body or to the pintle. (1) Loads built up above the top of the vehicle body should be securely lashed. The equipment for lashing loads on trucks consists of two 60-foot ropes which are sufficient for any ordinary cargo. Lash hooks or rings are usually provided on the bodies of cargo-carrying vehicles. The fol- lowing procedure should be followed when lashing the load: (a) Fasten the end of one rope to one of the front lash hooks or rings. (b) Pass the rope diagonally across the top of the load, through or under the second rope support, and pull the rope tight. (c) Pass the rope diagonally back across the top of the load, through or under the third rope support, and pull the rope tight. (d) Continue the process until the rear of the truck has been reached and secure the end of the rope. (e) Using the second rope, start at the other front corner of the truck and repeat the procedure, using alternate lash hooks or rings. (2) Towed loads are attached to their prime movers or towing vehicles by means of the lunette on the towed load placed in a pintle on the towing vehicle. The pintle latch must be closed and secured before the load is moved. d. Safety of the load in transit. After the load has been placed in or attached to his vehicle, the driver is responsible for its safety until the destination is reached. 116. Map Reading. Military motor vehicle drivers should receive sufficient instruction and training in map reading to enable them to follow routes on marked maps, to choose routes, and to recognize terrain features represented on topographic maps. Training should include the use of commercial highway maps, military topographic maps, airplane photographs, and mosaics. 117. Servicing. a. Servicing is defined as a check and necessary replenishment of gaso- line, oil in crankcase, water or antifreeze in cooling system, and air in tires. b. Precautions concerning the handling of gasoline must be rigidly enforced. When driver's trip tickets are used, the amount of gasoline should be entered on the ticket. c. In the replenishment of oil in the crankcase, the following rules should be observed: (1) Take every precaution to prevent dust and other foreign matter from entering the crankcase with the oil. Wipe out the oil measure, the spigot on the oil drum, the º: and the oil filler pipe with a clean cloth before refill oil touches any of the SUITI2CCS. (2) Pour only the proper amount of oil into the crankcase. Do not overfill. (3) Use the proper grade of oil for the season. (4) Do not mix different makes of oil. (5) Wipe off any oil spilled during refilling. (6) When the driver's trip ticket is used, the driver enters on the ticket the amount of replacement oil used. d. The water in the radiator should be maintained at the proper height below the overflow pipe. . A hot engine should be allowed to cool before any considerable quantity of water is added to the radiator or the engine should be allowed to run and the water added very slowly. In freezing temperatures, if no antifreeze is used, care must be exercised to prevent freezing. When the cooling system must be drained, it is necessary in most engines that the cylinder block as well as the radiator be drained. Clean water, preferably soft, should be used to fill the cooling system. If conditions make it necessary to use dirty water, the cooling system should be drained, flushed, and refilled with clean water at the earliest opportunity. 118. Lubrication. (See also Chapter X). a. In decentralized lubrication, the driver should be held responsible for the lubrication of all parts that cannot be damaged by overlubrication except those requiring special lubricants. Parts that should be lubricated by the driver include spring and spring shackle bolts, spring pivot seats, steering knuckle pivots, steering knuckle tie rod pins, steering gear connecting rod (draglink) ends, clutch and brake pedal and brake lever pivots and linkage, accelerator linkage, door hinges and locks, tail gate hinges, and other slow motion friction surfaces. 378 CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES b. Equipment furnished the driver includes a high, pressure lubricator and—an oilcan. The driver is responsible for the care and condition of this equipment. * * c. Lubrication should be performed in accordance with a lubrication schedule, and reports should be rendered by drivers when the lubrication is completed in order that proper records may be kept. Grease fittings and oil holes should be cleaned before lubricant is applied. Careful instruction and diligent supervision are necessary to as- sure good lubrication. Lubrication by the numbers is suggested as an effective method for teaching lubrication to untrained personnel. d. Lubrication by drivers involves the use of only two types of lubricant: oil and chassis lubricant. (1) The oil used for lubrication of linkages, hinges, etc., should be of the same grade as that used in the engine crankcase. º • (2) The chassis lubricant used on spring and spring shackle bolts, steering knuckle pivots, etc., is of semifluid grease usually having a brilliant color and stringy consist- ency. Drivers must be taught to distinguish between chassis lubricant and other types of lubricants. t 119. Tightening. a. The distinction between tightening and adjusting must be definitely understood, otherwise drivers will undertake operations which they do not have the knowledge, experience, or equipment to perform. In general, adjustment in- volves placing moving parts or assemblies in proper relative position and securing them in that position. Adjustments, except specified emergency adjustments, are prohibited to the driver. ? b. When a driver discovers a loose or lost nut, bolt, screw, stud, or cotter key, he should tighten or replace it unless the adjustment of a part or assembly is affected. If adjustment is involved, report should be made to the chief of section or other desig- nated individual. p c. A driver should be taught the correct use of the tools furnished for his use and the proper degree of tightness of the various nuts, bolts, and screws on his vehicle. If the drivers are not sufficiently skilled or if the proper tools are not furnished for their use, all tightening operations should be performed by the motor sergeant and mechanics. 120. Cleaning. a. A motor vehicle should be cleaned after operation to prevent harden- ing of dirt accumulations and to keep dust and other foreign particles from working into bearing surfaces. The body and exterior parts of the chassis should be washed, using a hose if available. Water should not be played on the engine as ignition troubles may result. Dirt should be wiped from the engine and its subunit assemblies. Gasoline should not be used to clean engines; cleaning solvent is recommended because of its greater safety. Gas and oil lines should not be polished. The use of paint on radiator cores is prohibked. b. Vehicles should be inspected before being washed, because of the greater ease in detecting loose parts and assemblies, broken dust films being the best evidence of loose- ness. Scheduled lubrication should be performed after washing so that any water or dirt which has entered bearing surfaces may be forced out by the pressure of the new lubricant. * 121. Care of Tools and Equipment. The driver is responsible that tools, spare parts, pioneer equipment, chains, traction devices, towing cables, paulins, and equipment fur- nished with his vehicle are in their proper places, are clean, and are in condition at all times for immediate use. Any equipment, which becomes unserviceable should be re- paired or replaced immediately. Shortages or unserviceable equipment should be reported to the chief of section or other designated individual. 122. Care of Tires. a. The chief responsibility of the driver in caring for tires is that of proper inflation. Tires should be inflated to recommended pressures and the pressure checked daily with a reliable gage. Air pressure cannot be determined satisfactorily by looking at the tire. b. In general, tires should be removed from their wheels at least yearly to permit con- ditioning of wheel rim surfaces. Rim surfaces should be cleaned and covered with CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES 379 a protective coating to prevent rust. Wheels, including spares, should be changed periodically to secure uniform tire wear and to maintain resiliency in the spare tires. c. When mounting tires on a motor vehicle, particular attention should be paid to sizes. In general, tires should be mounted in pairs. That is, tires of equal outside diameter should be mounted on the front wheels and those of equal outside diameter on the rear wheels of a 4 x'2 vehicle. However, on an all-wheel-drive vehicle without a center differential or other compensating device, all tires should have the same outside diameter. In order to 'maintain this condition after tires become worn, it may be necessary to transfer tires from one vehicle to another. d. When mounting dual tires, the worn tire should be placed on the inside. Tires differing more than one-half inch in outside diameter should not be mounted on the same wheel or on the same axle. e. Drivers' should be constantly alert to detect evidence of excessive or unusual tire wear. The most common causes of excessive tire wear are: (1) Improper inflation, including under and over inflation and bleeding. (2) Poor driving, including fast starting and stopping and improper use of brakes. (3) Rocks or other foreign material wedged between dual tires. (4) Misalinement. w (5) Overloading and improper loading. (6) Improper sizing of tires (different sized tires on the same axle, etc.). 123. Care of Storage Battery. The motor vehicle driver should have a general knowl- edge of the functioning of a storage battery. He should know the correct ammeter reading for proper functioning of the generator and the general procedure to be followed when any abnormal reading is observed. He should know how to use the storage battery so as to prolong its period of usefulness. The following care by the driver should be routine: a. Keep battery terminal connections clean and tight. Remove and clean corroded connections, using a weak alkaline solution if available. Dry the connections, apply a thin coating of vaseline or soft grease, replace and tighten the connections. Corroded terminal connections reduce storage battery efficiency and overload the generator. b. Keep the battery clean and securely clamped in the battery carrier. c. Inspect the height of the battery electrolyte each week during summer and each two weeks during winter seasons. If the electrolyte is below the prescribed level, report the fact to the chief of section or other designated individual. d. Report any unusual performance or battery condition immediately. 124. Duties During Scheduled Maintenance and Technical Inspections. a. Before his vehicle is submitted for scheduled maintenance or technical inspection, the driver should correct such mechanical defects as are within the limits of his ability and the tools and equipment provided for his use. The vehicle should not be cleaned unless it is excessively dirty, since the dust film aids the mechanics in detecting defects. b. The driver should report known mechanical defects which he is not authorized to correct and accompany his vehicle while it is undergoing scheduled maintenance or technical inspection in order to further his knowledge of the mechanical condition of the vehicle and to permit the motor officer, or his representative, to point out results of improper operation or vehicle abuse and take proper corrective action. Questions . How should brakes be applied? . When is the engine used as a brake? . Should the ignition be turned off when descending a hill? . What causes vapor lock? Under what conditions are the chains used? . Explain how you would take a truck through a, sand; b, swampy or boggy ground. . Explain how you would prepare a vehicle for deep stream crossing, and how you would take it across, i CHAPTER XV MARCHES 125. Characteristics of Motor Movements. The outstanding characteristics of modern motor movements are the tremendous distances over which immense tonnages may be transported and the great potential flexibility in the rates of march employed. The prin- cipal difficulties which such moves entail are those of control, communication, conceal- ment, length of columns, vulnerability to attack, defense, and dependence on technically correct supply and maintenance systems. g 126. Influence of Air and Mechanized Forces. The vulnerability of large-scale motor movements to aviation and the secrecy usually desired in such moves are frequently de- ciding factors in the selection of a suitable method of march. The threat of attack by hostile mechanized forces is to a lesser extent responsible for the march methods adopted. 127. March Discipline and Training. The very nature of modern motor movements, particularly the difficulties of control and communication, the sudden changes in orders, and the high rate of movement, as well as the amount of discretion and responsibility which must be left to subordinate commanders and even drivers, makes necessary a high degree of march discipline and training. 128. Principal Elements of Motor Movements. Some or all of the following elements may be essential in the successful execution of motor movements: a. In the selection of routes, avoiding stream lines, mountain passes, and similar terrain features which may be classified as natural bottle necks. b. Provision of suitable detachments of engineer ponton trains and pioneer troops. c. Provision of a suitable escort to protect against attack by aircraft or mechanized forces. t d. Adoption of a type of marching giving sufficient dispersion to avoid offering a profitable target whenever both air and ground escorts are insufficient to give air and ground superiority. e. Use of multiple columns in marching. f. Use of the necessary control personnel and plans to permit rapid rerouting of columns in case of emergency. g. Use of concealed bivouac or assembly areas in which to commence and terminate each movement, utilizing the minimum number of halts. h. Use of dispersed small bivouac or assembly areas. i. Prevention of massing of vehicles, particularly at the initial point, during halts, and at the entrance to bivouac or assembly areas. j. Measurement of distance in time rather than space in all staff planning. k. Thorough ground and air reconnaissance, to the extent time permits, of contemplated routes to include search for possible mining of roads and bridges. l. Provision of suitable radio equipment. m. Provision of sufficient motor maintenance facilities. 129. Definitions. Accordion action (whip). The variation of distances and speeds of vehicles within a column during movement. Arrival time. The time at which the head of a column, or specified element thereof, arrives at a designated point. Clean-up party. , Personnel under command of an officer who remain in camp after the departure of the main body to make the final police of camp. Clearance time. The time at which the tail of a column, or specified element thereof, completes passage by a designated point. Column. One or more march units, or serials, under one march commander, using the same route. Column commander. The senior officer with the column or the person designated by him to exercise command. Commander of troops. The officer in command of the unit being transported. He may be also the march or convoy commander. 380 CARE. AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES 381 Control car. The car which precedes a column, or element thereof, and sets the rate of march. . Control officer. An officer, usually the executive or second in command, who rides at the head of a column, or element thereof, and regulates the rate of march. Control point. A definite, easily identified and described reference location along a route of march, at which information and instructions are given in order to facilitate and regulate supply or traffic. Convoy. A group of motor vehicles organized to operate as a column for the purpose of transporting non-organic troops or supplies, in contra-distinction to organically motor- ized tactical units or supply trains. Convoy commander. The officer in charge of motor transportation and operating personnel of a convoy. Distance. The space from the rear of one vehicle (including towed load, if any) to the front of the next vehicle in the column; or the space from the rear element of a march unit or serial to the leading element of the following march unit or serial. Double banking. The act of overtaking and passing, or parking or moving abreast of, other traffic headed in the same direction on a roadway. Double staggered column. A two-lane column so arranged that the vehicles in one lane are opposite the spaces between vehicles in the other lane. Entrucking point or detrucking point. An easily recognizable location where the head of a motor column, or element thereof, halts for the loading, or unloading, of troops or supplies. Entrucking groups. Troops, matériel, or supplies properly disposed for loading at an entrucking point. Escort. Troops detailed to prevent interference with a motor movement by hostile air forces, by mechanized or other ground forces, or by other traffic. - Guard. An individual placed at a danger point, such as a railroad crossing or a turn into or off a main road, to prevent traffic accidents. Guide. An individual who leads or directs a unit or vehicle over a predetermined route or into a selected locality. Headway. The interval of time between individual vehicles, march units, serials, or columns, measured from head to head as they pass a given point. Initial point. (IP). An easily recognizable point at which a moving column, or element thereof, is formed by the successive arrival thereat of its various subdivisions. Lead. Linear spacing between the heads of successive vehicles, serials, march units, or columns. March discipline. That quality acquired through training and experience in marching which insures adequate march control; care of equipment: obedience to march restric. tions; proper conduct and performance of duty by individuals; correct formations, dis- tances, and speeds; and effective use of cover. March graph. A time-space diagram used in planning and controlling marches and in preparing or checking march tables. March order. An order issued by a commander, covering the details of a march. March report. An official report submitted at the end of a march. March table. A composite list showing the general organization and time and space schedule for a march movement. March unit. One or more motor vehicles under a single commander for purposes of march control. A company, troop, battery, or similar organization normally forms the march unit. Marker. An individual, distinctive sign, or notice placed at a critical location to in- dicate a position, direction, procedure, or obstacle. Mobility. Facility of, or capacity for, movement. Park. An area used for the purpose of servicing, maintaining, or parking vehicles. Pioneer work. Rough, hasty construction or demolition tasks executed to facilitate the movement of friendly troops or to impede the movement of hostile troops. 382 CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES Quartering party. Personnel, under the command of an officer, who precede the main body on the march and lay out the camp or make arrangements for shelter of the troops. Rate of march. The average speed of a column over a period of time including short periodic halts. Regulating point. An easily recognizable location where an incoming motor column, or element thereof, is separated into groups for movement to assembly or bivouac areas, or to entrucking or detrucking points. Release point. A location at which specified elements of a column revert to control of their respective commanders. Road block. Any obstacle which delays or prevents traffic movement on the road. Road space. (RS). The total length of roadway occupied by a column or element thereof. Road time. The total time a column or element thereof, requires to clear a given section of road. (Road time = time length -- time-distance between ends of the given section of road). Route marking party. , Personnel used to mark the route and to control traffic at congested points along the selected route of march. The party precedes the march column and is usually commanded by an officer. Serial. One or more march units, preferably with the same march characteristics, placed under one commander for march purposes. Shuttling. A system for moving troops or supplies when more than one trip is re- quired to complete the move. t Speed. A rate of travel, usually measured in miles per hour. Speedometer multiplier. Any number by which the speedometer reading is multiplied to determine the lead (usually in yards) between vehicles in open column. Strip map. A sketch or map, either schematic or drawn to scale, delineating a route to be followed. * Time-distance. The time required to move from one point to another. Time-gap. The interval of time, measured from tail to head, between successive vehicles, march units, serials, or columns as they move past a fixed point. Time length. (TL). The time required for a column, or element thereof, to pass a given point. Traffic block. Any use of a section or roadway by vehicles or traffic which prevents the passage of other vehicles or traffic in a specified direction. Traffic bottleneck. A section of traveled roadway having a greater traffic density or a smaller traffic capacity (capacity bottleneck) than that of the roadway or roadways leading thereto. Traffic capacity. The maximum traffic flow attainable with close column marching on a given roadway, using all available lanes. Traffic density. The number of vehicles per unit length of roadway (e.g. 75 vehicles per mile). Traffic flow. The number of vehicles that pass a given point within a given period of time (e.g., 500 vehicles per lane per hour). Trail car. The car carrying the trail officer. Trail officer. An officer, usually the motor maintenance officer, who rides at the rear of a column, or element thereof. Turn-around. A locality where the direction of march may be reversed. Vehicle commander. Usually the senior officer or man riding in the vehicle. Questions 1. What factors frequently decide the method of march? 2. Why is a high degree of march discipline and training necessary in motor move- ments? g 3. In selecting the route for a motor movement, what are some terrain features that should be avoided? 4. Define: convoy, double staggered, columns, entrucking and detrucking points, escort, initial point, march discipline, march graph, march order, regulating point, serial, shuttling, strip map, time distance, time interval, and time length. CHAPTER XVI TYPES OF MOVEMENTS 130. Infiltration (Type I). a. Description. Vehicles are dispatched individually or in small groups over a carefully marked route. Observation from the air should dis- close what appears to be only normal or routine traffic. b. Advantages. This type of march provides the best possible passive protection from hostile observation and attack. Under light traffic conditions, movement of individual vehicles is not affected materially by other vehicles in the column and is limited only by road conditions, vehicle mobility, and the training, experience, and physical condition of drivers. Thus, the rate of march is the highest practicable. Driver fatigue and the probability of accidents is reduced to a minimum. Since traffic density is normally very light, cross traffic can move without impeding the march. A traffic escort is not nor- mally required, although intersection control may be desirable. Operating conditions re- sulting from the employment of the infiltration type of march approximate those to which individual drivers are accustomed in civilian traffic. c. Disadvantages. Time length of column is greater than with any other type of march. Thus, in spite of a higher rate of march, the total road time for a column may be longer. Because of extended distances between vehicles, internal control of the column is extremely difficult. Since drivers are not always able to regulate their movements on the vehicle ahead, careful marking of the route is necessary to prevent individual ve- hicles from getting lost. d. Uses. When sufficient time and road space are available, this type of march is used to provide the maximum of secrecy, deception, and dispersion as a means of passive protection against enemy observation and attack. It is therefore well suited to daylight marches in the combat zone. Because an infiltration column provides a minimum of interference with other traffic and a higher average rate of march, it is likewise suitable for non-tactical motor movements in peacetime. 131. Close Column (Type II). a. Description. In this type of march, the column is formed as compactly as practicable in order to reduce its time length to a minimum. b. Advantages. For any given speed, time length and road space of column are re- duced to the minimum practicable, and the full traffic capacity of the road can be utilized. Because of the small headways between vehicles, column control and intra-column com- munication are the best obtainable. An aerial escort or active antiaircraft protection can be utilized to maximum advantage. Since time length of column is reduced to the minimum, short moves may be completed before enemy air units have time to strike. c. Disadvantages. This type of march does not provide dispersion for passive pro- tection against enemy observation and attack. The strength and type of organization are readily apparent to hostile observation. In most cases, vehicles will arrive at terminal areas faster than they can be handled without producing congestion. Careful scheduling and rigid control of traffic are required if dangerous jams at intersections are to be avoided. Intracolumn interference is particularly troublesome and slows down the rate of march of the column. b. Uses. Close column is used when a large volume of traffic must be moved over short distances in a minimum period of time. It is also applicable to short, high-speed movements from cover to cover when a minimum time of exposure may reduce the chances of discovery and attack, Normally, however, close column is not justified except when the column is protected by an aerial escort or is otherwise secure from hostile air attack. Close column may be useful for night moves under blackout conditions, par- ticularly over poorly marked routes, when it is essential that distances between vehicles be short enough to enable drivers to maintain contact with and follow the vehicle ahead. This type of march may sometimes be used for peacetime movements through cities or other congested areas, providing a traffic escort is available, the move has been coordi- nated with civilian traffic authorities, and the movement is important enough to warrant delaying civilian traffic. Because of the excessive intracolumn interference produced by 383 384 CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES close column marching, close column should never be used when open column will pro- vide the desired traffic flow. 132. Open Column (Type III). a. Description. This method is characterized by ap- proximately constant headways at all speeds, and by intervehicular leads that vary directly with speed of movement. The spacing of vehicles is a compromise between the maximum and minimum leads employed in march types I and II, respectively. b. Advantages. Open column provides the best possible compromise between the conflicting requirements of a large traffic flow (or short time length of column) and a wide dispersion of vehicles within the column. Intracolumn interference is minimized, and the rate of march is practically as high as in infiltration marching. Column control is not as good as with close column, but is much superior to that obtainable by infiltra- tion. Driver fatigue and probability of accident is much less pronounced than in close column marching. Because time interval between vehicles is greater than in close column, it is easier to direct units to alternate routes in an emergency. On dusty roads, open column gives drivers better vision and better control of their vehicles than if close column were used. c. Disadvantages. Because of the relative regularity of vehicle spacing, little secrecy is possible in moves of this type during daylight, and more losses will be suffered during aerial and mechanized attacks than will be the case with an infiltration column. Inter- vehicular headways in an open column are generally longer than in a close column, and consequently the full traffic capacity of the road is not utilized. Other traffic may be delayed, since headways are smaller than in infiltration marching and may not be suffi- cient to permit such traffic to pass through the column. Driver fatigue is greater than when infiltration marching is used, and drivers must be trained to estimate and main- tain the variable leads required. - d. Uses. Open column is particularly applicable to tactical moves which must be made during daylight without aerial escort and when time is so important that lack of secrecy and reasonable losses from attacks are acceptable. Sufficient dispersion may usually be prescribed to prevent simultaneous shelling or bombing of two or more vehicles. Open column may be used to advantage when moving with driving lights at night, or with blackout lights on moonlight nights. It is likewise applicable to non-tactical peacetime marches if drivers must depend on vehicle ahead for route guidance, or when volume of traffic to be moved precludes the use of infiltration march. 133. Shuttling. When repeated trips of the same vehicles are required in order to transport troops or supplies, a system of movement known as shuttling is employed. Any of the foregoing types of march, depending on traffic and tactical conditions, may be used for shuttling. This system is not well suited for the movement of troops to an area in which combat is imminent unless the force moved in the first trip is capable of sustained combat pending arrival of remainder of unit. The dumping of organic cargoes in order to move foot troops by shuttling, must be limited to those supplies not immediately needed in combat area. Terminals are selected so as to provide adequate turn-around facilities. The preparation of entrucking and detrucking tables will help eliminate delay and confusion at terminals; and the march graph will assist in scheduling the movement. Questions 1. What is the infiltration type of march (Type I)? 2. Discuss the close column type of march (Type II). 3. Discuss the open column type of march (Type III). CHAPTER XVII MARCH TECHNIQUE 134. Mechanics of Column Movement. a. General. Whenever the tactical situation permits, a march column should be made up of vehicles with similar march character- istics, even if this requires the temporary separation of a tactical unit into two or more independent columns. When the tactical situation demands that a column be composed of vehicles with differ- ent march characteristics, the rate of march of the column is governed by the performance of the slowest vehicle. For march control purposes, it is usually desirable to place the slowest vehicle at the head of the column. g b. Speed variance within the column. It is theoretically possible for an entire motor column to move at a constant speed. Practically, however, a column of any length will cover simultaneously many diverse stretches of road and incidents of terrain, including hills, sharp curves, dust clouds, and varying road surfaces. The result is that different parts of the column, regardless of traffic conditions and vehicle performance charac- teristics, move simultaneously at different speeds. This produces accordion-like action, and on a long hill or bad stretch of road, serious conditions may result. On the near side of the obstruction, a long and constantly increasing mass of vehicles will accumulate and on the far side, the column will be elongated (Plate 46, Fig. 1). c. Solution to problem of column movement at varying speeds. A long column can be held together under such conditions only by continuously adjusting the speed of the control car, and every succeeding vehicle in the column, to that of the vehicle moving at the slowest speed. Column compactness, if that is desired, can be attained only by sacrificing high rates of 1march. If compactness is not essential, the ideal type of column movement should be such as to permit each vehicle to pass over any given stretch of road at the same speed as the control car. This ideal can be approached by varying inter- vehicular distances to produce constant headways throughout the column at all speeds. (See Plate 46, Fig. 2) When this is done the rate of traffic flow up to a section of road, which must be traversed at a reduced speed, is made equivalent to the rate of traffic flow over and away from this section of road. Intracolumn interference is thereby elim- inated, and every vehicle in the column is enabled to move as rapidly as if there were no other vehicles on the road. In picking up speed after leaving the traffic bottleneck, the control car should increase its speed gradually, in order to mitigate the accordion action. If fixed intervehicular distances had been maintained by the column shown in Plate 48, figure 2, the entire column would have been forced to slow down as soon as the first vehicle began to ascend the hill. The slow movement would then have been continued until the last vehicle had completed its ascension of the hill. For a column 20 miles long, the result would have been to reduce the speed of every vehicle from 30 to 10 miles per hour over a road dis- tance of 20 miles. With the type of column movement actually shown in Plate 48, figure 2, on the other hand, the rate of march of each vehicle is reduced from 30 miles per hour to 10 miles per hour only while ascending the hill. The nearer the approach to constant headways throughout the column, the nearer will be the approach to the ideal type of column movement. 135. Infiltration. a. The route of march must be carefully marked, and every driver and front seat passenger should be given detailed instructions regarding it. A strip map should be provided for each vehicle. Complete operating instructions to include running speed, maximum speed, and restrictions on passing should be issued. Vehicles should be dispatched individually or in small groups of not more than 3 to 5 vehicles, and there should be no massing of vehicles which might disclose the movement to enemy observers. b. Deception may be further provided by intermingling various types of vehicles and by permitting passing within the column. In order to provide passive protection from enemy observation and attack, vehicles should normally be dispatched so as to produce an average traffic density (so far as the vehicles in the column are concerned) of not to FA2 (1) 385 386 CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES exceed 5 vehicles per mile. When more than one movement is taking place simultaneously over the same route, it may be necssary to coordinate the rates of dispatch in order to ob- tain desired dispersion. Dispatching is normally effected by company, troop, battery, or similar unit in accordance with the plan of the column commander. Staff control can be exercised at the initial point, but movements up to the initial point must be planned so as to avoid an excessive concentration of vehicles near this point. Vehicles accumulate on near side of hill at the ! On far side of hill rate of 210 vehicles per hour and are forced to slow ' vehicles race to close down before they begin to ascend the hill. up. Fºº —sº- SPEED 30 MILES PER HOUR | 10 MILES PER HOUR Nºrricular 53 YARDS | 22 YARDS INTERVEHICULAR 4.6 SECONDS HEADWAY 3.6 SECONDS | 6 S TRAFFIC FLOW 1000 VEHICLES PER HOUR | 790 VEHICLES PER HOUR Figure 1. Traffic flow is the same toward, through, and away from the hill. Therefore vehicles do not accumulate on the near side. | Se: —º. SPEED 30 MILES PER HOUR | 10 MILES PER HOUR | 30 MILES PER HOUR ROAD SPACE 150 YARDS | 50 YARDS | 150 YARDS Nºta: | 0.2 SECONDS 10.2 SECONDS | 10.2 SECONDS TRAFFIC FLOW 352 VEHICLES PER HOUR | 352 VEHICLES PER HOUR 352 VEHICLES PER HOUR | Figure 2. º Plate 46. Column Movements. c. Average headways between vehicles are determined initially by the rate at which vehicles are dispatched; thereafter, speeds and headways are regulated by individual drivers in conformity with operating instructions. These may include the use of a pre- scribed speedometer multiplier (open column marching) when slower speeds occur en route or minimum leads to avoid presenting remunerative targets from the air, orders of the vehicle commander, and instructions of traffic personnel. If it should become necessary for any part of the column to halt on the road, vehicles should stop and pull off the road as soon as need for the halt is detected, and if possible, maintain distances of not less than 100 yards. Supervision of movement is affected by stationing necessary control personnel along the route of march. In order to prevent massing of vehicles at CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES 387 or near the march destination, it is important that adequate guides and markers be posted to insure that vehicles disperse to their assigned areas with minimum delay. 136. Close Column. When time and road space permit, sufficient headways (1 to 3 minutes added to the time length of the preceding serial or march unit is normally ample) are prescribed between serials and march units to localize intracolumn interfer- ence, allow reasonably smooth marching, and provide a faster rate of march. If time or available road space makes it impracticable to divide the column into serials and march units, the entire column moves in one compact group as a single march unit (the so- called “follow me” method of marching). Within each march unit, drivers are in- structed to follow the vehicle ahead as closely as they think is reasonable and con- sistent with safe driving practices. For purposes of safety, a maximum speed (greater than the average running speed) is prescribed for vehicles regaining lost distances. Changes in speed should always be accomplished smoothly and gradually in order to insure safety and uniformity of column movement. At the halt, unless the tactical situation prohibits congestion, vehicles within each march unit should close up to a distance of approximately one yard between bumpers. March units and serials, however, do not close on the units ahead. If a multiple lane road is available for a movement in a single direction, any number of lanes may be employed. However, since vehicles in a close column operate at minimum headways possible, there can be no weaving or interchange of traffic between lanes. A traffic escort is necessary when close column marching is used. 137. Open Column. a. In order to give drivers a practical means of maintaining approximately constant time intervals or headways, at all speeds, the leads in yards be- tween vehicles in the column are indicated as the product of the speedometer reading by a specified number called the speedometer multiplier (sm). For example, the column commander might announce that the lead between vehicles will be twice the speed- ometer reading. At slower speeds and with smaller speedometer multipliers, it is im- possible to maintain the small leads necessary to provide constant headways; at higher speeds and with larger speedometer multipliers, intervehicular leads become so large that it is difficult for drivers to estimate them accurately. Whenever the former situation occurs during a march, drivers operate their vehicles as they would in a close column (unless dispersion is sought, in which event vehicles will not approach closer to other vehicles than a minimum prescribed distance); when the latter occurs, drivers should operate their vehicles as they would in an infiltration column until the preceding ve- hicle slows down sufficiently to permit resumption of reasonably accurate estimates of intervehicular distances. b. The selection of a specific speedometer multiplier for any particular stretch of road. way will ordinarily require a compromise between two mutually conflicting requirements. In the first place, it is desirable to increase intervehicular leads so as to avoid presenting a concentrated target to enemy attack. It is particularly desirable that vehicles never approach closer to each other on the road than the maximum diameter of the effective burst area of a shell or light bomb. (This diameter will generally not exceed 30 to 50 yards). In the second place, it is often necessary to reduce intervehicular leads in order to facilitate column control, decrease road time, minimize delay to cross traffic, or in- crease traffic flow through bottlenecks. c. Since intervehicular lead in open column marching varies directly as speed, the stretch of road at which the slowest speed occurs is the one which is critical in so far as dispersion of vehicles in the column is concerned. (Momentary halts or reductions in speed may be disregarded.) Hence, it is necessary to base the selection of a speedometer multiplier on the slowest speed expected between halts. Thus, desired minimum intervehicular lead slowest speed expected between halts For example, as a result of careful consideration of the requirements affecting the selec- tion of speedometer multipliers as indicated in subparagraph b. above, it is decided that vehicles should not approach closer than 35 yards. The slowest speed expected during the speedometer multiplier = 388 CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES next stage of an open column march is 10 miles per hour. Vehicles average 7 yards in length. The highest speed expected is 30 miles per hour. It is obvious that if an inter- vehicular lead of at least 42 yards is maintained at 10 miles per hour, sufficient lead will be provided at all speeds greater than 10 miles per hour. Hence, the speedometer mul- tiplier in this case should be 42/10 or 4. A speedometer multiplier of 5 would be pre- scribed. At 30 miles per hour intervehicular lead will be 150 yards. If prescribed maxi- mum time length of column will be exceeded by use of speedometer multiplier, a smaller sm, which will produce desired time length, is designated. It is often advisable to pre- scribe a minimum distance beyond which vehicles will not close either at the halt or while the column is in motion. d. In order to localize intracolumn interference resulting from inaccurate maintenance of intervehicular headways, it is desirable to have serials and march units move a specified number of minutes behind the head of the column. Vehicles do not close up at the halt, but stop with approximately the same spacing between vehicles as was being maintained just before the halt was executed. s e. If it becomes necessary or desirable to reduce the time length of a march unit while it is in motion, the march unit commander can indicate a smaller speedometer multiplier. When this is done, the head of the march unit should slow down or stop until the tail of the unit has been able to close up sufficiently to observe the smaller speedometer mul- tiplier. This time should be approximately equal to the desired reduction in time length. When it becomes necessary or desirable to increase the time length, this may be accom- plished by indicating a larger speedometer multiplier. Before the time-length is increased, the march unit commander should make certain that there is sufficient time-interval be- tween the rear of his unit and the head of the following unit to absorb the increase. The march unit control car should then continue the march at the fastest safe speed, each following vehicle slowing down until it is following the car ahead by the desired distance. f. When protective dispersion is not necessary (e.g., during peacetime marches or under conditions of friendly air superiority) a doubled staggered formation may be used. g. A traffic escort is required for an open column, except where other traffic on the route of march is lignt. 138. Shuttling. a. There are two general methods by which shuttling may be per- formed. In the first method, troops or supplies may be transported over the entire distance between the origin and the final destination. This is the normal method of shuttling and the only method applicable to the movement of supplies. It is easy on the troops to be moved, and it eliminates uncertainty in making contact with troops once they start out on the road on foot. Total time required for shuttling by this method is somewhat greater than by other methods, but in most tactical movements time saved by having troops march part of the way on foot is negligible and usually does not justify the complicated planning required. b. Sometimes it may be desirable to have troops march part of the way on foot. In this case, the truck column on its first trip will stop short of the destination at a pre- viously reconnoitered turn-around. The troops detruck and march the remaining dis- tance on foot. Meanwhile the troops to be transported on the second trip start off on foot as soon as the truck column clears the original entrucking point with its first load. The trucks which transported the first load of troops, after turning around, then move back along the line of march or on parallel routes, pick up the second load of troops, and transport them to a second detrucking point nearer to the destination than was the first. The process is continued until the last load is picked up and transported to the final destination. c. This latter method of shuttling has the advantage of reducing the total time re. quired for the movement and truck mileage with consequent savings in gas and oil. Its disadvantages are lack of simplicity and greater troop fatigue. This shuttling procedure may be varied by having the truck column return all the way to the origin to pick up loads after discharging preceding loads at previously reconnoitered turn-arounds short of the destination; or by having the truck column transport the first load direct from the origin to the destination and on the subsequent trips proceed all the way to the destina- CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR vEHICLES 389 tion after picking up troops who have meanwhile proceeded on foot along the route of march. Questions 1. What determines speed and headways in infiltration marches? 2. How are intervehicular distances prescribed in close column marches? 3. How may time-length of a column be decreased in open column marches? CHAPTER XVIII ORGANIZATION FOR A MARCH 139. Command. a. Organically motorized tactical units. Movements of organically motorized tactical units are made under the direction and supervision of the senior commander in the column. b. Organic supply column. Motorized columns carrying organic equipment and supplies likewise move under the command of the senior officer or noncommissioned officer present in the column, and each individual vehicle is commanded by the senior officer or man riding therein. c. Convoys. Movements of troops or supplies in nonorganic vehicles are in absence of orders to the contrary, commanded by the senior line officer present. In this case the motor transport officer accompanying the vehicles acts only as technical adviser to the commanding officer of troops. However, if the troop or supply movement is being handled by the staff of a higher headquarters as part of a large move, command arrange- ments are as follows: (1) The motor-transport units are organized, staffed and a commander of troops and a convoy commander are designated, by the higher headquarters ordering the move. (2) The convoy commander designated by such orders is responsible both for the technical operations of vehicles and for the movement of the column. Orders to convoy- operating personnel in this case are given only by the convoy commander and his assistants. (3) The commander of troops exercises no control over the movements of the convoy or of individual vehicles, except in a tactical situation; then the decision rests solely with him. The troop commander is in all situations responsible for the administration and discipline of the troops being transported. (4) Whenever a tactical situation can be foreseen, the senior combat troop com- mander will be placed in command of the convoy, the motor-transport officer acting as his technical adviser. - 140. Command and Staff of a Convoy. The commander of a motorized regiment or other large convoy should be assisted by competent staff officers in handling the details of the movement. He may designate a staff officer, usually the executive officer, as convoy commander. Ordinarily, the following staff should be employed: a. Adjutant. The adjutant handles the routine administrative paper work and the mail service. b. Operations officer. The operations officer handles details connected with the actual operations of the convoy, such as preparing plans, march tables, march graphs, and drafts of move orders. c. Supply officer. The supply officer handles details of supply except those for which the mess officer is responsible. . He may be charged also with responsibility for cargo loads. In general, he handles fuels, lubricants, spare parts, clothing, and equipment. d. Mess officer. A mess officer is usually detailed when all messing facilities for the convoy are to be consolidated. * e. Advance agent. An advance agent (or reconnaissance officer) handles all advance arrangements. He makes reconnaissance, locates detours, selects alternate routes when necessary, and posts markers. He also provides for billeting or bivouac of troops at destination. f. Maintenance officer. The maintenance officer is the technical inspector responsible for the mechanical and operating condition of the rolling equipment. 390 CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES 141. Classification of Convoys. Convoys may be classified as follows: a. According to their loads, they are known as troop or supply convoys. b. According to their type of vehicles, they are classified as light, medium, or heavy convoys. c. According to the service of their vehicles, they may be classified as- (1) Train convoys made up from trains. (2) Provisional convoys made up from either military vehicles not ordinarily formed as such, or vehicles from nonmilitary sources. 142. Organization of Motor Movements. In motor movements of both tactical units and convoys in the combat zone, the organization into columns, serials, and march units is determined by the mission, the tactical situation, the road net, and the equipment of the units concerned. Logistical considerations, for instance, may dictate the separation of tactical units into speed columns and heavy columns. 143. Considerations. The type of march to suit the tactical situation may affect the organization of the movement. For instance, secrecy may dictate a movement by in- filtration where identity of units is sacrificed. b. Action imminent. Whenever a move terminates in areas where action is imminent tactical organization takes precedence over all other considerations. Here the cohesion and unity of action possible only to an organization knit together by association and arduous training become all important. c. Variations. With the many variations of march organization open to the staff planning the move, the final choice should be made only after a careful study of the particular situation. 144. Details. The details given below must be considered in planning a motor move- ment. Depending on the conditions under which any particular movement is made, it may be practicable to combine one or more of the groups outlined. 145. Reconnaissance Party. Where practicable, reconnaissance prior to any motor movement is advisable. 146. Pioneer Work. The necessary pioneer work in preparing the route is usually accomplished by engineer troops. Lacking these, this important work must be per- formed by the units making the march. The requirements for this work vary greatly. They are negligible when moving over primary highways but become extremely heavy when moving over routes recently in possession of the enemy. In any case an estimate must be made of the necessary personnel, tools, material, and time for elimination and reduction of obstacles. a. Equipment. Personnel and equipment for pioneer parties are based on an esti- mate of the road work that will be required. (1) Each vehicle in the military service should carry some pioneer tools and equipment to assist in crossing difficult terrain. These will vary according to Tables of Basic Allowances. In general, the allowances will permit the following equipment per vehicle: pick shovel tow chain or cable prolonge 2XC bucket set skid chains set strap-on emergency chains . One or more vehicles in a march unit should carry additional equipment for the pioneer party. This equipment is usually carried on the trouble trucks of organizations not equipped with transportation for this purpose. The following will serve as a guide for loading a pioneer truck: 1 set, vehicle tools 1 winch, if available, with 300 feet of cable 1 block and tackle, (with 300 feet 1-inch rope) (if winch is not available) CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES : 391 2 pieces tow rope, 1-inch, 150 feet long 1%-inch or larger cable 300 feet long (if winch is not available) 2 towing bars, universal 1 jack (in addition to the one assigned to the vehicle) 2 planks for jack bases 2" by 12" by 2' 2 shovels 2 wire cutters 1 pick 2 axes 2 sledges 2 crowbars 1 rectangular timber about 4" by 6" by 6' railroad tie, steel rail or I-beam (suitable for deadman or wheel block) 1 keg of nails 60d 300 feet 12-gage wire 2 hammers, claw 1 saw, crosscut, 2-man 2 tow chains (each about 15 feet long) - 4 I-beams or channels heavy enough to carry the heaviest loaded vehicle over an 8-foot span, or sufficient timbers for the same purpose. 4 wheel mats, canvas or braided rope, 3' x 6' 1000 sand bags - 1 roll of heavy chicken wire 1 roll of burlap 500 pounds decontaminating material 1 apparatus, demustardizing 1 squad set, engineer demolition equipment b. Duties. The principal operations performed by a pioneer party are as follows: (1) Large obstacles such as rocks, logs, stumps, trees, and holes which cannot be detoured are eliminated. Buried mines are detected and removed. (2) Soft surfaces such as sand, marshes, or loose soil are strengthened by covering with logs, planks, brush, rocks, wheel mats, cornstalks, hay, or like materials. Sand may be covered with chicken netting or tar paper. (3) Ice-covered winter roads are covered with sand or dirt. (4) Ravines and ditches are made passable by breaking down steep banks suffi- ciently so that running boards, lower parts of the chassis, overhanging front or rear portion of the body, or the spade of a towed gun trail will not hang on the banks. When wet, the bottoms of ditches are strengthened to withstand the wheel impact and spin of heavy vehicles. Logs, rocks, brush, sacks of dirt, etc., are used to fill in; planks or logs are used to bridge across. These materials are secured so that they cannot be displaced. (5) Shallow stream crossings with good approaches and solid bottoms are chosen. Steep approaches are cleared straight down so that there will be no danger of side slipping. Traction is increased where banks are soft or slippery. If this cannot be done sufficiently with brush, hay, etc., ramps may be built with poles. Loose dirt is never added on slippery approaches, in holes, or on steep ascents, because it reduces traction. Rocky creek bottoms are checked carefully against dangerous obstructions. If there are holes or if the bottom is soft, rocks, brush in fascines, or logs are used to fill in and increase flotation. (6) On steep ascents or descents or where a deep crossing is required tackle is placed in position. (7) Bridges which are found to be weak are usually strengthened by the addition of a bent, a single support, or stringers. Where there is danger of loads breaking through the flooring, additional planks are laid along the wheel tracks to distribute the load. Joints are staggered and planks are nailed down. Wheel guides of heavy 392 CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES timbers, ties, or poles are secured near the safe edge of the bridge to prevent vehicles from running off. (Plate 47.) . . . . (8) Rafts are usually built for crossing navigable waters where bridges, engineer equipment, or commercial ferries are not available. Simple rafts large enough to ferry trucks and their towed loads can be built from boats, oil drums, logs, and timbers. -----------" " ** -- ~~~~ - - - * * ...~~.”* . ...º-º-º: “*” . A trºtº- * 2-tº-º-º: ~s ‘...--> x-t tº • - ... .º. º. --> * sºst “ -:…?'... * * ---->, >..... …, ****.*.*.*, > *-*.*.*... ******~~..., *-ºs-r **t, * *S*::::... e *:x. . * * * * * *::::::… :s: **…-- *S. < * *:::::::: ,-- “’sº, tº ****. - ******* *...*&^*.*.*.** **, *** sº. S****::::::::... ºs Pigure 2. Single Support. Plate 47. Reinforcing Bridges. Twenty-five 50-gallon drums floated between the cross timbers of a platform will give a capacity of about 10,000 pounds. The outside or end drums may best be lashed to the platform. Care must be taken that the drums are sealed. In crossing a flowing stream a raft may best be utilized as either a trail or flying ferry. In the first method the raft is attached so it will slide along a cable which is run across the river and fastened to either bank. In streams where the current is faster the raft is attached to a long cable which is anchored upstream. In either method ropes are attached from CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES 393 both shores to pull the ferry back and forth. Trucks may be placed on paulins, wrapped up, pushed off and floated over. On landing, the trucks are unwrapped and driven or winched out. (9) Barbed-wire entanglements are cut out and towed away by means of a smooth wire or chain passed around them. In an emergency a truck can go through en- tanglements under 4 feet high with a fairly good chance of success but with some damage. (10) Sections of road and bridges which have been sprayed with persistent chemical agents are decontaminated. Where decontamination is not immediately practicable, de- tours are selected. (11) Paths are cleared and marked though land mines, or detours are selected. (12) Obstacles are placed to delay the enemy in a withdrawal. Reinforcing stringer added Figure 3. Added Stringer. f º - t * : #, 5-y * - .*** - * **** : ***** **** *3. $, \, 2! *3. ,--~~~~, . .” -- ^.,x^-y-...s. -", sº-Tº-A * *** --~~~~ *...*-. sº *sº *%-->4 ^******** ***::::::::::::------... | ******-v-----...-------, -- we -- ... --- ~~~~ * * "-- : *** **, *a** .. **** ... ... .º.º. - “-º-º-º-º----- .” * ~~~~~ *. .*.***** 3. •º - f **~~~.... **, 3: **:...' - **. *...** - ...º." | - w * ...rº --- , Wheel guard º:...” ~" ; : º ; *\, ?... ." 3. *... *s * Jº - 2-Reinforcing planks A joints sigggered * 24 Figure 4. Additional Planking and Wheel Guards. Plate 47. Reinforcing Bridges–Continued. 147. Route Marking. Proper route marking, especially if the infiltration type of march is employed, is important. Even though the primary highway signs, flags, and luminous markers have their proper uses, a certain amount of personnel is usually necessary for marking the route. The detail should be carefully organized and in- structed. 394 CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES 148. Traffic Control. To provide for such contingencies as bombing of bridges, artillery fire, and changes in orders, all of which necessitate rapid rerouting, a series of control points interconnected by communication may be necessary. Under other cir- cumstances, traffic personnel such as military police and motorcycle messengers may be required to supplement the route marking detail. 149. Quartering Party. The early dispatch of a quartering party is important. Its mission is to lay out the bivouac or assembly areas at the march destination and to guide units as they arrive at a selected release point to these exact areas. It also prepares a plan for suitable disposal of available antitank weapons for the antitank defense of the area, as well as similar provisions for the antiaircraft defense. Suitable personnel for this party usuallv include an assistant S-3 and one other officer from the battalion staff, an agent or guide from each company or battery, and the necessary enlisted men, drivers, and mechanics. In moves of a division, regimental representatives only will be re- quired. 150. Command and Communication. a. The exercise of command over a long, fast-moving motor column is difficult compared to that of columns composed of foot elements and animals. The sudden attacks to which it is subject and the destruction of bridges and roads all combine to make reliable communication agencies a necessity. When the tactical situation prohibits the use of radio, airplanes and motor messengers must be depended upon for transmission of orders. Whcn the use of radio is permissible, provision should be made to make full advantage of it. b. A chain of control points connected by radio or commercial telephone or telegraph is often a necessity, particularly when infiltration moves are in progress. Traffic personnel may also be employed to assist in communication. Two command echelons should be organized. The forward echelon should consist of the column commander, part of his headquarters personnel, and representatives from each battalion or similar unit. In moves of a division, regimental representatives only would be required. The commander with his echelon is free to move where he chooses. Because of the length of the column, it is usually impossible for him to make passages of the col.imn, and his echelon will usually be found near the head of the column. In certain situations he may move directly to the new assembly area. It is important that he be far enough to the front to render decisions as the situation requires. c. The second echelon will consist of the executive officer, the remainder of the headquarters staff not elsewhere employed, and representatives from each subordinate unit. The second echelon, in case of marches of the infiltration type, will at first supervise the dispatch of vehicles and later patrol a sufficient part of the route or routes to insure proper movement of vehicles. In movement of a column or columns the executive or his representatives will ride in control cars at the heads of columns, directing the speed and routes to be followed. This group is also responsible that the time the control car passes markers or prominent landmarks is made known to march unit commanders every 15 to 20 minutes, either by use of radio, time blackboards, or an- nouncement by the marker by voice. Their other duties are to take charge of the arrangements for any unforeseen detouring, to take necessarv action in case of mech- anized or aircraft attack, to superintend the halting and refueling of the columns, and to enforce march discipline. 151. Evacuation of Bivouac Areas and Supervision of the Tail of Columns. The proper supervision of evacuation of bivouac areas and of the rear of moving columns must be delegated to specified officers and men, since the length and speed of columns prevent these functions from being executed by members of the column proper. a. Clean-up party. Sufficient personnel to inspect bivouac areas and halt sites after they are vacated by the column and to correct and report any deficiencies must be provided. In peacetime where camp sites are leased, it would be the function of the officer with this party to complete the necessary paper work with the property owners. b. Salvage of disabled vehicles. Another function of this group is the salvage of disabled vehicles. c. After completing his duties at the bivouac areas, the officer in charge and his detail join the tail of the column or columns just ahead of the motor maintenance CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES 395 section. His duties then are the investigation of accidents en route, and the inspection of damage to roads and bridges in peacetime. d. Trail officers. The column (serial or march unit) trail officer marches at the rear of the column (or element thereof). His job requires considerable skill and good judg- ment, as well as a thorough knowledge of motor transport technique. For this reason, an experienced motor officer or transport officer is usually selected. Trail officers usually perform the following duties: Dispatch individual vehicles, march units, or serials from the column (serial or march unit) initial point. & Report location of tail of column (or element thereof) to their respective control officers when called on to do so. Inspect disabled vehicles and decide whether to abandon them or take them in tow. Note infractions of march discipline, and when necessary take immediate corrective aCtlCIl. RJ 456 Destinotion No doylight movement ond CR 345 no on vehicles ime intet vol ollowed to reduce chonce of conflict between 7O CR 234 —5C) | LENGTH is A | 4 O 193 motor vehicles ve ot 600 per hour Q9 'E 3O O = 19.3 or 20 minutes .g 3d FA Qº 237 motor vehicles & = 23.7 or 25 minutes 5 20 &S |O O Indicotes in Morch Order CR 123 (Po 2 3 4 8 9 |O PM Plate 48. March Graph. Prevent vehicles or other columns from passing from the rear whenever this operation presents a traffic hazard. When column halts, post necessary guards, warning flags, caution lights, or flares to warn traffic approaching from the rear. The column trail officer picks up and, as soon as practicable, returns to the head of the column all guides and markers distributed by preceding elements of the column. 152. Daily Time Schedule. a. In day to day operation of a motor convoy, the follow- ing may be considered as a reasonable guide and schedule: - (1) Preparation for starting (includes reveille, breakfast, breaking camp, police of area) and vehicle inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 hour. (2) Operating or running time (includes all halts, except noon meals) . . . .8 hours. (3) Refueling and servicing vehicles and noon meal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 hour. 396 CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES: (4) At destination; inspecting and servicing vehicles, making camp, and SUPPtſ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 hours. b. It is noted that motor personnel operating convoys on a day to day basis must have about 4 hours for starting, for meals and refueling, for inspection and servicing, and for settling at the new camp site or bivouac. Loading and unloading time for cargo is not included. 153. March Graph. To avoid physical fatigue of operating personnel with all the harm- ful effects that may arise, such as traffic congestion, accidents, lack of alertness, vehicle damages, troops not being in condition, etc., it is advisable to plan the daily operating schedule so as to avoid unduly long hours of operations. A march graph (Plate 48) should be prepared for any day's run, showing daily estimated mileage and probable operating time. This graph, when used also to plot actual mileage and operating time, furnishes an instantaneous comparison of actual mileage and running time with original estimates. 154. Halts. a. Halts en route are usually made to provide for physical relief of per- sonnel, for a check of gasoline, oil, and water of vehicles, and for making such mechan- ical adjustments or corrections as may be advisable. Usually these road halts are made for about 15 minutes after the first hour from initial point (or point of origin) and for about 10 minutes every two hours thereafter. b. Selection of the places for halting must consider availability of wooded or sheltered areas, avoiding stops or grades, turns, and curves, possibility of enemy action, and con- dition of troops. Questions 1. How are convoys classified? 2. Name three general methods of supporting weak bridges? 3. How would you build a simple raft for ferrying trucks across a navigable stream? CHAPTER XIX PROTECTIVE MEASURES 155. Scope. This chapter describes various methods and techniques that may be used to avoid or minimize special hazards affecting motor transport. The general principles only are contained herein; their application in a particular situation will be materially affected by the composition of the motor column, by its mission, and by protective means on hand. 156. Defense of Motor Transport. Normally, a troop movement by motor should not be attempted except when the area into which the movement is to be made has already been secured, or when sufficient mechanized vehicles are available to permit the em- ployment of mechanized security detachments capable of clearing the route of minor resistance encountered. Motor transport is particularly vulnerable to enemy attack at locations along the road where congestion is most likely to occur and where traffic density and traffic flow are greatest. Both active and passive defense measures should be utilized at these locations. 157. Protection for Individuals. Narrow trenches or individual pits dug in the ground provide cover for personnel against shells, air bombs, or machine gun fire; if of proper depth and in firm soil these will be passed over by track vehicles without crushing occu- pants. (See FM 5-15.) © 158. Camouflage. a. General. Camouflage can be accomplished by hiding, blending, or deceiving (see FM 5-20). b. Terminal areas. (1) Stationary vehicles can best be camouflaged by placing them under natural vegetation in such a way as to break up the regular pattern of shadows produced by vehicles and by covering all parts likely to cast a noticeable reflection of light. When natural concealment is not available, some protection can be obtained by using fish nets or chicken wire properly garnished with artificial garnishing material or natural vegetation. Care must be taken, however, that color and texture blend with the surrounding area. CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES 397. (2) Strict camouflage discipline must be maintained to prevent the formation of tracks or paths indicating the location of camouflaged vehicles and terminal installations. Existing paths should be wired in to prevent changes that would be readily apparent to enemy observation. Tracks made by the vehicles themselves should be carried be- yond the actual location of the vehicle so as not to end abruptly and thus call attention to the presence of the vehicle. Any tendency toward formation of geometric patterns in the parking of vehicles should be avoided. All visible movement must be stopped when enemy aircraft are in the vicinity. (3) When snow is on the ground, white sheets may be of some value for camouflage purposes. Their use is effective, however, only when strict camouflage discipline is enforced, since wheel tracks, paths, and discoloration show up very readily on snow. c. Moving vehicles. Moving vehicles cannot be successfully camouflaged artificially. However, movements may often be routed over roads which are concealed by natural vegetation. If dusty roads are avoided, the chance of the enemy's detecting a motor movement will be minimized. In a stabilized situation, artificial road screens will conceal the nature and extent of road movements from hostile ground or balloon observers. 159. Control of Communications. Enforcement of strict radio silence may often be necessary in order to prevent hostile radio intercept service from locating motor trans- port movements. Even when strict radio silence is not essential, care should be taken that radios do not provide important information to the enemy. Communication by wire is likewise often subject to enemy interception, especially when enemy mechanized units are known to be operating in the area. Whether radio or wire communication is used, therefore, it is desirable to set up a prearranged code for use in transmitting in- formation of traffic movements. e 160. Blackout Restrictions. Restrictions on use of lights are required to provide secrecy and concealment at night. To prevent light from any source being observed, there must be no smoking or lighting of matches during marches made under blackout conditions. Flashlights, headlights, and vehicle parts that might reflect light should be covered. Special blackout lighting equipment has been devised to facilitate movement under these conditions, but in close proximity to the enemy use of any lights whatsoever may be inadvisable. Blackout restrictions are usually covered in the traffic paragraph of the administrative order. They may be repeated in paragraph 3x of the march order. 161. Protection of Pneumatic Tires. Enemy eſforts to obstruct roads and delay move- ments of pneumatic-tired vehicles may sometimes include the scattering of broken glass, planks studded with nails, sharp pieces of metal, or specially designed multipronged spikes along the road. Methods of protecting motor transport from such obstructions may include the following: a. Use of electromagnetic sweepers to clear the road of magnetic materials. b. Use of mechanical brooms to sweep up both magnetic and nonmagnetic materials. c. Use of improvised scrapers or sweepers attached at an angle on the front of a truck. d. Use of “puncture proof” tires with periodic inspections and cleaning of such tires at frequent intervals. 162. Protection From Mines. a. Detection. Antitank and trap mines are likely to be encountered when entering areas recently evacuated by the enemy. Mines can some- times be discovered from a study of aerial photographs. Spoil from mine burial, patterns of mine fields, tracks, paths, and other signs of activity may help to betray the presence of concealed mines. Electrical or magnetic mine detectors, if available, are useful for locating individual mines. Forks, sticks, grapnel lines, probes, and similar equipment are used by mine clearing parties (see FM 5-30). b. Removal. Engineers and pioneer parties should be specially trained to discover and remove mines from the roadway. Inexperienced personnel who locate a mine should not disturb it except in an emergency, but should post a sentry or sign to warn passing traffic until trained personnel are available to remove the mine or destroy it. Special mine sweepers such as a heavy road roller pushed in front of a tank or other vehicle provide the safest method for destroying antitank mines. Bangalore torpedoes and detonating nets made of detonating cord can be used as a rapid means for clearing 398 CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES a path through mine fields. (See FM 5-30). Fuzes should be removed immediately from a mine picked up by hand. If impossible to clear the entire road of mines, one lane should be cleared and the other barricaded and well marked. Holes caused by removal of mines should be refilled to restore the road surlace to proper condition for vehicular use. 163. Warning Signals. Aircraft may give warning of impending danger by means of wing signals, flares, dropped messages, or radio. Security detachments may use radio, pyrotechnics, or sound signals. Within the motor column, warning of air or mechan- ized attack may be given by three long blasts of horn, whistle, siren, or klaxon, repeated several times; or three equally spaced shots with rifle or pistol; or three short bursts of fire from machine gun or submachine gun. An “all clear” signal should be specified to indicate when the danger is over. Only specifically authorized officers in the column initiate the “all clear” signal. 164. Antiaircraft Defense. (see TF 7-109). Antiaircraft defense of motor transport comprises all measures adopted to prevent or minimize the eſccts of enemy air opera- tions against motor vehicles and their assigned personnel and cargoes. To achieve maximum results, coordinated and timely use must be made of all measures applicable; and all troops should participate in either a passive or active capacity. 165. Aircraft Warning Service. a. General. Speed of air operations makes it imperative that early information be obtained and timely warning given of approach of enemy air forces. Any plan for the defense of motor transport which does not include a suitable warning service is inadequate. The column commander should be directly connected by radio or other means to the aircraft warning service covering the arca through which the march is being conducted, and he should be provided with suitable means for alerting various elements of the column. The length of time required for a column to meet an attack varies between wide limits depending on what defense measures are employed. A few seconds warning is sufficient for antiaircraft artillery machine guns mounted in trucks and for other antiaircraft artillery units in position; this warning likewise is sufficient for troops marching in trucks with tarpaulin covers removed. However, at least a minute or more will be required to permit motor transport to clear the road and take cover. b. Local warning systems. Local measures for warning of the approach of hostile aircraft may include the use of friendly airplanes, the antiaircraft artillery intelligence service, and the posting of local air guards and air guard observers throughout the moving column (or in terminal areas) and at vantage points to the front, rear, and flanks. c. Aviation. Reconnaissance and observation aviation properly employed provide an effective means for discovering and transmitting warning of the approach of hostile aircraft. d. Antiaircraft artillery intelligence service. When antiaircraft artillery is employed for protecting critical points on the road net, the antiaircraft artillery intelligence service, in addition to alerting elements of the antiaircraft artillery, can be used to supplement the system of observation designed specifically for the protection of motor columns or terminal areas. e. Air guards and air guard observers. Posting of air guards and air guard observers places responsibility for warning on designated individuals whose sole duty is con- tinuous observation. Frequent relief of personnel is essential in order to insure alertness in the performance of this duty. Air guards should be posted to front and rear and on both flanks of the column (or terminal area) and made responsible for observation within a specified sector. If security detachments are used, air guards normally are provided by these detachments. . Air guards should be particularly alert to attacks that might come from direction of the sun. In cloudy weather, attacks are most likely to come from fast, low flying, light bombardment planes. By day, air guards should be equipped with dark glasses to permit them to observe for long periods against a bright sky or directly into the sun; night glasses will assist them at night. In order to provide continuous observation, air guards for a moving column move by bounds from one good observation post to another. It is important that air guards be thoroughly trained in CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES • 399 recognition of hostile and friendly aircraft (see FM 30-30, 30-34, 30-35, and 30-38), and in maintaining a constant lookout for warning signals transmitted by air guards, by friendly aircraft, or by the antiaircraft artillery intelligence service. 166. Passive Defense. a. Concealment. Concealment may be used to afford protection from attack by offering a less definitely designated target. Concealment may be ob- tained by artificial camouflage, use of wooded areas, taking advantage of darkness or weather conditions unfavorable to enemy air operations, use of smoke, employment of blackout lights or extinguishing all lights, and limitations of movement. b. Dispersion. Dispersion can be used to reduce vulnerability to air attack by limit- ing the number of elements which can be damaged by a single bomb or burst of fire. A column moving with extended headways presents an unfavorable target for combat aviation and forces such aviation to make each vehicle an individual target. In planning a march, full utilization should be made of all usable parallel routes so as to obtain the maximum of dispersion, as well as to reduce road time of the march. Within a march column dispersion is obtained by means of infiltration marching or open column marching. When open column marching is used, the column commander can control dispersion of the column at will. º k c. Deception. Numerous changes in direction of march, dispatching vehicles in small groups at irregular time intervals and increased distances, mixing of different types of vehicles, and allowing vehicles to pass each other within the column (all of which can be obtained by the use of infiltration marching) will tend to give an air observer the impression that the target is too transient for attack and deceive him as to the extent of movement. Geometric patterns and uniformity of appearance, either at the halt or while the column is in motion, are quickly noted by air observers, and should be avoided. d. Speed. Since it takes an appreciable length of time for observation airplanes to report a column and have attacking airplanes dispatched, a column may often minimize danger of attack by rapid movement. Usually, a column exposed in movement for a period of one hour or less need have little fear of an attack specially organized against it. Attack by transient airplanes already operating in the area, however, may always be expected. 167. Active Antiaircraft Defense. a. General. Active antiaircraft defense includes the employment of ground and vehicular weapons, both by antiaircraft artillery units and by all troops equipped with small arms weapons suitable for employment against low- flying aircraft. Pursuit aviation may also be employed as an active defense measure. b. Motor column. Strong defense, preferably, by antiaircraft artillery machine guns, should be provided for protection of the head and tail of a column. Other machine guns, automatic rifles, and rifles should be used for protecting interior portions of a column. All weapons should be kept loaded and elevated so as to be ready for immediate use. Truck covers should be removed from trucks transporting personnel (except when the column may expect to be attacked with chemical agents), to facilitate firing at airplane targets. Whenever terrain and roads permit, detachments armed with weapons capable of delivering antiaircraft fire should march parallel to columns. t c. Critical locations. Thirty-seven millimeter antiaircraft guns, and guns of larger caliber on present mounts, are not suitable for protecting motor columns when moving as part of the column. Such guns should take positions at traffic bottlenecks and other critical points along the route of march prior to arrival of the main body of the column. Antiaircraft artillery should be made available at important terminal areas. 168. Procedure in Case of Air Attack While on March. In case of an air attack by day or night on a moving column, the column commander must make the decision as to whether the column should continue the march or halt. In general, the motorized elements should clear the center of the road, halt, dismount, take cover, and bring all suitable weapons to bear on the attacking aircraft. If the situation demands continued movement in order to arrive at destination at appointed time, maximum advantage is taken of dispersion; elements other than troops manning antiaircraft guns take any cover afforded by the vehicles while in motion. 400 CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES 169. Antimechanized Defense. (see FM 100.5 and TF 5-146). Antimechanized de- fense of motor transport embraces all measures for security and defense of a moving column or terminal area against hostile mechanized or armored units. 170. Barriers and Obstacles (see FM 5-30 and TF 5-145, 5-146, 5-147, 5-148, and 5-149). a. General. Obstacles include both natural terrain features and artificial works of construction or demolition, other than fire power, that may impede enemy mechanized units. The term “barrier” is applied to a group of obstacles used to block an area. Barriers and obstacles are of value only so long as they are covered by fire sufficient to prevent removal or neutralization. Barrier detachments are security units charged with the erection of barriers and their protection by fire. Obstacles used for road blocks. 6'-- -*-*-*-e-----º-º-º--4----4--& e-º-º: --&-4-- --º-º-º----e. º,. & 4. 5. © -e--º-º-º-º--ó-º-º-º-à--º-º-º- 12' & t 12" 12' —- "— F-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º: -- |é— —é—(?– —é—é– —é 2 4'- * 6– —é—é ë— — — – 12" -6 j, AS ab, AS As a tº | TY V -Sp WP Y- -N- | 12" *º- 8' Li –4, As A ab w- —Sp w- \P TV 12" —— IO'—— - ab AS AS As af, e -- WP Si2 Y’ Tw V" — — 12"—--— 12' —F– 12" — --F— 12–3 —é— —6– SP —ºp Y T- 6' 6 2'-k 4-1-4" Plate 49. Methods of Arranging Band of Antitank Mines. preferably should be placed so that enemy vehicles will come upon them unexpectedly and not be able to stop or turn in time to avoid them. Road blocks should always be placed in a defile so as to prevent a detour being made more easily or quickly than re- duction of the obstacle. Barriers and obstacles when placed so they cannot easily be by-passed and when covered with fire of all available weapons, provide surest defense against mechanized attack. CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES 401 b. Antitank mines. The antitank mine is the most effective quick obstacle for general use under field service conditions. Mines disable and stop vehicles by damaging their wheels or tracks. To preserve surprise, mines should be concealed. However, adequate numbers of unconcealed mines properly covered by fire will block mechanized vehicles. Dummy mines may be used to delay and deceive the enemy as to location of real mine fields. Antitank weapons are needed to destroy mechanized vehicles that have been disabled and slowed down by mine fields. Antitank mines are generally laid in a band of from 3 to 6 rows, with a distance between rows of from 1 to 3 yards. (See Plate 49.) The least density of mines in one band, considering all rows, should be about 1% mines per yard of front. For increased protection, it is preferable to lay additional bands 20 to 30 yards in rear rather than to thicken a single band. t c. Wire rolls. Wire rolls (see FM 5-30) use a No. 11 oil-tempered steel wire wound in a continuous spiral about 4 feet in diameter, with spirals connected at points around the circumference by strong clips. When extended, these rolls are about 40 feet long and are anchored lightly to the ground by small metal pins. If not damaged by vehicles, wire rolls may be collapsed and easily transported to another location. Each roll weighs approximately 40 pounds, and about 100 can be transported in a 2%-ton truck. Effective wire rolls are difficult to improvise in the field because of the strong clips required. To establish a wire roll obstacle group, four rolls should be extended across the roadway and located with each roll in contact with the adjacent roll. The ends should be pinned down. The first roll of the group should be suspended so that the bottom of the roll is about 6 inches above the road surface. Logs, 8 to 10 feet long and about 5 inches in diameter. should be placed in one or two of the three rear rolls. The wire roll obstacle should be established in groups of two and spaced about 40 to 50 yards apart. Wire rolls are effective against wheeled vehicles but are not an obstacle against track-laying vehicles. d. Demolitions. A most effective way to deny a road to enemy mechanized units is to demolish its bridges. This is often done with explosives (see FM 5-25), although wrecking bridges by pulling them down with vehicles and cables or by use of wrecking tools may be just as quick and effective; wooden bridges can be destroyed by pouring gasoline on them and setting them afire. Frequently, it may be possible to block a road by use of explosives at a deep cut, or high fill, by demolishing a tunnel, or by dropping an overpass structure down on the road. e. Inundation. Flooding of ground to a depth of 4 or more feet by construction of a dam or by cutting a levee will provide a serious obstacle to wheeled vehicles and light and medium tanks. However, flooding is not effective against amphibians. f. Parked vehicles. In an emergency, vehicles may be parked across a road defile so as to block it temporarily, after removing wheels or tracks to prevent towing. g. Reducing, road friction. Oil, soap, or other slippery materials placed on sharp curves, at well chosen locations, may cause enemy vehicles to skid off the road and overturn. This means may also be used to reduce traction on a steep grade so as to make it impassable to enemy vehicles. In below freezing weather, water poured on a road will turn to ice and accomplish the same results. h. Puncture producing materials. The strewing of broken glass, nails, sharp pieces of metal, or specially designed multipronged spikes may cause delays to enemy vehicles equipped with pneumatic tires. * i. Chemical mines. Chemical mines may be used alone or in combination with other obstacles to block a road or other location providing an approach for mechanized vehicles. They are most effective in low places and in thick vegetation. Standard mines weigh about 12 pounds each and are packed 6 in a box crate weighing about 90 pounds in all. These mines can either be fired with a nonelectric cap and time fuze, or by electric caps and magneto exploders. Each mine contaminates an area 20 to 25 yards in diameter. To contaminate roads, chemical mines are staggered at intervals of 17 yards on each side of the road using about 200 mines for one mile of road. To con- taminate demolitions or other obstacle sites, one or more mines should be fired either º 402 CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES with or subsequent to the demolition or construction of the obstacle, so as to drench the area where work of repair or removal will have to be done. 171. Weapons. Antimechanized weapons include antitank guns, antitank machine guns, small arms, antiaircraft guns, field artillery, combat aviation, armored vehicles, rifle grenades, hand grenades, gasoline bombs and flame throwers. a. Guns and small arms. The effectiveness of fire on mechanized vehicles will vary with angle of impact, thickness of armor, material of which the armor is composed, type of vehicle (open or closed), and the caliber and ballistic properties of weapon. In general, it may be assumed that small arms, requiring drivers to keep their ports closed, will penetrate light armor at a range of 200 yards and may damage more heavily armored vehicles by hits on vulnerable parts. The present 37-mm antitank gun is able to penetrate the armor on light tanks at 1000 yards and will damage most medium tanks at that or somewhat shorter ranges. b. Combat aviation. In case of a surprise attack, combat aviation may be the only combat force immediately available to divert or delay a hostile mechanized unit. Com- bat aviation depends primarily on bombing for its eſfect against mechanized vehicles. c. Armored vehicles. Armored vehicles may function as mobile antitank guns in defense of motor transport. d. Grenades. Hand grenades (particularly thermite grenades) and sticks or blocks of explosives may be effectively employed against mechanized units if dropped from above, or thrown and exploded under vehicles. e. Gasoline bombs. This type of bomb can be improvised by using glass bottles, gasoline, and rags. A glass bottle, preferably a quart size, is filled with gasoline or other inflammable liquid, and the stopper is securely attached. Around its base a gasoline soaked rag or other such material is fastened. This rag is ignited just before the bottle is thrown. On striking a vehicle the bottle shatters and the gasoline spreads out and burns. Greater effect is produced by using larger bottles, or cases of such bottles, and dropping them on the vehicle from above. f. Flame throwers. Flame throwers can be used against the ports of mechanized vehicles and will prevent the effective use of weapons carried by such vehicles. 172. Security. a. Security elements. Security elements for antimechanized defense may include aircraft, armored vehicles, cavalry, or motorized security detachments. b. Column formation. A column moving at extended distances (using infiltration or open column formation) is less vulnerable to mechanized attack than is a compact closed-up column. c. Disposition of tweapons. Antimechanized weapons should be spread throughout the column, with a heavy concentration of weapons in the advance and rear guards. If one or both flanks are exposed, heavy concentrations of antimechanized weapons should also be allotted to flank guards. d. Selection of route. Careful planning will often permit the column commander to select a route limited by natural features to a few avenues of hostile approach. In this event, a high degree of security may be obtained by proper use of barriers and ob- stacles. Halt locations should be selected so as to make full use of terrain lines, or natural features which restrict the operation of mechanized vehicles, and security de- tachments should habitually be disposed in positions of readiness. 173. Procedure on Making Contact With Hostile Mechanized Units. Actions of a column commander on making contact with hostile mechanized units will depend upon his estimate of the situation. In general he has a choice between two courses of pro- cedure: a. Utilization of speed of column to outdistance mechanized force. When an alter- nate route is available, the column commander may divert the column to such route at the first warning of a mechanized attack. If the attack comes from the front, the entire column may reverse direction simultaneously, dispatch a barrier detachment to cover its withdrawal, and proceed to the rear until a suitable detour road to the flank can be found. A motor column attacked from the flank can best protect itself by dispersion. In this case, vehicles at the point of attack transmit the specified warning CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR vehicles 403 signal, disperse and engage the hostile troops with all available means and weapons; vehicles ahead of the point of attack continue the march at increased speed; and vehicles behind the point of attack make a rapid detour to the rear. Barrier detach- ments are dispatched, if practicable, from each group of vehicles at the earliest op- portunity to block roads to their rear. At the end of the attack all vehicles assemble at the next scheduled halt location. Smoke may sometimes be used to confuse attack. ing hostile mechanized units while the column is making good its withdrawal. b. Active resistance. A motor column having sufficient combat power to warrant a stand against a mechanized threat should prepare for active resistance. In this case, at the first warning of the attack, the column halts, all vehicles clear the road, troops detruck and dig in, barriers are erected, and antimechanized weapons are placed in concealed positions to cover the terrain over which the mechanized unit must advance. 174. Protection Against Chemical Agents. This section summarizes the most important measures that may be used for protection of motor transport against chemical agents. Details of defense against chemical attack are included in FM 21-40. 175. Intelligence. Advance information as to enemy capabilities as regards the use of chemical agents is provided by regular intelligence agencies in the same manner as any other information of the enemy. 176. Reconnaissance. a. Distant reconnaissance. Distant reconnaissance by air or other means should determine the enemy's immediate preparations for chemical operation, both offensive and defensive. This reconnaissance may provide specific information, such as the installation or storage of chemical mines, cylinders, projectors, etc. b. Close reconnaissance. When enemy capabilities include use of chemical agents, particular attention must be paid to selection of routes and terminals which are least favorable to enemy chemical attack. When practicable, reconnaissance should be made in the daytime, since it is extremely difficult to determine the exact extent of con- taminated areas at night. If a contaminated area is found, the following information should be obtained: Exact location and extent of area. Kind of gas and concentration, heavy, medium, or low. Availability of routes leading around area on upwind side. Necessity of wearing gas masks while traversing area. When no detour is available, estimate of time, labor, and materials required for decontamination. 177. Protection Against Chemical Attack. a. Methods of attack. Chemical attack against motor transport will usually be in the form of chemical bombs or spray attacks from the air or in the form of chemical shells fired from artillery or from chemical mortars. The agents most likely to be carried in small bombs or shells are persistent agents and white phosphorus. Large bombs or shells may discharge either persistent or nonpersistent gas. Spray attacks may involve the use of mustard, lewisite, or any type of liquid smoke. One airplane can cover an area approximately 800 yards long and 300 yards wide. Obstacles may be contaminated by static chemical mines, thus en- dangering any person attempting to clear the road. b. Protection against air attack. In general, measures used for protection of motor transport against chemical attack from the air are the same as those applicable to other forms of air attack. As a means of protection from vesicant action of liquid, mustard or lewisite, however, all tarpaulins should be tightly closed, vehicle windows should be rolled up and on open cars side curtains should be installed. This will materially lessen the extent to which fire power from the column may be used against attacking aircraft, but is nevertheless necessary when spray attacks may be expected. Gas masks should be put on at first warning of attack, and every effort made to prevent the body from coming in direct contact with drops of mustard or lewisite. Personnel operating antiaircraft weapons and others in exposed positions should wear protective clothing. When protective clothing is not available, raincoats will provide limited protection. That part of a moving column affected by a chemical attack from the air should normally continue to march while the attack is in progress and move out of the con- 404 CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES taminated area as rapidly as possible. Elements of the column in rear of the con- taminated area should bypass it on the upwind side or should reverse direction and make a wider detour by using the first available side road. If detour of contaminated area is impracticable, the column may pass through it under conditions outlined in FM 21-40. c. Protection against chemical shells. The range of chemical shells is so limited as to make it improbable that motor transport would be subjected to an extensive chemical attack by this means. However, if so attacked, procedures would be essentially those indicated for air attacks in b above. d. Procedure in passing contaminated road block. If a contaminated obstacle is en- countered, an uncontaminated way around is sought. In case the road block has been located in such a manner that no alternate routes are possible, the contaminated debris and surroundings must be removed and destroyed, or otherwise made safe. Personnel engaged in opening up or clearing contaminated obstacles will wear protective clothing, and gas masks and all tools and equipment used in work will be decontaminated afterwards. e. Procedure after attack. After attack, the column reassembles outside the con- taminated area and engages in the following: (1) First aid and evacuation. Affected individuals will be given first aid and all casualties evacuated. All contaminated clothing shall be removed, piled, and marked for later salvage, care being taken that contact with, or vapor from, does not endanger other personnel. (2) Reconnaissance. Since an area contaminated as a result of a chemical attack involving persistent gases will be dangerous for some time, the extent of the area should be determined and a full report of the attack should be made to higher headquarters. Signs should be posted to indicate extent of contamination and available detours. (3) Preliminary to decontamination. The commander of any motor vehicle, train, convoy or other motorized element which has encountered a contaminated area, or which has suffered a direct chemical attack will, as soon as possible thereafter, make an inspection of the vehicles in his command to determine the following: º (a) Whether or not decontamination of the vehicles is necessary; (b) If so, the priority of decontamination operations. 178. Decontamination. After a chemical attack, decontamination by various agencies may be required. a. Decontamination of equipment and vehicles. Decontamination of the motorized element and its equipment is the responsibility of the commander thereof. Each vehicle is equipped with a 1% quart decontaminating apparatus which is furnished for emergency purposes. If more thorough decontamination is necessary, methods, ma- terials and equipment as outlined in FM 21-40 and TM 3-220 will be employed. b. Decontamination of areas and roads. When a road or area must be decontaminated to permit safe passage of a convoy, the commander thereof is responsible for its decon- tamination. Special chemical troops may be used for this work. However, in case no troops are available, the operation must be carried out by such troops as can be had for the job. Procedures, materials, organization, and other pertinent information is contained in FM 21-40 and TM 3-220. 179. Handling of Explosives and Inflammable Liquids. Explosives and inflammable liquids (see FM 5-25 and TM 9-2900) should be stored, handled, and transported in small units; individual units should be sufficiently, separated from each other to prevent an explosion or a fire involving one from exploding or burning another. This is particularly important when it is necessary to transport explosives and inflammable liquids over important bridges or through congested areas, tunnels, or other particularly vulnerable locations. 180. Segregation of Caps. Detonating caps should never be transported in a vehicle carrying other explosives or inflammable materials. Mines, grenades, and demolition explosives should not be fuzed until they are ready to be used, and fuzes should be removed before the explosive materials are transported to a new location. CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES 405 181. Protection From Sparks and Fires. a. Static electricity. Ground conductors should be provided to neutralize charges of static electricity prior to and during transfer of inflammable liquids. * (1) Drag chains for this purpose should be attached to the body of tank trucks or other vehicles used ior transporting such liquids. These chains, to be effective, must provide a continuous metallic contact from the container carrying the liquid to the surface of the road. For this purpose, about 4 inches of chain should be in contact with the roadway. A 4-inch or 0-inch length of large (6-inch) pipe rolling in contact with the road on the axis of a smaller (1-inch) pipe suspended by two chains from the truck body, can also be used. (2) When transferring intlammable liquids from one container to another, the two containers should be bonded by an electric conductor. Such bonding can be made by touching the metal of the two containers together. In fueling vehicles from drums or cans the flexible nozzle of the can must be brought into solid contact with the filler opening. When filling drums or vehicles from a hose of a dispenser, the nozzle must always be brought solidly against the metal of the drum or tank. Special bonding arrangements may be needed in filling tank trucks. b. Exhaust gases and ugnution spunks. As a precaution against accidental fire or explosion caused by hot exilaust gases or sparks irom a vehicle ignition system, vehicle engines should be lurned oil when loading explosives or inflammable liquids. c. Sparks from metal. To avoid the possibility of sparks, nonmetallic tools should be used ior handling explosives or inflamunable liquids. The interior of truck bodies used Ior transporung explosives and ulualumable liquids should be lined with wood or other nonsparking material. d. Open flumes and coals. Smoking and unnecessary lighting of matches should be absolutely prohibited when in tile vicinity or explosives or inflammable liquids, particularly when such materials are being loaded or unloaded. Only electric lights should be used tor illumination. Inflammables and explosives carried in open trucks should be well covered with a tarpaulin as a means ol protecting the load from cig- arettes carelessly thrown from other vehicles. Vehicles carrying explosives or inflammables should always maintain a safe distance 1rom open fires. e. Fire fighting equipment. Large size fire extinguishers should be carried by vehicles transporting inflammable or explosive materials. In areas where considerable quantities of such materials are being handled, special apparatus for fighting large scale fires should be available. 182. Gentle Handling. Great care must be exercised to avoid unnecessary jar or shock in the handling of explosives. This is particularly essential in carrying sensitive ex- plosives used in detonators. Containers packed with explosives should never be rolled, thrown, or dropped while being handled. All reasonable precautions, including placing the vehicle in gear, selung the hand brake, and blocking wheels, should be taken to prevent accidental movement of vehicles when they are parked. Explosive materials should be securely loaded inside the vehicle in which they are being transported so as to eliminate any possibility of shitung or talling out. Explosives should never be carried on a tall gate or on the outside of a truck body. Unless there is a need for secrecy, vehicles carrying explosives should be clearly 1dentified. Whenever they halt on the road, guards or signs should be conspicuously posted to warn approaching traffic of the special danger of collision. Speeds of such vehicles should be moderate to avoid unnecessary jars to loads and to minimize possibility of collision with other vehicles. 183. Leakage of Inflammable Liquids. If a vehicle transporting inflammable liquids develops leakage en route, as a result of collision or other cause, further movement of the vehicle should be limited to the minimum distance necessary to dispose of the load safely. When leakage is of such character that further transportation is unsafe, the vehicle should immediately move off the traveled portion of the road. Trenches may be dug to prevent the liquid being spread over a wide area. If possible, the liquid should be kept away from streams and sewers. Congregation of spectators should be avoided, and smoking or lighung of fires in the vicinity must be prevented. Guards 406 CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES or markers should be posted to outline the area involved and to warn all concerned against the danger of sparks, open flames, or smoking. 184. Security Detachments. When security detachments are detailed from a motor column, these detachments, in addition to providing tactical security, may also be called upon to perform other duties (see FM 100-5 and 17-10). 185. Types. Security detachments dispatched from a motor column may include advance reconnaissance patrols, an advance guard, flank guards, and a rear guard. Motor transport terminal areas are protected by an outpost. 186. Economy of Force. Duty on reconnaissance and security missions is very tiring. In order that troops may be prepared to perform their primary missions, they must be given every opportunity to rest. Security detachments, therefore, should be no stronger than necessary. Promptness and speed will frequently contribute more to safety of a moving column than deliberate and detailed security measures. 187. Advance Reconnaissance Patrols. a. General. Advance reconnaissance in the direction of march is provided for by small patrols (moving in mechanized vehicles if these are available) which operate well ahead of the column and cover the main routes and important intersecting routes in the direction of march. Each patrol should have at least two vehicles in addition to any vehicles required ior messengers. The number of patrols varies with the situation and road net. II marches are not in immediate presence of the enemy, these patrols can be reduced to one or two. When contact with hostile elements becomes imminent the number of patrols should be increased. Ad- vance reconnaissance patrols normally should precede the head of the first march unit by 30 minutes or more. Advance patrols ordinarily operate under a reconnaissance commander. The message center vehicle of this commander should habitually march on the route to be followed by the main part of the column. The advance guard may be made responsible for sending out advance patrols when its strength and composition are appropriate. b. Conduct of reconnaissance patrols. The principal mission of advance tactical recon- naissance is to locate hostile elements in the direction of march and to give the column commander timely information of their location, strength, composition, and movement. One vehicle in each patrol should be used Ior “get-away” in case the patrol is surprised. This vehicle should march well to the rear of the rest of the patrol. Messages between patrol and reconnaissance commanders are sent by the “get-away” vehicle, when radio communication cannot be used. Patrols no longer able to advance report contact with the enemy, conceal their vehicles, take cover, and remain in observation. If their mission requires it, such patrols may put out road blocks or otherwise take steps to delay the enemy. Reconnaissance of alternate routes should also be made. c. Indications of hostile movement. Reconnaissance patrols should be constantly alert to any evidence of the presence of hostile forces. They should look for indications of hostile movement, such as— (1) Direction of hostile movement shown by wheel tracks on gravel and dirt roads, particularly at road intersections, and by wheel tracks on shoulders of paved roads where troops have halted or where traffic has left the road to move cross country. (2) Trash or debris along the road giving evidence of extent and nature of enemy In OVCInent. (3) Dust created in dry weather by truck columns moving over dirt or gravel roads. (4) Fields and meadows showing signs of use as bivouac sites. (5) Woods and brush giving evidence of use for camouflage purposes. (6) Marks of urination visible on dry ground or in snow where columns have halted, which may indicate both length of halted column and number of personnel. (7) Silhouette of hostile troops moving in the distance against the skyline in rough or rolling country. (8) Sound of columns, particularly when such columns include track vehicles. 188. Advance Guard. a. Composition and formation. The advance guard precedes the first march unit of a motor column by from 5 to 15 minutes. This time distance must be increased when the terrain is open and where contact with enemy is probable. CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES 407 The advance guard usually consists of a point, an advance party, support, and reserve. The point precedes the advance party by from 2 to 5 minutes. A point should consist of at least four vehicles, two of which should be motorcycles. Scout cars are used if available. Due to the danger of ambush, no more men than are needed to observe should be included in the point. The point should move by bounds when contact with the enemy is probable. The advance party, which consists of three or more vehicles marching in open column, usually follows the point. The support follows several minutes behind the advance party. When necessary, the advance guard is reinforced by the leading march unit of the column. If this is done, the senior commander present assumes command of the combined forces. The rear vehicle of each element of the advance guard is designated as a “get-away” vehicle. Provision should be made to include antitank mines in the advance guard. Antitank and antiaircraft guns, if avail- able, are distributed in the advance guard. These guns are disposed for fire when danger of air or mechanized attack is imminent. b. Duties. The advance guard protects the column from the front and facilitates its march. It observes the route of march and intersecting roads for indications of hostile movement. It drives off small hostile elements, and develops, and delays strong hostile forces without committing the column to a general engagement. It keeps the column commander completely informed of the situation to the front and adopts a formation which will facilitate escape of at least one vehicle in case of surprise. c. Procedure when attacked. When the point discovers the enemy it immediately repeats the specified warning signal, then does everything possible to delay the enemy (including blocking the road and laying out antitank mines). If other means of communication cannot be used, the “get-away” vehicle of the point proceeds to the rear to carry information of the attack to the advance party. The remainder of the advance guard relays the warning signal to the head of the main column, halts, and detrucks. All but two or three vehicles reverse direction and take cover to the rear. The two or three remaining vehicles are turned sideways on the road to form a tem- porary road block, and a band of antitank mines is laid across the road in front of these trucks. The advance guard then, utilizing available terrain to best possible advantage, takes prompt and aggressive action to develop the situation. If the enemy is weak, the advance guard pushes him back or destroys him. If enemy in force is encountered, the advance guard seizes the best available terrain from which to cover the development of the main body. 189. Flank Guards. a. General. Flank protection is provided by covering detachments which successively occupy key positions on the exposed flank or flanks of a march col- umn. The interval between the column and its outer flank detachments varies with the terrain and road net, but in open country this interval should be from 5 to 10 miles. At night, and in close country, this interval may be reduced. All detachments operating on one flank of a column should be under the comamnd of a flank guard commander, who normally marches on a designated flank route. Flank detachments vary in size from reconnaissance patrols to detachments of size and composition similar to advance guards. * b. Operation. The mission of a flank guard is to give warning of hostile activity to its flank and to delay enemy attacks long enough to permit the column to proceed uninterrupted. Flank reconnaissance patrols fight only when this is necessary to ac- complishment of their mission. Heavy flank guards march in approximately the same formation as an advance guard, except that where the road net permits they maintain a patrol on the outer flank in addition to a point in front. When attacked, the flank guard acts in a manner similar to an advance guard. Usually, however, it cannot expect to be reinforced by detachments from the main column. Flank guards attacked by strong enemy forces will frequently have trouble in regaining their position on the flank of a column. In this event, they should notify the main column so they can be replaced by new detachments. c. Rate of march. The flank guard must regulate its movement so as to provide continuous security for the flank of the column. Often, it will be necessary to move 408 CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES out far in advance of the column in order to establish detachments at key terrain features in time to cover the main column. Normally it will proceed by bounds so as to cover successively, important avenues of hostile approach. Changes in general direction of march of the main column will often require that new flank guards be constituted from the advance guard, the old flank guard being given a new mission. The flank guard commander, therefore, should know the time length of the column and the time at which it is scheduled to arrive at specified points on the route of march. In addition, the progress of the main column should be checked at frequent intervals. 190. Rear Guard. The rear guard is similar in organization and operation to the advance guard. The mission of the rear guard is to protect the rear of the main column from molestation by hostile forces which have swifter marching rates than the column. It is not normally reinforced from the main body. In case of a withdrawal movement. the rear guard may be required to execute demolitions prepared by detachments from the main column. When attacked, the rear guard makes dispositions similar to those of the advance guard, except that its trucks normally stay closer to personnel so as to enable them to get away quickly when necessary. After disengaging from the enemy, the rear guard entrucks as rapidly as possible and resumes its former position in the march column. 191. Outposts. The outpost organized for protection of a motor transport terminal area is similar to that used by any military command (see FM 100-5). Until such outpost is organized, however, advance, flank, and rear guards of a column establish outguards outside the boundaries of the terminal area. These outguards cover main routes of hostile approach to the area. They lay mine fields or construct temporary road blocks on these routes of approach, but they do not execute demolitions or construct road blocks of a permanent nature unless specifically ordered to do so. Vehicles in the terminal area are parked in a dispersed formation and are concealed or camouflaged to the greatest practicable extent. Local protection of vehicles is provided for by sentinels detailed from among the drivers. -** INDEX { LEADERSHIP II Page * * Page Appearance, neatness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Errors, Correction of . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Commands, Giving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Explanations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Command, Preparatory, Execution, Instructor, Position of . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Pauses, Cadence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Instruction, Applicatory Method . . . . . 5 Command, Principles of . . . . . . . . . . . . I Manners, Good . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Commendation, Encouragement . . . . . 6 Mannerisms, Avoiding . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Distinctness, Commands . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Squad Leader . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3, 4 Drill, Disciplinary Value of . . . . . . . . 4 Squad Strength, Variable, Desirable 3 Drill, Planning Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. Unit Strength, Ideal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 FIRE CONTROL INSTRUMENTS Adjustment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20, 27, 33 Mount . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Adjusting Lath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Oiling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Aiming Circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I2, I5, 20 Orient, to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Alidade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Plane Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Angle, horizontal, to measure . . . . . . 22, 27, 32 Protection, from weather . . . . . . . . . . 52 Angle of sight, to measure, scale . . 20, 23, 24 Protractor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Azimuths, to read scales . . . . . . . . . . 22, 24 Range-Deflection Fan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Care . . . . . . . . . . ! • * * s = e s w e º e e s e s s s e 20, 27, 34 Range Finder, proper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Carrying case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17, 26, 30 Recorder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Cleaning material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Repair, Adjustment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Compass . . . . . . * - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 37 to 45 Scales, platting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Declinate, to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Site, to measure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I I Stadia Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Field Glass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34, 35, 36, 37 Straightedge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I I Tape, steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Handling, care in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Telescope, proper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Instrument, to set up . . . . . . . . . . 17, 22, 26, 32 Thermometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Magnetic North, to orient on . . . . . . . 17 Tools, Accessories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Measure, distance, angles . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Tripod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17, 26, 30 BATTERY COMMUNICATIONS Alphabet, phonetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Personnel and Equipment . . . . . . . . . . 55 Battery Reel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 Procedure, telephone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Battery Signal Means . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Radio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 to 67 Battery Wire Systems, Switchboard, in- 6 Reel, Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90, 93 stallation, repair . . . . . . . . . . . . . IOO, IO2, IO Removal from Service, wire . . . . . . . . 72, 73 Care, maintenance, wire . . . . . . . . . . . 72, 73 Rout 58 Communication, general, voice . . . . . . 59, 62 outes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Description, telephone . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72, 82 Service, types of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Simplexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . 89, 90 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Switchboard, telephone, installation, Hand Reel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 care, maintenance . . . . . . . . . 76, 80, 81, 84, 86 Installation, wire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71, 73 Tariff Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 Lamps, Flags, use of; procedure 60, 61 Telephone Directory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 Messages, Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 Tests, wire e e s tº e º e º e º e º e s tº s e º º ºs e s e 69, 73 Messages, receipts for, oral . . . . . . . . . . 59 Transpor tation, types of . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Messengers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Wire Communication, equipment . . . . 68 Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6o Wire, Field, Splices . . . . . . . . \e • * * * * * * 93 Operation, telephone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74, 86 Wire-Laying Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 Oral message, transmission . . . . . . . . . . 75 Written Message, transmission . . . . . . 75 DUTIES OF BC DETAIL Actions, Members of party . . . . . . . . . I 17 Hº Artillery, employment of detail, uties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I27 Battery Commander is e e º e º 'º º º ſº º g II 3, II4, I I5 Horse-Drawn Artillery . . . . . . . . . . . . I29 Battery, moves, arrives . . . . . . . . . . . . I 17 Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II 2 Displacement of Observation, firing bat- Maintenance Section: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 tery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125, 126 Night Occupation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I2 I to I24 Duties, individuals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I09, I IO Observer, forward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II.8 * e tº Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Io9 Fast Moving Situation . . . . . . . . . . . . I2O, I2 I Problems, illustrative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II.3 Fifth Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Procedure, variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IIQ General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I09 Truck Park . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 409 410 INDEX CARE OF ANIMALS AND STABLE MANAGEMENT Page Abnormalities, dental * * * 155 Age, average . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I33 Age determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I51 Angle of incidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I53 Animal sick report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Arm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 Azoturia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 Back . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ** * 150 Basic shoeing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Bedding, stables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 Blankets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16o Bow-legged . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I37 Bran . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Buck-kneed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I37 Calf-kneed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I37 Camp site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7o Cannon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 Care of feet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I61 Chest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I39 Circulatory system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 I Clipping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I59 Colic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 Colors, horse and mule . . . . . . . . . . ". . I34 Communicable diseases' . . . . . . . . . . . . I 43 Compressed forage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 Conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16o Conformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I35 Constituents, food . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 Corns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I5o Corral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I57 Coughs and colds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I44 Cribbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I55 Crown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I52 Cup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I52 Currycomb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 Dental star . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 52 Determination of age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 Diarrhea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 Digestive system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I3 I Diseases, prevention and treatment of I4 I Elbow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I37 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16o Fang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I52 Feeding and watering . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 Feet, care of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I61 Fetlock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I37, I4I, I59 Field management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7o Field ration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 Filly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I32 Flies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I49 Floors, care of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 Foal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I32 Food: Bran . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I66 Constituents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 Corn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 Forage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 In garrison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 Hay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I66 Oats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I66 Proportions in ration . . . . . . . . . 165 Salt in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . º 166 Foot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I39 Forage: Compressed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 Protection of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17o Ration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Record of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Forearm Founder * * * Gaits, kinds of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gallop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Galvayne's groove . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . g - - - tº dº e º 'º - e s & º w = * * * * * * * * * Granulations, excessive . . . . . . . . . . . . . Grazing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Grooming: Clipping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cloth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Equipment for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fetlock Hand rubbing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - Manes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Process of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sheath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Time to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Washing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . e e Hand rubbing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Heat exhaustion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Height . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hoof hook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Horse brush . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Horse equipment: Bit and bridoon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bridle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Proper fitting of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Saddle blanket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stirrup straps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Incisors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Influenza . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Infundibulum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Injuries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kit, stable sergeant's veterinary . . . . . Knee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Knock-kneed Lameness Laminitis Loin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Maggots Manes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mangers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Markings, horse and mule . . . . . . . . . . Measurement Medicines, in stable sergeant's kit . . Morning report of animals . . . . . . . . . Muscular system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nail wounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Neck, incisors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nervous system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Noncommunicable diseases . . . . . . . . . . Nursing Oats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Overheating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Overreaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Parrot mouth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * * * Pasterns • e s is e - e. e º 4 tº * * * * * * * * * * * • * e e a e e º a s a e e s - e e s • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * e e º e s a s e s tº e s s a e º e s s e º 'º e º s • e s tº e - e º e s - e º e s is tº * * * * • * * * * is a e s - s e e s a e s tº e º 'º - * * * e ‘º e º e º e º ºr e º is is a w sº º sº e º 'º º P & P 171 171 17o 171 171 I52 I43 I52 148 I42 I37 I37 148 I 47 I39 I49 157 I44 156 I32 I34 I33 I42 163 I3 I I 50 I52 I3 I I 45 I42 I66 I47 I50 I55 I39, I4I INDEX 411 CARE OF ANIMALS AND STABLE MANAGEMENT—Continued 148 168 167 I47 I 49 I43 I59 175 172 173 163 I 74 175 173 137 I42 I31 I 33 I49 I42 EQUITATION Picket line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Prevention of disease Posture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pulp cavity Ration Records: Forage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Horse record card Morning report Public animals Shoeing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sick report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Regions and structure of the horse . . Reproductive system Restraint of animals Restraint Respiratory system Ringworm Roots, tooth Rope burn Rules, feeding Salt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Scratches Screw worms Segregation in disease Sheath Shoeing: Field measures Frequency of Preliminary examination of Shoeing record Shoes: Fitted For road marches Preparation of Shoulder Sick animals Skeletal system Skin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sores, summer Stable sergeant's veterinary kit * @ 6 & e º e º º ºs e º ſº p * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * - - - e - - - - - s tº - - - e tº 4 tº e º e - e º 'º - - - e. a s e º 'º e º e s tº e º º º 4 a c & © tº s is a º º • s s - 4 & e i s - e s s e º a tº • * * * * * * g º is 4 e º 'º º ſº e º 'º & # 4 º' is * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ~ e º 'º e º 'º a * * * * * * * * * g º ºs e º is e g º º s • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * • * * * * * * * * * * * * * e º s e º 'º - - - - - - - - - - - - - tº e º 'º e º e º 'º e º e s 4 - e s tº e º e s tº e a º & tº e º 'º w tº e º ſº e º 'º e º e º ſº • s s a e s a e s a e º 'º e s = * * * • e s - - - e º s - e s is is - - e º 'º - - © s * e º 'º e º 'º e º 'º - tº * e s - e. e. e º a • e s tº w tº e s * e a s a s - e e s s - e º ºs e º 'º we s e º e º º • * * * * * * * * u, º º e º ſº e s a e º is * * * * * * * * * s • * * * * * * * * * About: On haunches The • a s a - e. e. e. e s - e g º tº 4 - e º 'º - - - tº sº s - * * Aids Ankles Back, to Backward march Balance Bit(s): Effect of curb Fitting of Bit and bridoon: To adjust Effect of To put on To take off Blankets, saddle, care of Breast straps Broken lines Cavesson, to put on Charge e s s e < * * * * * * * * * * * * * • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * - - - * & © - tº tº e º - - - tº • a e s e e º e < * * * * * * * * * * * tº a s e º 'º e º e º a ºn tº $ tº e º 'º 4 - - - - e º e - - - e - - - - - - - - - e. • y e º e º e º e º 'º e e º e = * * * - - - - * * - - - e. * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * • * * * * * * * * * g e º 'º e • 4 ... • s a tº e º e º a n e º a tº $ tº e º a m = ± tº 222 204 197 I94 2O I 209 191 208 178 204 205 184 184 183 182 219 184 218 - Page Stable management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 Stables: Bedding in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 Earthen floors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 Fire prevention in . . . . . . . . . . . . . I57 Floors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 Woodwork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 Water troughs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 Ventilation in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I55 Vices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I61 Stable vices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I61 Stallion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I32 Sunstroke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 45 Symptoms of disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I4I Table service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I53 Tails . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I59 Teeth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I51 Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I33 Tenditis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I47 Tetanus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 44 Thumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I45 Tied-in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I37 To secure animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I57 Treads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 Treatment of disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I4 I, I 43 Trot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I33 Thrush . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 47 Undershot jaw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I55 Urinary system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I32 Ventilation: In disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I43 Stables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 Veterinary kit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I42 Walk, description of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I33 Washing of animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16o Watering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 Water troughs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 Woodwork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 Wounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 Yearling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I32 Circle, march in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 Circling individually . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 Cleaning materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I86 Cross-country riding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Curb bit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2O7 Customs, riding hall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 Dismiss, to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Dismount, to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 Equipment, care of, in field . . . . . . . . . I86 Errors in jumping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 Fall out, to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Field conditions, marching . .215, 218, 221, 223 Figure of eight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22O Flank, by the right (left) . . . . . . . . . . 204 Formations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Front to rear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 Gait(s): Changes of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2O4 Natural . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 Rate of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 Speed of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 The . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205, 216 412 INDEX EQUITATION.—Continued Page Page Gallop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . sº e s s a s a 20I, 22I Ride at will . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 Gallop departs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 I Riding hall customs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 Half turn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • 219 Riding hall exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 Halt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 Saddle blankets: Hands: Care of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 To change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 Folding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 T. and to ................. I95 Saddles, fitting of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 ; to Stand to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Saddle, to fit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 OrSe: To gather the . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2O I Saddlery, care of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I86 Points of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 Saddle weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 Jump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 I 2 Seat, jumping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2I3 Jumping seat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 Serpentine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 IQ Knees: Shoulders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 II To supple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 I 2 Single snaffle bridle: Use of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 93 To put on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 Lead out, to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 To take off . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 Legs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I93, 197 Spur, use of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 Loins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 I I Stand to horse, to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 Longe, to fold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 Stirrups, to ride without . . . . . . . . . . 208 March, right hand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2O2 Stirrups, length of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I93 Military seat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 Stirrup straps: Modified McClellan Saddle . . . . . . . . . 182 Adjust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 Mount, prepare to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187, 188 Fitted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 Natural aids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 Supple: Neck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 I I Ankles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2I 2 Object of instruction, equitation . . . . . . 177 Hip joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 I 2 Obstacles, artificial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II 4, 120 Knees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 I 2 Pace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 Loins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 II Passage to right (left) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 I The neck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 II Physical fitness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 Shoulders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 II Points of the horse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 Swim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 Position mounted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 Thighs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I9 I Posting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 To fit the saddle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 Prepare to dismount . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 To gather the horse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 I Prepare to mount . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 88 To leave rank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 Program of instruction, equitation . . . . I 78 To ride in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 Quarter straps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 To saddle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 Reins: Track: Action of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 t With fixed distances . . . . . . . . . . . 203 Adjustment of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200, 207 To take . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2O2 Double in both hands . . . . . . . . . . 206 Trooper, standards required of . . . . . . 177 Double in left hand . . . . . . . . . . 206 Trot: Double in right hand . . . . . . . . 206 The slow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2O I Hands in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 To . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 I At rest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 Upper body, inclination of . . . . . . . . . . I95 Single . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 90 Unsaddle, to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 Use of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206, 210 Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - 195 DRIVING AND DRAFT Alinements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 Hitch, unhitch, to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 Backing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 Instruction, object of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 Draft, training in . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 Intervals, distances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 Drivers, dismiss, to . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 H. out . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 Gaits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239, 244 imbering, to trim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 al 39, 24 Mount, dismount . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 Guides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 Pair, maneuvering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 Harness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 adjustments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 Reins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 cleaning, care . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 Rests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 disposition, field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 Team, maneuvering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 disposition, garrison . . . . . . . . . . . 227 -Terms, use of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • * * * 227 drivers, instructions . . . . . . . . . . . 233 Traces, hook, unhook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 harnessing, unharnessing . . . . . . . 229, 231 Voice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ." * * * 238 nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 . . Whip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 INDEX 413 MOUNTED FORMATIONS AND MANEUVERS SECTION 1 THE TRUCK-DRAWN BATTERY Page Page Battery, formations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245, 262 motor Convoy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 combat trains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 Data, reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 couple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 Maneuvers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 dismiss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 alinements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 headquarters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 direction, change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 intervals, distances . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 directing vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 motor vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 general . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 park . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 guides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 posts, individuals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.47 guidon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 SCOPè . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 line to the front . . . . . . . . . . 258 Commands, signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 march . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 general . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 section column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 kinds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 Training, objective of . . . . . . 245 SECTION 2 THE HORSE-DRAWN BATTERY Battalion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294 Limbers, disposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29I Commands, signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27o Maneuvers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 aſſm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 alinements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 whistle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27o carriages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273, 281 Formation, after limbering . . . . . . . . . 292 direction, change . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279, 281 Forming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 I flank column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286, 290 Gun battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 gaits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 dismiss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 general . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 formations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 guides . . . . . . . . 273 general . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 guidon 273 intervals, distances . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 intervals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * * 282 order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 line, to form, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 to 290 park . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 march . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .275 to 279 posts, individuals . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26o. section, double . . . . . . . . . . . . - - 290 Limber, unlimbering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29I Motorized units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294 SECTION 3 THE BATTALION, REGIMENT AND BRIGADE, TRUCK- AND HORSE-DRAWN Battalion, to form, maneuvers . . . . . . 298 Regiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 Brigade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES “A” Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366 Assemblies vehicle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 Abandoning vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340 Axles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 Abuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40I Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 Accessories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 Front . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 Accident prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352 Backing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356 Accident report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 Battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333 Adjustments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334, 378 Care of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378 Aircraft warning service . . . . . . . . . . . . 398 Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329 Air power and motor marches . . . . . . 378 Barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 Antiaircraft defense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398, 399 Bendix drive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 Antifreeze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352 Blackout restrictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397 Antimechanized defense . . . . . . . . . . . 400, 402 Block and tackle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366 Antitank mines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 Body group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322 Asphyxiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352. Bogs, negotiating . . . . . . . . . . . 324 414 INDEX CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES-Continued Page Brakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307 Using . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353, 357 Bridges, crossing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373 Bridges, reinforcing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391 Cab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3O4, 324 Camouflage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394 Chains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361 Chassis group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 Chemical attack, defense against . . . . . 403 Circuits, lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326 Cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378 Close column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383,387 Clutch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303, 3 I 7 Using . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353, 356 Command, convoy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394 Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394, 396 Company Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329 Convoy: - Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390 Command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38o Staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389 See Marches Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353 Cooling system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315 Cross country driving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364 Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302, 334, 380 Deadman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367 Decontamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404 Defense, passive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398 Diesels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315 Differential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3O4, 353 Ditches, crossing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372 Drivers: Assignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3OI, 351 Duties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379 Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328, 354 Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359 Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351, 353 Echelon, system of maintenance 328 Electrical System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 Battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324 Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326 Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326 Horns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 Ignition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 Miscellaneous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 Starting motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326 Employment of motor vehicles . . . . . . 30 I Engine assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 Operating principles . . . . . . . . . . . 31 I Fuel system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315 Exhaust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315 Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315 Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316 Engine: Starting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354, 359 Exhaust system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315 Expedients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369 Explosives, handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.4 Final drive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3O4, 32 I, 322 Fire, motor vehicle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351 Flotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369 Fords, crossing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372 Forms, motor transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343 Page Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 Fuel systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 I5 Gauges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353 Gear shifting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356 Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326 Graph, march . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396 Grousers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363 Guards: Advance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406 Flank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407 Rear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408 Gumbo, negotiating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372 Halts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396 Headway, intervehicular . . . . . . . . . . . . 385 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381 Hills: Climbing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369 Descending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370 Horns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 Ice, negotiating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372 Ignition system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 Infiltration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383,385 Inflammable liquids, handling . . . . . . 404 Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344 Command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344 Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344 Preventive maintenance . . . . . . . 354 Technical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 Lighting circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326 Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375 Lubrication: Applying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343 Centralized . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 I Decentralized . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 I Driver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377 Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316 Inspections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343 Lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342 Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338, 341 Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342 Schedules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342 Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 IQ Lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342 Lug plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363 Maintenance: Echelon system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328 March . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339 Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334 Personnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329, 333, 339 Preventive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354 Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 Map reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377 Marches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38o Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38o Command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380 Discipline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38o Organ'zation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38o Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38o Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385 Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383 March graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396 Marching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361 March maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339 Mats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364 INDEX CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES-Continued Page Mines, antitank . . . . . . . . . . . . .* * * * * * * 400 Mines, protection against . . . . . . . . . . . 397 Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369 Motor movements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38o See Marches Mud, negotiating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371 Night driving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353 Obstacles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 Open column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384,387 Operation: Requirements for efficient . . . . 301 Factors affecting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 Operator's permit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343 Organic vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389 Otto cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 II Outposts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408 Overturned vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377 Parking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358 Pioneer work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390 Pools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 I Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369 Power plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 Preventive maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . 354 Prolonges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366 Propeller shafts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3O4, 320 Protective measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396 Quartering party . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394 Radius rods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394 Ravines, crossing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364 Reconditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334 Reconnaissance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406 Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342. Regimental maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . 332 Repairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339 Replacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334 Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 Route marking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393 Running gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 Safety precautions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351 Sand, negotiating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372 Schedules, daily time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395 Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402,405 Servicing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377 Service Record . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.49 Sheet metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 Shock absorbers Shuttling Signals S.gnals, warning Snow, negotiating Speed limits Spreader bars Springing, independent Springs Staff, convoy Stakes, anchored Starting motor Streams, crossing Steering Swamps, negotiating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Supply Tackle and block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Technical Inspection report . . . . . . . . . Tightening Time Schedule Tires • * * * * * * * * * * * * s • * - - - - - , . . . • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * s s º is e = < * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * a - a - º s 6 a s h : * * * * * * * t º e º a s e g s is a - a 4 e º a s e - * a e º s tº * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * m e º a a tº a s a s tº e º sº a s e s a * * * * s > * * * * * * * * * * * * s • * * s a tº a • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * tº e º a s & Protection Torque tubes Towing Tractors, track laying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Traction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Traction devices Traffic control Training, driver Transfer case Transmission Using Traffic control Traffic regulations Trip ticket and Performance record Turning Units, vehicles Universal joints Vapor lock Vehicles: Abandoning disabled Nºw Weapons, Wheels Wire rolls * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * e s a tº a w tº e º e s a s a s & = * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * s • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * e s a * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * e s = w is * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * is tº - - - - - e s - - - - - - e s - - - - - - - e º 'º - - - - - - * * * • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * . * s is - e º 'º e º a s - e. e. e. e s , , , * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * , - - - - s = e - - - - - e. a 4 - - * * * * * * * * * - - - - - - - - - - * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * antimechanized . . . . . . . . . . * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * , * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * SUPPLEMENT FIELD ARTILLERY VOLUMES I AND II (Combined) Basic Course Copyright 1942 by THE MILITARY SERVIce PUBLISHING Co. HARRISBURG, PA. First Edition PRINTED IN THE U. S. A. By The Telegraph Press Harrisburg, Pennsylvania FIELD ARTILLERY BASIC CONTENTS Page Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Military Courtesy and Discipline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Military Sanitation and First Aid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Military Organization, General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Leadership I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 History and Development of Field Artillery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Map Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • * - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 27 Elementary Principles of Ballistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Antitank Weapons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Matériel and Ammunition . . . . . . . . . . . . . = @ e º 'º is s tº º a e º t e º e s tº º e s a $ tº 49 Organization, Field Artillery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . º 51 Leadership II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Fire Control Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Battery Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Duties of BC Detail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Care of Animals, Stable Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * * * * * * * g e º e s sº e º & e º sº 61 Equitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Care and Operation of Motor Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 67 INTRODUCTION CONTENTS Paragraphs Subjects Covered, Scope and Objective of Course . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Answers to Questions, Chapter I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Answers to Questions, Chapter II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Answers to Questions, Chapter III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Answers to Questions, Chapter IV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Answers to Questions, Chapter V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Answers to Questions, Chapter VI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Answers to Questions, Chapter VII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Answers to Questions, Chapter VIII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Answers to Questions, Chapter IX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Answers to Questions, Chapter X . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Answers to Questions, Chapter XI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 1. Subjects Covered, Scope and Objective of Course. Chapters II and III of the text discuss “Obligations of Citizenship”; Chapters IV to VII and Chapter XI, “Military History and Policy”; Chapters VIII and IX, “The National Defense Acts of 1916, 1920, and the ROTC”; and Chapter X, “The Selective and Training Act of 1940 as amended.” The scope and objective of the course is to familiarize the student with the relationship of the American citizen to his government; the military history and policy of the United States; the provisions of the National Defense Acts, including the Selective Training and Service Act of 1940 as amended; and the relation of the National Defense Acts and the Reserve Officers' Training Corps. 2. Answers to Questions, Chapter I. 1. The defense of the United States “Against all enemies, foreign and domestic.” 2. The Congress. 3. The maintenance of a small standing army of professional soldiers. 3 . Answers to Questions, Chapter II. a. Life, b. Liberty, c. Suſſrage, d. Holding public office, e. Private property, f. Justice, g. Security, h. Freedom of religion, i. Freedom of speech, j. Freedom of the press. 2. a. Obey the law granting rights to others, b. Serve on juries, c. Testify as witness, d. Pay taxes, e. Assist civil officers, when so ordered, to make arrests and prevent crime, f. Serve in the military forces in time of war. The first ten Amendments to the Constitution of the United States, called the “Bill of Rights”; the 13th Amendment: the first and fifth sections of the 14th Amendment; and the 15th Amendment are here quoted in full: 1 e ARTICLE I. Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances. ARTICLE II. A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms shall not be infringed. ARTICLE III. No Soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house without the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law. l 2 * INTRODUCTION ARTICLE IV. The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched and the persons or things to be seized. ARTICLE V. No person shall be held to answcr for a capital, or otherwise infamous, crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service, in time of War or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled, in any criminal case, to be a witness against himself, nor be de- prived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation. ARTICLE VI. In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be in- formed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor; and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defense. ARTICLE VII. In Suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise re-examined in any Court of the United States than according to the rules of the common law. ARTICLE VIII. Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fincs imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. ARTICLE IX. The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. ARTICLE X. The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people. , ARTICLE XIII. Section 1–Neither slavery or involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. Section 2–Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. ARTICLE XIV. Section 1-All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they re- side. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or im- munities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its juris- diction the equal protection of the laws . Section 5-The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legislation, the provisions of this article. ARTICLE XV. Section 1.-The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous con- dition of servitude. & i INTRODUCTION 3 Section 2–The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legisla- tion. 4. Answers to Questions, Chapter III. 1. These are quoted in Par. 13a. 2. Conscription of male citizens of military age was practiced to a limited extent in the Revolution and in the Civil War. During World War I, all male citizens between the ages of 21 and 30 were required to register for possible military service. The govern- ment then selected those it desired actually to serve in the armed forces. In the present war all men between the ages of 18 and 65 are required to register and all those be- tween 20 and 45 are eligible for military service. Pertinent provisions of the Constitution not fully quoted in the text include: (1) In Article I, Section 8, Congress, as the legislative branch of the government is empowered “to define and punish . . . offenses against the law of nations”; “To declare War, grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal, and to make Rules concerning Captures on Land and Water”; and further, generally, “To make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers” (i.e., those here recited together with various others set forth in the same section), “and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Depart- ment or Officer thereof.” w (2) In Article II, Sections 2 and 3, the President as the Executive Power, is con- stituted “Commander-in-Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the Militia of the Several States when called into the actual Service of the United States”; he is empowered to appoint (in conjunction with the Senate), and is required to com- mission the officers of the army, and it is made his duty to “take Care that the Laws be faithfully executed.” (3) The Fifth Amendment expressly provides for special military tribunals by the language of its exceptions: “No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or other- wise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger; . . .” (4) Certain other provisions of the Constitution should be noted as limitations on the exercise of military power, viz: (a) The provision of Article I, Section 10, that “No State shall, without the Consent of Congress . . . keep Troops, or Ships of War in time of peace . . . or engage in War, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent Danger as will not admit of delay.” (b) The provision of the Third Admendment whereby “No Soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house without the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law.” (c) The provision of Article I, Section 1, paragraph 16, “reserving to the States the Appointment of Officers and the Authority of training the Militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress.” 5. Answers to Questions, Chapter IV. 1. (a) Weak elements. (1) Short term enlistments, (2) Permitting the hiring of sub- stitutes as a compliance with the Conscription Act, (3) Reliance upon State troops. - (b) Strong element—Unity of command. 2. Observance of unity of command under General Washington made possible the concentration of forces at Yorktown. 6. Answers to Questions, Chapter V. 1. (a) Reliance upon National troops, instead of State troops. (b) A reasonably long period of training before putting troops into battle. 2. (a) In the War of 1812 the law did not clearly require the State militia to serve outside the boundaries of the United States. This led to the defeat and capture of General Van Renssalaer at Queenstown, Canada. (b) During the Mexican War, General Scott lost most of his army in the middle of a campaign because the term of enlistment was not for the duration of the war. 4 INTRODUCTION 7. Answers to Questions, Chapter VI. 1. First Battle of Bull Run. Three months' enlistments, about to expire, led to the Northern people forcing General McDowell to attack before his army was organized or trained. tº 2. Peninsular Campaign. Interference by the President and Secretary of War in de- tails of military operations, forced General McClellan to return a large part of his army to Washington City, where it was not needed. 3. At the Battle of Antietam, Maryland (on Lee's first invasion of the North), over half of McClellan's soldiers were absent from duty because of divided Federal and State control. * 4. In the Shenandoah Valley. Stonewall Jackson was able to operate with conspicuous success against three Federal armies, whose total strength was many times his own, be- cause the Federal armies were not coordinated under unity of command. 8. Answers to Questions, Chapter VII. 1. a. Making the State militia into National Volunteers, freed from State control. b. Making the term of enlistment longer. c. Much greater use of trained and experienced officers. 2. The establishment of the Infantry and Cavalry School, the School of Technique for Cavalry and Field Artillery, the Army War College, and other branch schools for certain branches of the Army. 9. Answers to Questions, Chapter VIII. War of 1812. (1) No unity of Command. (2) Short term enlistments. (3) Relying upon State troops. (4) Relying upon voluntary service. (5) Very little training. (6) Officers generally appointed by Gov- ernors of States. (7) Interference by civilian Secretary of War in the details of military opera. tlOn.S. (8) Officers often appointed for political reasons, (9) Bounty. (10) Some officers elected by their men. 10. Answers to Questions, Chapter IX. World War I. (l) Unity of command. (2) Enlistments for duration of the war. (3) All components of the Army were definitely made Federal troops. (4) The Selective Service Act. (5) Long periods of training, usually. (6) Officers appointed by the President. (7) Complete absence of interference by the President or Secretary of War in details of military operations. (8) Officers appointed on merit. (9) No bountv. Increase of pay for all ranks, during war. (10) All officers appointed. 1. All of the available manpower of the United States. 2. The Regular Army of the United States, the National Guard of the United States, the National Guard while in the service of the United States, the Officers Reserve Corps, the Organized Reserves and the Enlisted Reserve Corps. 3. It is the permanent military force of the United States and it provides: a. Garrisons for the continental frontiers of the United States; overseas possessions; small garrisons for its seacoast defense, and caretakers for the remainder. b. Personnel for the development and training of the National Guard, Organized Reserves, Reserve Officers' Training Corps, and for the conduct of Citizens' Military Training Camps. c. An organization for the administration and supply of peacetime establishments. d. A framework for rapid expansion to meet wartime requirements. e. A repository of cumulative military knowledge, and a laboratory for military developments so as to keep this country up to date and prepared. 4. A reserve consisting of single men who have completed one or more enlistments in the Regular Army, are under 36 years of age, and elect to join the reserve. 5. From graduates of the United States Military Academy; from warrant officers and INTRODUCTION 5 enlisted men of the Regular Army who have had at least two years' service; from honor graduates of the senior division of the Reserve Officers' Training Corps; from members of the Officers' Reserve Corps; from reserve officers, warrant officers, and enlisted men of the National Guard, members of the Enlisted Reserve Corps, and graduates of technical Institutions approved by the Secretary of War. - 6. It is a military force of a state or territory and also a reserve military force of the Army of the United States. * 7. As it is a reserve component of the Army of the United States, its organization, training and equipment are prescribed and controlled by the Federal Government. 8. When the President is unable to meet the military situation at hand with the regular force at his command. 9. They are commissioned by the governors of the several states. 10. The Officers' Reserve Corps and the Enlisted Reserve Corps. It is organized into units for a war army, but in peacetime these units usually include only officers and in some cases key noncommissioned officers. 11. To provide a large reserve of officers, trained in peacetime so as to enable our army to take the field promptly in time of war. 12. Eligibility to membership is limited to citizens, fourteen years of age or over, who are physically fit to perform military duty or will be so upon arrival at military age. 13. The senior division which is limited to universities and colleges granting degrees, and essentially military schools not granting degrees. The junior division is found in other schools, private and public. 14. Approximately $200. 15. In general it authorizes the President, in time of war, or emergency to take such steps as will prepare the nation industrially for war. 11. Answers to Questions, Chapter X. 1. To secure an orderly and democratic method whereby the military manpower of the United States may be made available for training and service with the least possible disruption of the social and economic life of the nation. 2. These Amendments extended the service of all selectees to six months after the cessation of hostilities, permitted selectees and National Guardsmen and all units of the Army of the United States to be used anywhere in the world and required that all men between 18 and 65 register. 3. Registration, classification, action upon appeals, selection and delivery into the armed forces. 4. The provision of induction stations, reception centers, and replacement centers, as well as the tactical units of the United States Army. 12. Answers to Questions, Chapter XI. 1. Shortly after the outbreak of war in Europe in 1939. 2. Germany, Italy, and Japan. 3. The United States was far better prepared in military training, equipment, and industrial preparedness. g References The Constitution of the United States. The National Defense Act. The Selective Training and Service Act of 1940. WAR DEPARTMENT Army Regulations (Sections dealing with R.O.T.C.) MAJoR GENERAL EMORY UPTON The Military Policy of the United States. Colonel William A. GANoe The History of the United States Army. Lt. Col. WILLIAM A. MITCHELL Outlines of the World's Military History. Current Newspapers and Periodicals. MILITARY COURTESY AND DISCIPLINE CONTENTS Paragraphs Scope of Course . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Answers to Questions, Chapter I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Answers to Questions, Chapter II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Answers to Questions, Chapter III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 1. Scope of Course. The scope of the course in Military Courtesy and Discipline is designed to cover the essentials of Military Discipline, Courtesies, and Customs of the Service. 2. Answers to Questions. Chapter I. 1. Military discipline is intelligent, willing, and cheerful obedience to the will of the leader. 2. Respect and mutual confidence. 3. Mutual trust. 4. By the soldierly quality of its leaders and members and its will to fight. 5. Contempt. 3. Answers to Questions. Chapter II. 1. Considerate behavior toward others. 2. Drill halls, riding halls, gymnasiums, and other roofed inclosures used for drill and exercise. - 3. Offices, hallways, mess halls, kitchens, orderly rooms, amusement rooms, bathrooms, libraries, dwellings, or other places of abode. 4. With arms in hand. Having attached to the person, a hand arm or equipment pertaining to the arm, such as a cartridge belt, pistol holster, or automatic rifle belt. Exception. The officers’ belt, M1921, without arms attached. 5. Distance at which recognition is easy. 6. No. 7. The junior. 8. By presenting arms. 9. Yes. 10. No. 11. No. 12. As mister. 4. Answers to Questions. Chapter III. 1. Lieutenant. 2. On the right. 3. The union should be to the flag's right (the observer's left). 4. No. 5. No. References WAR DEPARTMENT Basic Field Manuals, FM 7-5, FM 21-50, (C1), FM 100.5; Army Regulations, 600-10, 15, 25. MILITARY SANITATION AND FIRST AID CONTENTS Paragraphs Chapter. I. Responsibility for Health Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-8 Chapter II. Personal Hygiene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-11 Chapter. III. Communicable Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-19 Chapter. IV. Control of Intestinal and Insect Borne Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20–31 Chapter. V. Venereal Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-40 Chapter. VI. Suggestions for Instruction in First Aid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Chapter. VII. Answers to Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42-49 Chapter. VIII. Minimum Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * s e º ºs - a s 50 CHAPTER I RESPONSIBILITY FOR HEATH MEASURES 1. Basic Laws of Hygiene. The basic laws of health are those which govern the life and development of all plants and animals. There are four essentials: vigorous stock, proper and ample food, activity, and suitable environment. a. Vigorous stock. In Nature the fittest alone survive. When a plant or an animal is desired for a specific purpose, it is bred with that end in view. The human race is not bred that way. An army has to come from the people of the nation to which it belongs. We cannot, and do not, breed men for military purposes. Not by any means are all men fitted for the duties required of a soldier, but every effort is made to obtain the best possible type of recruits. b. Food. Proper and ample food is required to sustain life, develop the body, and ac- complish work. Plants and animals are not only bred but are also fed with a definite objective; beef cattle are fed differently from dairy cattle; special fertilizers are used to correct soil deficiencies and increase crop yields. Regularity in feeding is another im- portant essential; alternate feasts and famines do not produce the best results. The health, vitality, and well-being of humans are improved by proper food. c. Activity. Living organisms must be active. Men require regular work to harden them and give them active bodies and minds. Soldiers should be trained and cared for, but never coddled. Training during mobilization is always strenuous. It should not be permitted to become excessive. One of the most difficult things which an officer must learn is the line of demarcation between care and coddling, and between training and abuse. d. Environment. Sea plants grow only in salt water. White races do not flourish in the tropics. Negroes do not thrive in cold climates. The adaptability of individuals to sudden changes in environment is extremely limited. Slight variations in environment and mode of life may result disastrously, unless careful sanitary methods are used to adjust men to new conditions, and to make a suitable local environment. Under the conditions frequently imposed by the military service, it becomes the duty of com- manders to make an artificial environment suitable for their troops. 2. Simplicity. There is nothing mysterious in the laws of hygiene, nor in the appli- cation of the sanitary art by which hygienic laws are administered. The average citizen or soldier cannot be expected successfully to carry out complicated procedures, even though they are for the protection of his own health and that of his comrades. Sim- plicity is the keynote of successful sanitary practices. 3. Instinctive Sanitation. The art of sanitation is instinctive with the higher animals and among savage peoples. The dog will not wilfully soil his own kennel. When he paws the earth following his dejections, he is instinctively trying to cover them with earth. With savage peoples, the practice of sanitation is partly instinctive, and partly dictated by reason and the result of experience. Fear of epidemics makes them flee from infected 9 10 MILITARY SANITATION AND FIRST AID areas and exclude diseased persons from their communities. When sickness comes, they scatter and thus protect themselves from pestilence. 4. Historical. The following are a few examples of the great losses from diseases, as compared with actual battle losses, and the force of outbreaks of disease upon history and the present map of the world. , a. At the beginning of May, 1776, the American troops in front of Quebec numbered 1900 men, of whom 900 were sick with smallpox. This force, thus depleted by disease, was attacked and forced to retreat, on the 6th of May. Probably the best opportunity we ever had to acquire the territory now known as the Dominion of Canada was lost then and there. Sickness was a most important, contributing factor. b. In 1802, Napoleon sent an expedition of 58,000 men to Santo Domingo. Yellow fever, striking quickly and severely, so decimated this army that a small British force easily defeated it. Only 8000 men of this expedition returned to France. c. Napoleon's Russian campaign in 1812 was a failure due to losses from lack of food, shelter, and the inroads of disease. Of the 500,000 men who crossed the Dneiper in June, scarcely 20,000 recrossed it in December, and of these 500,000 only 60,000 lost their lives in battle. Hunger, cold and disease were the captains of the men of death. d. Of a Russian army of 115,000 that invaded Turkey in 1828-29, 6000 men were lost from plague in one month. e. In our Mexican War more than 100,000 men were sent into Mexico; almost 11,000 died from disease while less than 1600 were killed in, or as the result of, battle. f. During the Civil War the losses in the Union army from disease were two for every one killed in battle. The Confederate losses were estimated as four from disease for every one killed in battle. g. In the Spanish-American War we lost 968 men in battle and 5438 men from disease; of the latter 2192 were from typhoid fever alone. h. Even during the World War we lost 57,460 men from disease, and 50,280 men as the result of battle. 5. Sanitary Progress. We “moderns” take great pride in our so-called civilization. Many of our sanitary practices have been used for thousands of years with little or no improvement in their fundamentals. Slight errors may completely nullify the best in- tentions. Soldiers in the field are quickly and forcibly subjected to primitive conditions, Of modern sanitary practices, as well as of many other things, it can truly be said, “The veneer of civilization is extremely thin.” - 6. Responsibilities and Relationships of Line Officers and Medical Officers. History, tradition, custom, laws, and regulations make the commander the supreme authority in his organization. Of necessity, authority carries with it responsibility. No matter how much detail is delegated to staff and other subordinate officers, the real responsibility rests where it belongs, on the commanding officer. The commanding officer must have a surgeon on whom he can rely. The recommendations made by medical officers must be reasonable and practicable. Not infrequently young, inexperienced line officers have been known to resent reasonable recommendations of medical officers, and have asserted that the only concern of the medical officer is the administration of their organizations and taking care of the sick. Such an attitude invariably calls for rebuke from older, ex- perienced line officers, who fully realize the importance of protecting the lives and health of their men from unnecessary hazards. Nothing will bring forth greater and more prompt criticism from higher military authority, and also from civilian agencies, than undue sickness in a command. The sanitary report originates with the surgeon of the command and is forwarded to higher administrative authority. It is a critique of exist- ing sanitary conditions, good and bad, at the place, for the command, and during the period covered by the report. It is usually to the best interests of himself and his com- mand for the commanding officer to seek, accept, and use all the sound advice he can get from his medical officer. Funds, supplies, labor, and all other things necessary for sanitation are furnished by the Quartermaster Corps, or by the combat unit concerned. The Medical Department does not furnish labor, funds, or equipment for the prosecution of health measures ex- cept those that pertain to the actual care of the sick and injured. MILITARY SANITATION AND FIRST AID 11 7. Normal Sick Rates. In an organization consisting largely of recruits, a compara- tively high sick rate may be expected for a few weeks. This is the result of an ex- change of infections between recruits from diſſerent localities. By the end of three or four weeks the sick rate should drop to 1.0 to 1.5 per cent. 8. Abnormal Sick Rates. After troops are reasonably well seasoned, a sick rate of more than 2.0 per cent calls for investigation. Overcrowding, overtraining, poor food, in- sufficient clothing, venereal infections, lack of personal cleanliness, or some other in- sanitary condition will usually be found. Exceptionally, it may be due to an excess of men weakened by chronic disease. A 3.0 to 4.0 per cent sick rate usually means the presence of a virulent infection; the point where fatalities will occur is approaching; an epidemic may be smouldering. A rate of more than 4.0 per cent should sound like a fire alarm; it tells of impending danger; if the inſection is at all virulent, fatalities are to be expected. The intelligent organization commander will check his Sick Report daily and be aware of the health of his command. If necessary, precautionary steps can then be taken to improve sanitary conditions. CHAPTER II PERSONAL HYGIENE 9. Bathing. The average soldier will keep clean if he has the opportunity to do se. His officers must furnish him that opportunity by providing him with facilities and the time to use them. In the field, much can be accomplished with very simple and quite limited facilities. Here the ingenuity of the company commander is the determining factor in how well his men are cared for. One or two recruits in a hundred will persist in being filthy. Such men will be taught cleanliness by their comrades, very soon, in no uncertain manner, and without reference to the company commander, who should not inquire too closely into how the reformation was accomplished. Washing the hands before meals and after visits to the latrine should be emphasized. 10. Care of the Mouth and Teeth. From the standpoint of number and variety of con- tained bacteria the mouth is one of the dirtiest parts of the human body, and care of the mouth and teeth may well be emphasized. Controversies as to the best tooth brush, the best dentifrice, etc., are to be avoided. Ordinary toilet soap is a good dentifrice in an emergency; the finger can be used as a tooth brush. Plain water, or even better, ordinary salt water made with table salt, is an excellent mouth wash. 11. Care of the Feet. The responsibility of the company commander as to the condi- tion of the feet of his men is far from a perfunctory one. Every company officer should know the essentials of shoe-fitting and how to inspect ſcet. Basic principles can easily be demonstrated to a class in a few minutes. Every company officer should know how to treat a preblister and blister on the foot. CHAPTER III COMMUNICABLE DISEASES 12. Military Importance. So far as man himself is concerned, merely placing him in uniform does not make any diſſerence in him as a human being, nor in his biological reactions. Assembling men into military communities does make a difference. When troops are first concentrated into military organizations individual soldiers are more likely to become infected with communicable diseases. Later, when they have become “hardened,” and have had intimate contact with many men from many places, they are less likely to get sick. 13. Definitions. The terms infectious disease, contagious disease, and epidemic disease, are loosely synonymous. The term “communicable disease” is a more exact and more descriptive expression, the use of which is preferred by health officials. 12 MILITARY SANITATION AND FIRST AID 14. Epidemics. In epidemics, the source of infection must be present and of such a nature that the infection can reach a transmitting agency. The human population, or group, must contain a sufficient number of susceptible individuals whose activities and environment are such that they will be exposed to the infection. Transmitting agencies must be available in order that the causative organisms may be transferred from the source of infection to the susceptible persons. One leg of this three-legged stool must be broken to stop an epidemic. 15. Prevention and Control of Communicable Disease. Contributory factors in indi- vidual resistance to disease include: a. Previous environment. The acquisition of resistance to some diseases by residence in certain localities is a type of special immunity. It is enjoyed by residents but not by visitors. When troops are brought together from various localities, as in a general mobilization, each man brings his own disease—and his own resistance—with him. The immediate, intimate contact with other men spreads the disease but not the resistance. A new local immunity has to be built. This usually takes four or five weeks. During the World War mobilization the southeastern one-fourth of the United States furnished about one-fourth the men, but more than half the cases of measles and mumps. b. Age. Young men have little resistance to intestinal diseases. Their predisposition is increased by their natural habits. They go everywhere, are incautious, are always hungry and thirsty, and will eat and drink anything and everything offered or obtain- able. Youthful inclinations are potent factors in disease risk. c. Vitality. Strong, vigorous men are able to withstand many infections. When men are well fed, well clothed, well housed, and intelligently exercised they have greater re- sistance to all diseases. Anything which lowers vitality predisposes toward infection. Chronic diseases, such as malaria, hookworm, pellagra, or tuberculosis, and inadequate nutrition, have a weakening effect. Pestilence and famine go hand in hand; the famished usually also lack clothing, shelter and other physical comforts. d. Habits. Habits adjust persons to iife under different conditions. The human has comparatively little adaptability to sudden changes in habit and environment. Soldiers have to be readjusted to changes in food, clothing and mode of life. For example, read- justment of the dietary habits of men from some communities is often a very difficult problem. 16. Clothing. Company officers should take a personal interest in the clothing of their men, not only as a health measure but also from the morale and disciplinary standpoint. A well clad soldier is proud of his appearance and makes a greater effort to keep himself that way. Too often individuals in supply agencies suffer from inertia and will issue almost anything that conforms in general to the submitted requirements. 17. Work and Exercise. Work and exercise have been briefly commented upon. Re- cruits must be individually and carefully observed to prevent overworking them. Train- ing must be based on the capabilities of the weakest man in the squad. Soldiers in condi- tion can endure great hardships and expenditures of energy for short periods of time. The military objective of physical training is to bring the soldier and his necessary equipment to the firing line physically able to fight after he gets there. A by-product will be a physical condition that is highly resistant to attack by communicable disease. 18. Recognition of Sickness. The recognition of acute illness in an individual is com- paratively easy. Whether they realize it or not, all adults have done so many times. 19. Symptoms of Acute Disease. Headache, fever, rapid pulse, aching of the back and legs, and “feeling badly” are symptoms common to almost all the acute communicable diseases. In addition, there may be nausea, vomiting, cough, “colds,” chills, flushing or pallor of the face, dizziness, eruptions of the skin, or other symptoms. So far as the company officer is concerned any combination of these symptoms means that the victim is probably sick; that the sick should be removed from contact with the well, and should be brought to the attention of the medical officer. CHAPTER IV CONTROL OF INTESTINAL AND INSECT BORNE DISEASES 20. General Control Measures of Intestinal Diseases. These measures include water purification, food protection and control, waste disposal, and the control of the house fly. Many sanitary devices are constructed to protect food and humans from the causative organisms or to destroy the organisms. 21. Water Requirements. Company officers should know how much water is necessary for their commands. Except where military necessity dictates otherwise only those camp sites should be accepted which provide the troops and animals with an adequate water supply. Statements of local residents cannot be relied upon in determining the adequacy of a given source of water, nor as to its potability. The fact that a spring or a well has furnished adequate water for a family proves nothing when seeking water for a military command. * 22. Responsibility for Water Supplies. Water sources or water points having been designated by higher authority it is the responsibility of the company commander actually to obtain the water and distribute it to his men. Soldiers are prone to seek drinking water from all sorts of sources. 23. Selecting a Safe Water. Every source of water proposed for the use of troops should be considered unsafe until proved to be otherwise. The “history” of a water is much more important than its appearance. In some cases, proof of safety may require only a few minutes investigation; in other instances several days may be required to complete the necessary studies. In the meantime unknown waters must be sterilized. 24. Water as a Transmitting Agent in Disease. During the last forty years tremen- dous strides have been made in the provision of reasonably safe public water supply, yet during the seventeen year period 1920-1936 there was an average of one outbreak of water-borne disease worthy of note every two weeks in the United States and Canada. These outbreaks occurred in communities ranging in size from a few hundred people to more than a million people each, and involved as high as 92 per cent of the people of the community. One of these outbreaks occurred in one of the largest cities in the United States, and resulted in 45,000 cases of water-borne disease; it was the result of one hour's breakdown in the chlorination facilities of the city water plant just at a time when chlorination was most needed. 25. Protection and Sterilization of Water in the Field. Chapter 3, Field Manual 8-40, directs how water supply sources will be protected. With raw troops it may be neces- sary to post a guard over the water sterilizing bag to prevent individual soldiers from contaminating the treated water. The chlorine taste of treated water is not harmful. Soldiers should be warned of this fact. Tea or coffee may be substituted for boiled water in situations where boiled water must be used. 26. Nutrition. a. Food. Reference has already been made to food in the basic laws of health. Many recruits have been poorly fed, in quantity, quality or both. Soldiers require a relatively large amount of food for their physical development, and to give them energy to accomplish the work required of them. Under campaign conditions a soldier will eat about one-third more than he will in garrison. But quantity is not enough; it must be proper food, wholesome, well cooked, substantial and satisfying. b. Mess management. Mess operation cannot be left entirely to the mess sergeant, nor handled by the mess officer in a perfunctory manner. The soldiers' mess requires a great deal of time and thought on the part of the responsible officers. Meals must be well balanced in basic constituents, including the vitamins. It is very easy to fill a soldier’s stomach at the table but to give him a diet that truly satisfies him is much more difficult. Some soldiers will have to be taught to eat good food; for example, the recruit who has always lived on salt pork, corn meal, and molasses does not like the food of a good mess. Within the available facilities company commanders should make every effort to feed their men as they themselves would like to be fed. c. Mess sanitation. In mess sanitation the good housekeeping aspect should be em. phasized. Just as there is no royal road to learning, so there is no easy way to attain 13 14 MILITARY SANITATION AND FIRST AID scrupulous cleanliness. Soap, water and “elbow grease” is the greatest cleaning combina. tion in the world. 27. Disposal of Wastes. a. Kitchen twastes. The efficiency of the disposal of wastes of all kinds from the messing department is limited only by the ingenuity of the organiza- tion commander. Many kinds and types of devices for assisting in disposal of wastes are recommended, but no one kind or type is outstanding in efficiency or it would be universally used to perform the given job. b. Human wastes. Under field conditions the standard pit latrine is recognized as the best method of disposing of human excrement. It is used by all modern armies; that is why it is standardized. The necessity for fly-proofing this device should be emphasized. During the Spanish-American War open pit latrines were used, fecal deposits being cov- ered with lime; it was very common to find bits of lime on the food on the mess tables, deposited there by flies that had come directly from the latrines. c. Animal wastes. As a breeding place ſlies like only one thing better than horse manure, and that is pig manure. Properly composted manure “heats” to about 150 degrees F. Fly eggs and larvae are killed at about 115 degrees F. Fly larvae (maggots) leave manure piles to seek dry earth in which to pupate. Compost piles, therefore, should be surrounded by a ditch filled with water or oil, thereby making a larvae trap. 28. Camps. The desirable characteristics for a camp site are excellently and concisely described in paragraph 101, Field Manual 21-10. Sanitary installations in camps and their locations are covered in paragraph 103, Field Manual 8-40. 29. Fly Control. Absolute cleanliness is the greatest factor in fly control. The elim- ination of flies requires constant and hard eſfort. Close proximity of military or civilian buildings housing domestic animals greatly increases the ſly control problem. 30. Mosquito Control. In general it is not economically sound to eliminate the last mosquito, desirable as it may be. Usually the mosquito-borne diseases will be kept under control if the population of the specific vector is kept reasonably low. The advice of an experienced medical officer should always be obtained when dealing with the control of mosquito-borne diseases. 31. Bedburgs, Lice, and Fleas. Bedbugs are not a serious problem in the field, but lice may be. Ordinarily lice are dealt with as a larger unit proposition. Sometimes an isolated company will have to handle the problem on its own initiative and with such facilities as can be improvised. Excessive cold, 0 degree F., or excessive heat, 135 degrees F., for three or four hours, is fatal to both bedbugs and lice. Fleas are destroyed by the eradication of the animal hosts. CHAPTER V VENEREAL DISEASES 32. Prevention and Control. For the first time in history, the discussion of venereal disease as a public menace has been brought into the open and is now freely discussed before mixed audiences and in the public prints. The basic object of this public health drive against venereal disease is to reduce the number of infective cases, or sources of infection, by the recognition, “quarantine,” treatment and cure of the active cases, thereby reducing the opportunities for acquiring venereal disease. The splendid progress made by the armed forces in the control of venereal disease has no doubt greatly stimu- lated the activities of the civilian health agencies in their effort to eradicate this type of disease. - * 33. Responsibility. Unit officers are being held more and more responsible for the venereal disease situation in their own commands, and they are keenly aware of this responsibility. Those who are most successful freely and frequently seek the advice of medical officers in their efforts to control venereal disease in their own organizations, and fully cooperate with the military and civil authorities actively engaged in venereal disease control. & MILITARY SANITATION AND FIRST AID 15 34. Sources of Venereal Disease. The primary source of the venereal infections is the woman who practices illicit sexual intercourse, whether for cash, clothes, jewels, or other reasons. Venereal infection is so rarely acquired other than by sexual intercourse that when a militarized person claims to have acquired his infection innocently the burden of proof is on such claimant. Many cases of venereal disease come to the attention of the doctor in which the victim thought he was engaging in monogamous illicit sexual inter- course; but actually was not. 35. Prevalence of Venereal Diseases. The venereal diseases are no respecter of persons. Individuals of all classes of society, rich and poor, brilliant and stupid, young and not so young, married and single, enlisted men and officers, are apt to become infected with venereal disease under certain conditions of exposure. The medical profession is well aware of this possibility, and doctors study their patients accordingly. 36. Control of Sources of Venereal Infection. Since control of the primary source of venereal infections is a police function of the civil authorities, and therefore dependent to a large extent upon the local political situation, the military authorities sometimes have to bring considerable pressure to bear in order to bring about civil control of prostitution. One of the most effective means of bringing pressure to bear is to place certain areas, or even whole communities, “oſſ limits” to military personnel, with enforcement through military police action. While this is an administrative function of higher commanders, the company officers must cooperate not only in letter but also in the spirit of such orders. 37. Educational Control. The instruction in sex hygiene that company commanders give their men should be couched in plain but inoffensive language. Recruits should al- ways be warned against the boasting old (?) soldier who is in his first enlistment. The local environment is important. A civil community full of low paid girls, with an adjacent camp or post full of soldiers, makes an ideal situation for the propagation of the venereal diseases. 38. Alcohol and Venereal Disease. The use of alcoholic beverages has an important bearing on the venereal disease situation. In many persons alcohol stimulates the sexual centers, and lowers the will power. A great many venereal disease infections have been acquired while the victims were definitely under the influence of alcohol. 39. Prophylactic Treatment. The time element between exposure and prophylactic treatment is very important. Treatment within 24 hours is believed to be effective at times but in general, the earlier the treatment, the more effective it is in preventing the development of the venereal infections. It is a very common occurrence for soldiers to present themselves for prophylactic treatment at about daybreak, alleging exposure within the hour—the last recent exposure probably was within the hour. Another expedient of the soldier to save himself at least some punishment, is to wait until the very first symptoms of venereal disease appear, and then obtain prophylactic treatment, claiming exposure within an hour or so. He fools no one but himself. 40. Other Preventive Measures. Even though not officially recognized, the use of any and every efficient means to prevent infection by venereal disease in an exposed individual is believed to be justified and should be encouraged. CHAPTER VI SUGGESTIONS FOR INSTRUCTION IN FIRST AID 41. Many students will have had some instruction in first aid in Boy Scout work or other similar activities. The following practical methods of instructions are suggested in addition to the use of Oſficial Training Film Slide 8-7, War Department. a. Chapter VI. Demonstrate the issue first aid packet and its carrier. If instructional type of packet is available, have the students work in “pairs” and apply the dressing on several regions of the body. Have the students locate “pressure points” on themselves and other students. Have a squad place and partially tighten an improvised tourniquet on one of its members. 16 MILITARY SANITATION AND FIRST AID b. Chapter VII. Working in “pairs,” have the students demonstrate various types of improvised splints for fractured extremities. Easily accessible articles should be used. c. Chapter VIII. Working in “pairs,” have the students demonstrate the following: resuscitation of a “drowned” person, including the Schafer method of artificial respiration; and first aid to a person who has “fainted.” Stress the importance of the prevention of shock in the treatment of common injuries from accidents. Stress the use of common salt in the prevention of heat exhaustion. Working in “pairs,” have the students demonstrate various methods of “manual trans- port,” such as the “fireman's carry,” the “supporting carry,” and the “straddle-back carry.” Select students as patients and have other “pairs” of students load and unload patients from litters or improvised litters. CHAPTER VII ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS 42. Chapter I. 1. Commanding officers of all grades. 2. The daily sick report. 3. a. Selection of men fit to be made into soldiers. b. Keeping men fit to fight by preventing disease. c. Restoration of the disabled to physical fitness. 4. Commanding officers, on recommendations of medical officers. 5. Close cooperation between line and medical officers. 43. Chapter II. 1. Those measures or precautions which every person should take with the primary object of maintaining his own health. 2. Every individual soldier, every squad leader, every platoon leader, and every or. ganization commander. 3. To maintain the skin in a healthy condition, remove body wastes, and prevent louse infestation. 4. To keep the mouth and teeth clean and to prevent the decay of teeth. Brushing also keeps the gums healthy. 5. The organization commander. 6. Because it is by his feet that the soldier is able to transport himself and his equip- ment to the firing line. 7. To determine his personal hygiene, evidence of communicable disease, venereal disease, louse infestation, or chronic disease. 44. Chapter III. 1. a. Recruits, yes. Because of their new (military) environment. b. Older soldiers, no. Because of their military training and increased immunity to disease. 2. Source of the disease, susceptible persons, and proper contact between the source and susceptible individuals. 3. Direct contact, indirect contact, and special transmitting agents. 4. Some other case of the disease in a civil community or some case transferred to the command. 5. By building up individual resistance; prompt separation of the sick from the well; and the proper environment. 6. Excellent general health and strength. 7. Strict observance of personal hygiene; scrupulous cleanliness. 45. Chapter IV. 1. One gallon per man per day. (During combat, absolute minimum is 3 pints to 2 quarts per day for three days.) © MILITARY SANITATION AND FIRST AID 17 The commanding officer. No; not all are basically safe, nor are all eſficiently operated. By sterilization, using the simple equipment and supplies furnished to troops. By boiling. The disease producing germs they contain. Body cleanliness. 46. Chapter V. 1. Commanding officers. 2. Because of the close relationship with the gratification of a fundamental instinct. 3. By direct contact through sexual intercourse. 4. Suppression. Regulation does not regulate. Suppression makes the infected woman less accessible. 5. Education, recreation, punitive measures, and the abatement of sources. 47. Chapter VI. 1. The simple measures which are taken immediately for the relief of a sick or injured person. 2. Simple measures of treatment and common sense in their application. 3. No, not the wound itself. 4. Arterial, venous, and capillary. 5. By noting the actual amount of blood escaping from the wound. 6. Natural (blood clotting), elevation of the part, general pressure, and specific pressure (by hand pressure or the tourniquet on the blocq vessel supplying the part). 7. Loss of the limb. (Gangrene.) 8. A profound depression of the vital functions. 9. Warmth, dryness, comfort (quiet). 48. Chapter VII. 1. Simple and compound. 2. A piece of stiff material used to immobilize an extremity or part of an extremity. 3. To prevent further injury and shock. 4. Gentleness, cleanliness, and prevention of shock. 49. Chapter VIII. 1. See text. 2. Clear his air passages of water and foreign matter. 3. Get him into fresh air. 4. Try to dislodge the foreign body. 5. Bring the litter to the patient. If practicable, prepare the patient for transportation before he is moved. i CHAPTER VIII MINIMUM STANDARDS 50. Requirements: Each student must be able to: a. Differentiate between the responsibility of the line and medical officer in the preven. tion and control of disease. b. Give the principal methods by which communicable diseases are spread. c. Outline the principal measures available to the line officer for the control of respiratory diseases. d. Give the method of purification of drinking water in the water sterilization bag. e. Outline the principal measures available to the line officer for the protection of food in the control of intestinal diseases. f. Give at least one measure for the control of each of the following: flies, mosquitoes, lice and fleas. 18 MILITARY SANITATION AND FIRST AID g. Give the measures and the responsibilities of the line officer in the prevention and control of venereal diseases. h. Correctly apply first aid treatment to a wound, using the first aid packet. 4. i. Identify arterial hemorrhage and apply first aid treatment for the control of spurting hemorrhage of the arm or leg. j. Resuscitate a drowned man. k. Administer first aid treatment in case of snake bite. k References DUNHAM, GEORGE C. Military Preventive Medicine. Military Service Publishing Company, 1941. WAR DEPARTMENT Field Manual 21-10, Military Sanitation and First Aid. Field Manual 21-100, Soldier's Handbook. Field Manual 8-40, Field Sanitation. MILITARY ORGANIZATION.—GENERAL CONTENTS Answers to Questions, Chapter I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Answers to Questions, Chapter II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Answers to Question, Chapter III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Answers to Questions, Chapter IV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Answers to Questions, Chapter V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Answers to Questions, Chapter VI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6 Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 1. Answers to Questions, Chapter I. 1. It dictates the character of its military policy. 2. Sound preparation based on a correct appreciation of military requirements, and the application of a policy to meet these requirements. 3. All persons not in the armed forces who have been or may be, declared by Congress liable for performance of military duty. 4. The Congress. 5. The President. 6. a. The Congress. b. The Army and Navy end wars declared by the Congress. 2. Answers to Questions, Chapter II. 1. a. The War Department. b. The Secretary of War. c. A civilian. d. He is a member of the Cabinet. e. He administers the Army in time of peace and war, makes plans for its utilization in time of war, supervises estimates for appropriations, carries out the provisions of the National Defense Act, and has many more vital functions. f. He is charged with flood-control programs and improvements for navigation, is president of the National Forest Reservation Commission, and has administrative func- tions in connection with the Civilian Conservation Corps. g. He is assisted by the Under Secretary of War, an Assistant Secretary of War, an As- sistant Secretary of War for Air, and the Chief of Staff. 2. He is charged principally, with the duties delegated to him by the Secretary of War of securing, planning for, and providing supplies and installations for the Army. 3. He assists the Secretary of War in his duties. 4. a. The War Department General Staſſ. b. The Chief of Staff. c. He commands the field forces until a successor is named by the President. 5. The three Deputy Chiefs of Staff act as coordinating officers for the Chief of Staff. One Deputy Chief of Staff is concerned with aviation matters, another specializes in supply and construction and the activities of the armored force, and the third (senior deputy) is charged with all other matters referred to the oſfice of the chief of staff for decision. 6. a. Five. b. (1) The Personnel Division, known as G-1. (2) The Military Intelligence Division, known as G-2. (3) The Operations and Training Division, known as G-3. (4) The Supply Division, known as G-4. (5) The War Plans Division. - I9 20 MILITARY ORGANIZATION.—GENERAL 3. Answers to Questions, Chapter III. * ~ * - - 1. The Task Forces, the Defense Commands, the Theaters of Operations, the Army Ground Forces, the Army Air Forces, and the Services of Supply. 2. A defense command consists of the military forces within certain strategic areas of the United States or its possessions. 3. The Army Ground Forces provides units for the fighting forces. It organizes, trains, and equips them for combat operations, supplying them to tactical units of tasks forces, defense commands, or theaters of operation. 4. The Army Air Forces procures and maintains equipment peculiar to the Army Air Forces, and provides air force units properly organized, trained, and equipped for combat operations. 5. It provides services and supplies to meet military requirements except those peculiar to the Army Air Forces. 4. Answers to Questions, Chapter IV. * 1. The Infantry, the Cavalry, the Field Artillery, and the Coast Artillery. 2. The Adjutant General's Department, the Judge Advocate General's Department, the Quartermaster Corps, the Finance Department, the Medical Department, and the Ordnance Department. * - 3. The Infantry is the arm of close combat. Its primary role is to close with the enemy and destroy him. 4. The Cavalry is a highly-mobile ground force. Its special value is found in the rapidity with which its fire power can be moved from one position to another. 5. Field Artillery renders fire support for the other arms. Its two principal missions are: support of the Infantry, Cavalry, or Armored Force by fire, thus neutralizing or destroying targets that may prove dangerous to them; to give depth to combat by fire on hostile artillery, on enemy reserves, and command installations. 6. a. In conjunction with the Air Corps and the Navy, it protects naval units enter- ing, leaving, or in harbors, and defends against the hostile naval attack. b. It supports Infantry and other arms in beach defenses. c. It reinforces the antiaircraft agencies of other arms. 7. It is primarily concerned with construction and demolition to increase the combat effectiveness of our troops and hinder the movements and activities of enemy troops. 8. a. The Air Forces combat hostile aircraft, operate in conjunction with ground and naval forces, and conduct independent attacks against enemy on land and sea. b. Combat, reconnaissance, photographic, observation, and transport aviation. 9. It provides communication for the command to which it is assigned. 10. a. This department inquires into and reports on matters which affect the efficiency of the Army. b. The Judge Advocate General's Department supervises the administration of military justice, renders legal aid and advice when required, and has the custody of records of all general and special courts-martial, courts of inquiry, and military commissions. c. The Quartermaster Corps is the agency charged with the procurement, storage, and issue of all supplies of standard manufacture common to two or more arms, the movement of troops and supplies by common carrier, and many other similar duties. d. The Finance Department handles funds. e. The Medical Department takes care of the sick and wounded and sanitation in general. f. The Ordnance Department is charged with the supply and maintenance of am- munition, arms, and armament and certain types of heavy equipment. g. The principal service function of the Chemical Warfare Service is to provide chemical materials and gas defense appliances. h. The Chaplains promote morality and religion. 5. Answers to Questions, Chapter V. 1. a. Four. º b. Nine. MILITARY ORGANIZATION.—GENERAL 21 2. For the purpose of administration and for tactical purposes. 3. A defense command is a part of the United States or its possessions in which troops are organized under a single commander for operations against the enemy in that area. 4. A combat zone and a communication zone. 6. Answers to Questions, Chapter VI. 1. a. A staff. b. The battalion or squadron. 2. No. $ 3. The company, battery, or troop. 4. A captain, who commands a company, battery, or troop. 5. As many as may be assigned to it. Usually two. 7. Scope. The scope of this course calls for a general knowledge of the organization of the Army. References WAR DEPARTMENT Current Tables of Organization. Basic Field Manuals, FM 100-5, 1941; and FM 100-10, 1941. tº LEADERSHIP I CONTENTS Paragraphs Answers to Questions, Chapter II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l 1. Answers to Questions, Chapter II. 1. Except for the Commander-in-Chief, every individual in the military service is responsible to a higher commander, and hence can be said to follow a leader. Even the military commander-in-chief, a soldier, is answerable to the constitutional Commander-in-Chief, the President, who, in turn, is responsible to the people. 2. In a military organization, the private soldier controls no other than himself. How- ever, it often happens the circumstances give to the private an opportunity to lead others, and innumerable cases have occurred where this opportunity has been successfully grasped. 3. Consider the individual workman, the clerk, the member of an athletic team, or of a club or political party; the straw boss, subforeman, political ward leader, or athletic team captain; the foreman, chief clerk in a large office, or athletic manager; the industrial plant executive, office manager, or class president. 4. Consider the digging of a long uniform ditch; a mob animated by a common emo- tional motive; a massed chorus or an orchestra; a gun crew or airplane crew; mass calis- thenics, especially with electrical amplification of the leader's voice; a surgical operating team; a group of experimenters in a scientific laboratory; a football team. 5. These qualifications are explained by the War Department as: agility, ability to work rapidly; capacity for prolonged exertion; dignity of demeanor, neat and smart appearance; the trait of working thoroughly and conscientiously; acting jointly and effectively with another or others, military or civilian, to attain a designated objective; the trait of be- ginning needed work or taking appropriate action on his own responsibility in absence of orders; the ability to understand readily new ideas or instructions; the faculty of carrying out with energy and resolution that which on examination is believed reasonable, right or duty; the ability to think clearly and arrive at logical conclusions; and the capacity to direct, control, and influence others in definite lines of action or movement and still maintain high morale. HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF ARTILLERY CONTENTS Paragraph Answers to Questions, Chapter V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1. Answers to Questions, Chapter V. 1. The ballista, the catapult, the trebuchet. 2. The bombard of 13 tons, built in 1382; and the 19-ton bronze cannon used by the Turks in 1453. 3. Making cannon movable and increasing fire power and rapidity of fire. 4. Guns, mortars and howitzers. 5. He increased the efficiency of organization, training, tactical handling and mobility. 6. 3.5 to 6.2 inches. 7. Hydropneumatic recoil mechanism, simple and efficient breechblock mechanism, light weight. 8. Toward the gun. 9. 75 miles. 10. Greater weight and greater range of design. MAP READING CONTENTS Paragraphs Chapter I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 * * * * is & a g º º 1-4 Chapter II. Location and Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . s - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 5-10 Chapter III. Distance and Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-19 Chapter IV. Direction and Azimuth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-29 Chapter V. Elevation and Relief . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-35 Chapter VI. Map Reading in the Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-46 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1. Military Map Reading. a. Introduction. The text is boiled down to a simple concise explanation of the essential operations of practical map reading. All elaboration and general information are in the Supplement, in the belief that they come better from the platform than from the written page. It constitutes a foundation upon which any instructor can build interest and prestige. It is presumed however, that all pertinent matter contained in the Supplement will reach the student. The plates are not just illustrations of occasional points of the written text. They are a complete pictorial treatment of the subject, and are an integral part of the text. Most of the plates are original and much thought has gone into their selection and design, that they may clearly demonstrate some operation. They are extensively annotated with this purpose in view. The written text in many instances is an elaboration of the plates, rather than the plates being illustrations of textual points. º: For the above reasons it is suggested that this subject be taught by considering all three of its parts (text, plates, and supplement) in parallel. b. General. The military terrain consists of various features which may be considered as favorable or unfavorable to an operation, depending upon whether they tend to facili- tate or to hamper our activities or those of the enemy. To be able to recognize these features and properly to evaluate them, is the problem confronting tactical commanders. Other things being equal, the commander who best recognizes these features and utilizes them the most skillfully (exploits the favorable, and circumvents the unfavorable) has thereby an advantage, often the deciding advantage. The tendency today is toward wider fronts and greater depths. Motorization and mechanization make wider and faster move- ments possible. The commander of tomorrow will have more terrain to learn and less time in which to study it. Personal reconnaissance may be impracticable because of the great areas involved and the lack of time. Thus the knowledge of the terrain upon which plans are based will frequently be limited to that which can be secured from maps. The ability to read maps accurately, rapidly, and skillfully has become a most necessary attribute to the successful tactical commander. There is nothing difficult about map reading. Unfortunately, however, maps will be read in battle, often when hands are numb and clumsy from wet and cold; when mind and body are dulled by fatigue and exhaustion; read in an environment of noise, confusion, excitement and frequently under the prod of haste. These conditions are a fertile field for errors. Errors in map reading may be very costly. There must be no such errors. The only assurance against them, is knowledge of the essential operations of map reading; so thoroughly understood and deeply rooted by practice that their performance is automatic. 2. Military Maps. a. The stråtegic map. This is not essentially a topographical map because no effort is made in it to show relief. However, the major drainage is shown, and the location, direction and extent of barrier mountain groups are usually indicated by the hachure method. A normal sheet shows an area about 200 miles by 250 miles, which may include two or more states. On this map, a combat division in position occupies an 27 28 MAP READING area about that of a postage stamp, and a day's march would amount to about two inches. The main characteristic of the map is that it shows in detail the road, railroad, and water route netS. b. Medium-scale maps. These are topographical maps, utilizing the contour method (VI. 20 ft.), for relief. On a 1:62,500 map, a battalion occupies about the area of a postage stamp, and one day's march may take the troops off the sheet. Tactical dispositions within the division can be shown, down to and sometimes including the company. The scale does not permit the detailed plotting of combat groups and individual auxiliary weapons. c. Large-scale maps. These are detailed topographical maps, usually with a contour interval of 20 feet. The scale is sufficiently large to permit plotting small defense areas, and auxiliary weapons in detail. A platoon defense area occupies an area about the size of a postage stamp. Therefore problems in minor tactics can be solved in the classroom, using this map as a substitute for terrain. It is also an excellent map for the securing of fire data for auxiliary weapons, and has been known in the past as the “Fire Control” map. Technically, when an area is “mapped,” and the area is so extensive that the resultant “map” would be too large to handle, it is cut up into “sheets” or “quadrangles.” How- ever, the term “map” is by custom used as a generic term in referring to any “sheet” or “quadrangle.” º 3. Conventional Signs. Copies of FM 21-30 should be available for circulation in class during this phase of the instruction, both for demonstration of the standard Conven- tional Signs, and also for the samples of types of maps contained therein. Conventional signs may be divided into three general classifications: a. Those that directly picture the feature represented. Roads, streams, lakes, cities, woods, and in fact the vast bulk of the signs fall in this class. b. Those that exploit, by exaggeration, some commonly known characteristic of the feature. Thus the railroad sign is an exploitation of the cross-ties; and the barbed wire fence sign is an exploitation of the barbs. c. Those that exploit some associated idea. Thus the cross, suggesting religion, used in conjunction with a building means a building connected with religion, and therefore a church. Crossed picks convey the idea of digging, hence a “mine.” Certain artificial expedients have had to be adopted, notably the use of the broken lines for types of roads, for ruins, and similar instances. These, however, are understandable, and once mentioned and explained, their selection and use are acceptable and logical. Conventional signs are drawn to scale whenever possible, and their size indicates the size of the feature represented. However, roads, individual houses, and similar small features would be too small to be seen if drawn to true scale on the smaller scale maps. Their plotted size is therefore based on legibility rather than actual size. 4. Special Military Svmbols. The authorized Special Military Svmbols are published in FM 21-30 and in the Reference Data, C&GS School. When plotted on the map, the symbol should be large enough and neat enough to be clearly legible; and not so large as unduly to obscure or encumber the map. A few pains taken in their original plotting will obviate later erasures and rerlotting. Enemy installations are shown in red, and friendly installations in blue. In the case of the unit svmbols, the identification must be in accordance with the authorized abbreviations. All lettering preceding (left of) the sº must be in capitals, and all lettering following (right of) the symbol in lower case etters. CHAPTER II LOCATION AND COORDINATES 5. Names. The identification numbers of hills on military maps are invariably based on elevation. Some mapped areas are so extensive that more than one hill of the same elevation may occur. In such cases letters are added to the number for further identifi- cation. “Hill 608-c” indicates that there are at least two other hills of an elevation of 608 feet within the mapped area, though not necessarily within the same sheet. These other hills would be numbered “608-a,” and “608-b,” respectively. The same general procedure is followed with regard to crossroads and road junctions. However, on some maps the crossroad and road junction numbers are based on an arbitrary sequence and not on elevation. Checking a few road junction numbers against the elevation as indi- cated by the contours will disclose whether or not this is the case on any given map. 6. Location by Polar Coordinates. Generally speaking, identification consists of the correct naming or describing of the object in question. Such expedients as polar coor- dinates and in most cases grid coordinates are used to bring the attention of the reader to the vicinity of the object in question, where he will find it quickly. Considerable leeway is permitted, by custom, in the use of polar coordinates, both as to the distance and as to the direction. Its purpose is to bring the attention of the reader to a point sufficiently close to the feature in question that he cannot reasonably, mistake some other similar feature for the one intended. 7. Location by Grid Square. Description of the geographical coordinate and the rectangular coordinate systems of indicating location have been omitted from the body of this text, but are briefly described in the Appendix (Chapter VII). They are seldom, if ever, needed in military map reading, and their inclusion in elementary texts is con- fusing, rather than clarifying. Likewise, the whole subject of the nature and origin of the grid system of the United States, with its zones, overlap, points of origin, and the technical complications involved have been omitted here but covered briefly in the Appendix. Knowledge of these technical details is not necessary to map reading. The use of the grid square method of indicating location is coming into greater usage and favor. Many military maps are so replete with names and numbers that even when a feature has a definite identification name or number, a person unfamiliar with the map or the ground in question may waste much time searching in vain for the feature. By stating the grid square in question, this search is at once limited to one square, and the feature is quickly located. This method is used to locate named or numbered features as a means of saving time. It is also sufficient identification for unnamed features such as hills, woods, farm houses, and road junctions, when only one such feature occurs in the particular grid square involved. 8. Location by Grid Coordinates. Because of the nation-wide grid system, grid num- bers ran up to 3000. No single sheet of standard military maps will show as many as a hundred grids, though more than ten will be the rule. Therefore the thousands digit and the hundreds digit of grid numbers, when they do occur on any sheet, are usually repeated for all of the lines. They have no identification value, and should be dropped when writing coordinates. Blackboard demonstrations will best show why a reading to one decimal is a reading “to the nearest 100 yards,” and why a reading “to the nearest 10 yards” requires a reading to two decimals. The decimal point divides each coordinate figure into two parts. The figure in front of the decimal indicates the grid line bounding the square, and upon which the interpolation is based. The part of the figure following the decimal gives the fraction of the grid interval, in decimal form. This is normal procedure and nothing should be said to imply that the grid coordinates are in any way different in principal or usage from established forms of measurement. The statement “6.5 inches” indicates a point that is half way between the 6- and the 7-inch marks on a ruler. Similarly, the coordinate figure 6.5 indicates a point half way between the 6 and the 7 grids. The following errors in coordinates are frequently encountered: a. Failure to inclose in parentheses. 29 30 MAP READING b. Figures reversed. c. Grid line number digits in excess of the last two not dropped. d. Failure to carry both figures to the same number of decimals. e. Writing or plotting .04 as .40. f. Basing reading on a road, fence or other line mistaken for a grid line. 9. The Coordinate Card. Both types of coordinate cards have advantages, and little is to be gained by discrediting either one. The student should feel that he can use either with ease and accuracy. Normal experience in the field is that one cannot find a co- ordinate card when he needs it. A rectangular type coordinate card can be made for any military map in the field in just a moment. Use the corner of any card, envelope, paper, or message blank (tear a corner off the map itself) that is available. Use the extension on the yards graphic scale appearing on the map, and tick off on the corner of the card or paper the 100-yard divisions of this scale. The whole procedure takes less than a minute, and the result is a serviceable and accurate coordinate card, auto- matically of correct scale for the map in question. It is suggested that no effort be made to issue coordinate cards to classes, but that they be required to make their own in this manner as a matter of routine. The coordinates of points Q and R on Plate 5 are (42.41-13.50) and (42.78-13.24), respectively. 10. Coordinates on the 5000-yard Grid Maps. The 5000-yard grid system of the tactical maps causes many errors in reading and plotting coordinates. The most common error is to ignore the omitted grids, and to give the coordinate reading in two decimals direct from the coordinate card. The coordinates of point P in Plate 7 would thus incorrectly be given as (40.37-85.23) instead of (43.7-873). Solutions To Exercises, Chapter II . HOLLIDAY HILL (21-20). . NALLE HILL (19-22). . 52d INFANTRY WOODS (24-21). OLIVER HILL (20.7-18.2). . 4th INFANTRY WOODS (17.8-18.5). . BUMA HILL (23.5-20.8). . RJ (22.15-22.48). . House (18.92-21.60). Stream junction (24.83-21.28). . House (22.04-20.96). . Railroad and highway crossing (2\'57-20.99). . Narrow-gauge railroad. Cemetery. Water tank. . Bench Mark No. 48, elevation 375 feet. . Swamp or marsh, wooded. ( 5. 5 Road junction one-quarter mile (or 400 yards) northeast of Bench Mark 454 24-21). b. Hill 500 yards north of JORDAN HILL (23-19). c. Woods on western slope of JOURNEY HILL (22-21). d. Woods 200 yards south of EBBERT HILL (18-19). 6. A Bench Mark is a surveying monument marking a spot whose elevation has been accurately determined. The correct symbol is a cross (diagonal arms) with the letters “BM” and the elevation. Sometimes the serial number of the Bench Mark is also shown. 7. a. Not enclosed in parentheses. Grid numbers in excess of the last two numbers not dropped. Both figures should read to the same number of decimals. Should be written; House (21.54-20.49). t : Coordinate figures in reverse sequence. Should be written: BM 415 (20.70- 18.73). - c. The “.03” of the second figure is incorrectly shown as “30.” Should be written: BM 422 (18.42-2003). 1. CHAPTER III DISTANCE AND TIME 11. The Graphic Scale. This scale appears on all military maps, and is the only scale used in practical map reading. It is not necessary that a student have any knowledge of the other methods of expressing scale (RF and the words and figures) in order to use the graphic scales. The inclusion of extensive technical instruction regarding the other types of scales in present documents is a hangover from the time when the making of maps and sketches was a basic military subject required of all officers, and is superfluous to the subject of Map Reading. The graphic scale is the only scale used in map reading, and is the most accurate, as it remains true to the map throughout all expansion or contraction, and also during photographic, or pantographic enlargement or reduction. 12. Measuring Distance on a Map. a. Maps show horizontal distances only and do not take into consideration any increase in ground distance occasioned by slopes and inter- vening hills or relief. However, except in the most rugged terrain, the increase in true ground-surface distance over the direct horizontal distance is negligible. In normal terrain, such variation is usually less than the probable map error and the reading tolerance. The horizontal distances determined from the map are the accepted distances in all military map reading and problems. The following errors frequently occur in making distance measurements. (1) When the divisions of the extension scale are not marked, the reader overlooks the fact that this scale is inverted, and mechanically figures its divisions from the left, instead of from the zero point which is at its right. (2). The Kilometer scale is inadvertently used for mile or yard measurements. It is an excellent safeguard against this error to run a red line through the kilometer scale, if any, immediately upon receipt of the map. (3) Many errors of exactly 1000 yards (or of one mile) are encountered in making measurements of distances greater in length than the graphic scale shown. This is because the reader first measures off the full length of the graphic scale, including the extension, but records the figures shown on the primary scale, only. b. Instruction in measuring distances should include: (1) Measuring distances of less than the graphic scale in extent. (2) Measuring distances greater than the length of the graphic scale, requiring the measurement to be made in two or more legs. (3) Plotting given distances on the map. 13. Measuring Road Distance. For mechanical drafting purposes, most maps show roads as a succession of straight stretches with angular corners. On such maps these straight stretches automatically determine the legs of the measurements. On maps where the roads are shown as flowing curves, the reader must convert these curves into a succession of straight legs, their number and relative length depending entirely upon his own con- ception of the amount of accuracy needed. Plate 11 shows an example of such division. The mechanics of making the measurements is often called the strip-pivot method, and is much easier demonstrated than explained. The strip of paper upon which the succession of legs is to be recorded is pivoted at the point of each change of direction to the new direction. Thus the legs accumulate on the strip in an unbroken succession, and their cumulative total can be measured in one operation. When accuracy is required, it is desirable to measure a road distance in this manner, then to re-measure it in the op- posite direction and on the opposite side, and to take the mean of the readings. This method should cancel out errors due to working the inside and the outside of the turns. 14. The Representative Fraction. The representative fraction is a clue to the nature of a map. By reducing the fraction to more understandable terms, the picture becomes clearer. A RF of 1:63,360 indicates a map in which one inch of map space must con- tain all the features of a mile of ground distance. Obviously, only major items can be shown in such limited space, and much detail must be omitted. An RF of 1:10,000 indicates that there are approximately six inches of map available in which to show the features occurring in each mile of ground distance. This is ample space in which to B. F.A.—Sup. 31 32 MAP READING plot every feature in considerable detail. Thus, to the experienced map reader, the RF is more than a mere technical mathematical statement, but by its association of ideas it is also a statement as to the general nature of the map as regards the amount of detail. This is its prime military use today. It is the only simple and convenient method by which the nature and type of a map can be conveyed by spoken or written means. 15. Determining the Representative Fraction. It seldom will be necessary to deter- mine the representative fraction of a map; and the knowledge of how to do so is not essential in order to be able to read a map. When time is limited, all instruction or mention of the Representative Fraction, its determination, and the making of a graphic scale may well be omitted, without in any way leaving the student less competent to take a military map, as issued, and use it to the full extent of its capabilities. There is, however, the necessity to be able to determine representative fractions, and to make graphic scales in using aerial photographs as they are now issued to the using services. Therefore, time permitting, instruction in these phases of map reading may be of benefit to students who may progress to Aerial Photograph Reading. 16. Words and Figure Scales. This method of expressing scale is seldom found on military maps but is common usage on civilian maps because of its descriptive value, and because the average untrained mind readily grasps its meaning. 17. Constructing A Graphic Scale. It is seldom, if ever, that there will be need to con- struct a graphic scale for practical military map reading. Its construction, however, is simple and requires little time or effort. It is presumed that college students are sufficiently grounded in elementary mathematics, including ratio and proportion to be able to apply its fundamental principle that the product of the means equals the product of the extremes, and also in the graphic (parallel lines) method of dividing a prime line into any number of equal subdivisions. 18. Converting Distance To March Time. The 2% mph, and all similar rates are actually not rates of march, but rates of travel. Foot troops habitually march 50 minutes and rest 10 minutes of each hour. They cover the 2% miles in the 50 minutes of march- ing, and they actually move at a rate of 3 mph while marching. Nevertheless, they cover only 2% miles of distance in each hour of travel. Calculations based on a rate of 2% mph are correct for full hours of travel. They are not correct, however, for fractions of an hour; and students are quick to discover and question this point. The decision to use the prescribed rates for all calculations, including the fractional hours, is arbitrary, and entirely a matter of expediency. To know that the method does contain a flaw of accuracy, and that it is the accepted military method of making time-distance calcula- tions is part of the subject of “military map reading.” Another arbitrary decision, knowledge of which is expected in military map reading, is the carrying of time calculations to the next full minute, even though the fraction be a minor one. Thus 33.2 minutes would be stated as 34 minutes. A very common error in time-distance problems is neglect to convert the decimals of hours into minutes. Thus 4.56 hours is sometimes used erroneously as 4 hours and 56 minutes. g 19. Converting March Time To Distance. Comments in the preceding paragraph apply. The most common error is failure to convert hours-and-minutes to hours-and-decimals. Thus the 3 hours and 15 minutes is often used as 3.15 hours instead of 3.25 hours. The use of clock time in the examples has been purposely omitted. The most com- mon error encountered in clock-time computations is the inadvertent use of a 100-minute hour. It will obviate many such errors habitually to manipulate the hours and minutes separately. Thus, the elapsed time between 7:41 and 11:18 would be figured as follows: 11:18 (or) Io:78 (60 minutes transposed) (minus) 7:41 3:37 MAP READING 33 Solutions To Exercises, Chapter III 1. 2175 yards. 2. 3425 yards. 3. 3.33 miles. 4. 1 hour 20 minutes. { 3.33 miles -- 2.5 mph = 1.23 hours 1.33 hours (X 60) = 1 hour 19.8 minutes = 1 hour 20 minutes 5. a. The head of the column will stop for lunch at RJ (21.32-21.18). 11:30 – 8:47 = 2 hrs 43 min (travel time) 2 hrs 43 min = 2.72 hrs 2.72 × 2.5 mph = 6.80 miles (distance). b. Head of column will arrive at 1:59 PM. Total distance scaled on map is Io.50 miles 10.5o –– 2.5 = 4.20 hrs (travel time) 4.20 hrs = 4 hrs 12 min 4 hrs 12 min – 1 hr (lunch -- 8:47 (star:) = 1:59 PM. c. Tail of column will clear at 2:47 PM. 2 mi (length of column) –– 2.5 = .80 hrs = 48 min 1:59 PM -- 48 min = 2:47 PM. 6. 1:10,115. The line measures 1700 yards (by the yards graphical scale) of ground distance and also measures 6.05 inches on the map. 6.05 inches on the map = 1,700 yards on the ground 6.05 “ “ “ “ = 61,200 inches on the ground I & 6 “ “ “ = Io, I 15 inches on the ground I = Io, I 15 (RF). 7. 3.6 inches. 1ooo yrds = 36,000 inches 1:Io,ooo = x : 36,000 10,000x = 36,000 x = 3.6. CHAPTER IV DIRECTION AND AZIMUTH 20. Direction, General. Considerable leeway is permitted, by custom, in the use of the geographic terms to indicate direction. It is not customary, to subdivide the geographic directions to less than the half-quadrant, such as “northeast.” Further subdivision, such as “north northeast,” is discarded in favor of the azimuth method. The official signifi- cance and authorized usage of the relative terms, right, left, front, and rear is covered in paragraph 71 e, Staff Officers' Field Manual, (FM 101-5), and is usually discussed in Service School publications under “Combat Orders.” 21. The Azimuth Circle. Exposition of the subject of “angles” does not appear to be necessary to instruction in or understanding of azimuths. Unfortunately, many in- dividuals visualize an angle only as an acute angle. As soon as they are informed that an azimuth is an angle it creates some mental obstacle to handling azimuths in the third and fourth quadrants, and is probably the cause of many azimuth errors. The subject of azimuths can be approached directly as a matter of absolute direction and not as a matter of angles. Technically, there is no such thing as the azimuth of a point. Nevertheless, it is common military procedure to say, “What is the azimuth of the house at —,” or “The azimuth of the target is .” It is presumed that the reader knows the point at which the direction initiates. Unless the reader has been definitely placed at the initial point, it is better to ask: “What is the azimuth of the line from O to A.” or “What is the azimuth of the line O-A,” making an instructional point of noting the sequence in which the points are expressed. Distance between points in no way effects the azimuth. 22. The Protractor. Most map reading protractors are graduated in one-degree units. Large protractors are sometimes graduated to show half-degree units and very small ones 34 MAP READING to five- or ten-degree units. The handling of all protractors is similar, irrespective of the type or their graduations. 23, Measuring a Map Azimuth. It makes no difference at what point on a line, or the extension of a line, the azimuth reading is taken. It is necessary to have the zero (or 360-degree point) of the protractor exactly north, and the 180-degree point exactly south. The vertical grids on military maps form convenient lines upon which to register the protractor. The protractors found in the service (and the service compass) permit readings to about one-half degree, and this is considered to be the maximum accuracy reasonably to be expected in military map reading. It is military custom to work in terms of fractions, rather than the true degree subdivisions of minutes and seconds. Thus an azimuth half way between 94° and 95° would be called 94%% rather than 94° 30'. 24. Plotting an Azimuth On a Map. The fundamental difference in reading and in plotting azimuths is that an azimuth can be read from a grid line, but it cannot be plotted from one. The reason is that in the first case the line to be read actually exists and therefore can be extended. In the second, there is as yet no line, only a point which rarely will be on a grid. It is, therefore, necessary to plot the azimuth from a base line through the initial point itself. The base line of the protractor can be made approximately parallel to the nearest vertical grid, by inspection, and with sufficient accuracy for general readings, such as direction of advance. When greater accuracy is desired, as in fire direction, intersection and the like, it is necessary to construct a base zero line. A simple method is to measure the horizontal distance (off-set) of the point from the nearest vertical grid on an edge of paper. Then plot this same off-set back on the map several inches above and again several inches below the initial azimuth point. A line drawn through these construction points will be vertical, parallel to the grid, and pass through the point. 25. Back-Azimuth. The back-azimuth is used extensively in military work. It is encountered in the field in location by resection, and in TOG fire data calculations. With protractors that show the double scales, 0° to 180°, and 180° to 360°, the back-azimuth of any given direction can be determined by reading the given azimuth in terms of the other scale. 26. Intersection and Resection. In the example shown, the house is determined to lie on the azimuth of 112° from RJ482, but just at what point along this line is not known. It is also determined to lie on an azimuth of 30° from RJ 516, though just where along the line is also not known. Therefore, the house lies on both azimuth lines. There is only one point common to both lines, and that is the point of intersection. Therefore, this must be the location of the house. Intersection is an accurate and simple method of determining location. It is used in map making and surveying (triangulation), and is more accurate and faster than chaining distance. Incidentally, it is the principle upon which the range finder is based. Resection is basically intersection, the difference de- pending on whether the readings are made toward or from the unknown point. It being impossible to plot an azimuth from a point not yet located, it is necessary to con- vert the readings in resection so that they can be plotted from the known points. This requires a conversion to back-azimuths. The determination of the location of an un- known point is always based on plottings from two known points. The closer the angle of intersection to 90°, the better. 27. The Mil. The mil is that unit of angular measure whose tangent is 1/1000, or which at a distance (radius) of 1000 yards subtends 1 yard of arc. It is a convenient unit of measurement for the military because of its usefulness in determining frontage widths and ranges. For example, if the range to the enemy is determined to be 1000 yards, and he occupies 250 mils of angular frontage, it follows that he occupies 250 yards of ground frontage. I degree = 17.8 mils. 1 mil = o.o.56 degrees. At the present time, the degree is the established unit for map-reading direction, and the mil is used only in fire data computations both for horizontal and vertical angles. MAP READING 35 28. Declination. a. True north is the direction toward the geographic north pole. This can easily be determined in the field from the north star, and is a fixed direction which does not change. It is the basis for all survey work, and therefore for map construction. b. Grid north is the direction of the vertical grids on the map. The central grid of each grid zone is based on the meridian, and is therefore also true north. But all the other grids of that zone are drawn parallel to the center grid. If prolonged, they would miss the north pole by 1000, 2000, or more yards depending on their distance from the center grid. This divergence is negligible on any one sheet, but becomes appreciable toward the outer edges of the zones and must be considered. All military map work in direction is in terms of grid azimuths. c. Magnetic north is the direction in which the magnetic needle points, or the direction of the north magnetic pole which is located at quite some distance from the geographic pole. This direction not only varies in different parts of the country, but also changes from year to year. Maps show the amount and direction of magnetic declination with the year of computation, and also the calculated amount and direction of annual change. It was customary to make the grids true north until the nation-wide, grid-zone system was devised. Thus on some maps, particularly old ones such as the Gettysburg series, the grids are true north and there is no grid declination. Declination is always based on and given in terms of true north. Declination, unlike azimuth, can be either east or west, and this information must always be shown, either in written form or diagram- matically. 29. The Grid-Magnetic Adjustment. There is probably no technical phase of map reading which gives students as much trouble or causes more confusion than declinations and their adjustment. This is because it is impossible to lay down a specific formula that covers the many variations possible in the arrangement of the base directions. Instructors should avoid “spreading” themselves on the matter of the grid north and the magnetic north with their many ramifications, thereby filling their listeners with awe and consternation. To state that the grid, true, and magnetic norths are different lines can be grasped as such and usually accepted. To proceed immediately to the matter of the adjustment is to keep the mind of the student to the desired channel. Excursions into the “whys and wherefores” are interesting but also diverting. The two-step, diagrammatic method of first determining the amount of the adjustment, and then the relation of the magnetic to the grid by separate diagram is usually successful. The student can clearly see on the diagrammatic plotting that the magnetic azimuth must be greater (or less) than the grid azimuth. When he grasps this, he will be able in any given case, to decide when to add and when to subtract. Emphasize that on any given map true north and magnetic north are fixed; only magnetic north varies. Solutions To Exercises, Chapter IV 1. a. 43°. b. 11.1% 9. c. 20.7% 9. d. 327°. 2. A road junction at (23.31-19.32). 3. a. 2° 30' East (1935) 2° 44' East (1942) b. 29 12" East c. 32 minutes or % degree, to be substracted from the grid azimuth to get magnetic azimuth. 4. 279° mag az (279%% graz—% ° adjustment). 5. At the center of the “O'” in LONG HILL (20.75-1993). 123° mag az – 8° adjustment = 115° grid az 207° mag az – 8° adjustment = 199° grid az Grid azimuths of 115° and 199° plotted from BM's 471 and 449, respectively, intersect at the above point. 6. On top of a small hill at (19.47-19.00). 29.1° mag az — 8° adjustment = 283° grid az 36 & MAP READING 228/2” mag az — 8° adjustment = 220%" grid az 283° — 180° = 103° back azimuth 220%.” — 180° = 40%.” back azimuth The above back azimuths plotted from BM's 418 and 416, respectively, intersect at the above point. CHAPTER V ELEVATION AND RELIEF 30. Relief. The topography or relief of an area practically dictates the details of its tactical use. Certain features are favorable or unfavorable, depending on the point of view. Such vital factors as fields of fire, observation, cover, obstacles, and avenues of ap- proach and penetration, are all military phenomena of the terrain structure. 31. Contours. Technically, a contour is a device for indicating elevation. Because of its necessity to follow its given elevation, it is forced by the land forms encountered into its characteristic trace. Groups of contours are therefore forced into standardized ar- rangements by the terrain features encountered. From this, whenever certain character- istic groupings of contours are observed, the terrain feature responsible can be deduced. Therefore, it might be said that any individual contour is elevation data, but that a grouping of contours is a conventional sign that indicates the presence and identity of a topographical feature. 32. Determining Elevation. There is a tendency to presume that the elevation as in- dicated by the contour is the exact elevation of the point on the ground. It is not unusual to find experienced officers who are willing to quibble over elevations taken from a map. Practically all contouring in the field is performed by inspection methods, based on critical points. The spacing and the location of the contours between these critical points is largely a matter of opinion of the sketcher, based on certain established principles. In the long run, the results are quite reliable. In any individual case, the true elevation may be several feet at variance with the elevation as shown by the map contours. An ac- curacy of half a contour interval is the standard field tolerance. In teaching “inter- polation,” it is well to be very exacting, and require careful interpolation. If the con- tour spacing is as much as a half inch, the answers should conform to the nearest foot. But, when doing so, the resultant figure is not to be considered as the true ground elevation. It is, rather, the elevation as reported by the map. 33. Terrain Structure. The tracing of a drainage system is simple, since the drainage lines appear on the map as streams and rivers. The tracing of the ridge system is more difficult because often side spurs and isolated knobs are more prominent than adjacent points on the true watershed. In the study of terrain structure it is best first to trace the drainage system, because of its prominence and definiteness; then to trace the ridge lines, making sure that a ridge line appears between every two adjacent streams, and that a stream appears between each two adjacent ridges. Ridges, like streams, cannot stop “in the air.” When the student has “ridge-lined” on contoured maps, he acquires a conception of basic terrain structure. Thereafter, he can visualize the ridge system on uncontoured maps as it would have to be to conform to the drainage system that is always shown. This ability to visualize a ridge system as a complement to a drainage system is helpful in using aerial photographs for tactical purposes, for the drainage sys- tem is usually detectable on the aerial photograph. To the skilled map reader, seeing the drainage system is to know what the ridge system must be, and, therefore, to visualize the basic terrain structure of the area. 34. Profiles. The profile gives a very exaggerated picture of the relief of an area, and this exaggeration is desirable in working visibility problems from the profile. The use of cross-section paper is a great aid in constructing profiles, but it is seldom available in the field. “T”-squares and triangles are also useful aids, but are also hard to find in the field. The accuracy of the horizontal spacing of the control lines down from the contour crossing points is very essential to an accurate profile. This can be secured in the absence of cross-section peaper, “T”-squares, and triangles by laying an edge of paper along the line to be profiled, and plotting ticks on the edge to represent all elevation points. To use MAP READING 37 this same strip of paper to transfer the ticks to both the top and the bottom of the work- ing space. Vertical lines drawn through the top and bottom ticks pertaining to the same point will insure correct horizontal spacing throughout the working space. If there are woods along the line of the profile they can be plotted in, as to area and height, and their effect upon visibility determined in the same manner as though they were hills. . It is customary to allow a height of thirty feet for woods, unless they are known to be of other height. - 35. Visibility. The subject of visibility is simple when approached through profiles. Actually at least nine-tenths of all visibility problems can be solved by inspection. The results will be in terms of “yes” and “no,” and the amount of clearance or of defilade will not be known. But in practical field work this is seldom of importance. One wishes to know whether a point is visible or not, and cares little about the amount by which it can or cannot be seen. The profile is the most satisfactory method of studying visibility as it gives all necessary data pertaining to all points on the line. The profile not only gives the visibility data regarding any point, but also the amounts of clearance or of defilade, and also the horizontal extent of the visible and invisible areas. It is the only paper method of determining the location of military crests. The construction of the hasty profile can be speeded up by omitting the working grid, and by plotting the eleva- tion of the few essential points by measurement up from a base line, using any convenient unit, such as a quarter-inch for each contour interval. The result is a diagrammatic plotting of the points. There are many methods of working visibility problems. Those shown, herein, will give accurate results with a minimum of effort and are easily under- stood and remembered, and will meet all situations. Knowledge of alternate methods of performing these (or any other) tasks is unnecessary, particularly, when no greater ac- curacy results and the alternate methods are no simpler to perform, nor to understand. Solutions To Exercises, Chapter V . House: 440 feet. . Church: 336 feet. . Stream junction: 367 feet. . DAVIDSON HILL: 465 feet (approximate). . KELLY HILL (22.83-21.67), 505 feet (approximate). . UPATOI CREEK at (17.00-21.92), 195 feet (approximate). Spur. . Saddle. Draw. Hill. Draw. Spur. Ridge. Valley. . DAVIDSON HILL (1933-1941), 465 feet. Ridge at (20.63-18.98), 392 feet. Saddle at (21.61-1898), 378 feet. Ridge at (22.07-18.55), 390 feet. Road junction at (22.57-1769), 362 feet. b. Stream at (20.08-1920), 328 feet. Stream at (21.33-1904), 341 feet. Stream at (21.89-1897), 342 feet. Stream at (22.33-18.14), 297 feet. . Steepest up-grade (20.27-19.29). . Steepest down-grade (21.28-1897). . Yes, disregarding all woods the observer can see the crossroads. . 413 feet, maximum permissible elevation of mask, determined as follows: Distance O to CR = 1930 yards Distance O to mask = 1030 yards VI (drop) O to CR = 64 feet (447 – 383) 1. : 38 MAP READING Therefore the line of sight drops 64 feet in 1930 yards. The amount it will have dropped in the 1030 yards to the mask can be determined by the similar triangles method. 1930 : Io:30 = 64 : x 1930x = 65,920 X F 34 The line of sight will have dropped 34 feet at the mask, and therefore have an elevation of 447 – 34, or 413 feet. If the mask exceeds this elevation, it will block the line of sight. c. Visibility will be blocked by 19 feet of mask because 402 feet of mask plus 30 feet of trees will be higher than the line of sight (413 feet) by 19 feet. d. 53 feet of defilade, determined as follows: Distance O to stream = 1650 yards Distance O to mask = 1030 yards VI (drop) O to mask = 45 feet (447 – 402) Since the line of sight will have dropped 45 feet in the Io go yards to the mask, the amount it will have dropped when it reaches the stream can be determined by the similar triangle method, as follows: 1650 : Iogo = x : 45 x = 72 feet The line of sight, having dropped 72 feet, will have an elevation of 375 feet (447 – 72). The stream has a known elevation (from the contours) of 322 feet and is therefore 53 feet below the line of vision. 6. a. A correct profile will verify all the answers to 5 above. b. There are three defiladed areas, as follows: (1) From (1898-1835) to (19.27-1854). (2) From (1949-18.68) to (1959-18.75). (3) From (1962-1877) to (20.28-19.17). c. On the 360 contour at (19.09-1843). CHAPTER VI MAP READING IN THE FIELD 36. General. The map is a substitute for distant terrain and is an aid in studying any terrain. It is not as good as the terrain when the ground itself is available, for the study of tactical relief. A personal reconnaissance of the terrain is always desirable; first, be- cause the map seldom shows all minor detail; second, because certain terrain features, such as woods and roads, may have changed since the compilation of the map; and third, because to visualize correctly the details of the terrain from a map, requires a degree of map reading ability and experience possessed by few individuals. It is not difficult nor unusual to become completely lost on unfamiliar ground. It is impossible to get lost on a map if one knows how to read it. The officer, who properly uses the map in con- junction with the ground, need never be in doubt about his location, direction, the identity of visible features, or the direction and distance to other points. 37. Terrain Feature Terms. The experienced soldier seldom realizes the voluminous military terrain terminology that has gradually developed. In many cases the terms have not been clearly defined, and are loosely used. Such terms as nose, shoulder, and spur, may mean the same thing or may mean different things to different persons. These terms are usually encountered only in the field and applied to ground features. Individuals of city origin may have had little or no contact with them, a point that is too often over- looked by officers of considerable field experience. 38. Distance. The determination of distance in the field offers more difficulties than it does on the map. It is erroneously presumed that all military personnel are skilled at estimating distance. It is not unusual to encounter tremendous variations in such esti- mates, even among experienced officers. It is not unusual to hear hunters give most im- possible estimates of the ground covered during a day's hunt. There are few persons who can make a cross-country trip over unfamiliar terrain and give a reliable estimate of the distance. Distance is very easily determined from a map. 39. The Compass. The only basic difference between the lensatic and the prismatic compasses is that the former is equipped with a lens with which to read the dial, while the latter is equipped with a prism. This results in the outer dial of the prismatic compass being read at the back, and therefore it is graduated just 180° off from the MAP READING 39 inner dial, which is read at the front. The lensatic compass will probably replace the prismatic compass as the standard instrument for infantry. Two compasses used too close together may mutually affect one another. More detailed description of the com- passes is given in paragraph 38, FM 21-25. 40. Measuring Azimuth With the Compass. The compass may be placed on a post, stump, or similar convenient surface, or on the ground itself, and the compass axis alined in the desired direction. It is more difficult to sight the compass in this manner, but it is often a convenience and a time saver. Immediately upon reaching the point where the compass is to be used, place the compass on the ground, dial free. The time required for the dial to come to rest can be used for studying the ground, studying the map, sketching, or other activity. After the dial of the compass has come to rest the compass can be rotated and even picked up without disturbing the dial, if this is done gently and smoothly. 41. Marching By Compass. a. By day. Any movement, such as walking, will so dis. turb the dial of the issue compass (due to its sensitive jeweled pivot) that it is impractical to conduct a march by watching the compass card itself. Moreover, for obvious reasons, no soldier in the field should go around with his head down staring at a compass, par- ticularly commanders. The landmark method of conducting a march is simple and practical. Frequent halts permit selecting successive landmarks on the proper azimuth. During movement, the attention of the commander can be toward the front, leaving him free to observe everything and alert for enemy indications, and able to keep frequent check upon the guiding landmark. In passing through woods, it will be necessary to make frequent check of the direction. b. By night. It is impossible to read the graduations on the compass in the dark. If there should be enough light for this purpose, or if there is no combat situation prevent- ing the use of lights, the compass may be used at night in the same manner as by day. The night marching scale on the outside of the compass is an inverted scale, which is necessary for it to fulfill its function. It cannot be directly used for other purposes than setting the luminous mark for night marching. Another method for setting the com- pass for night marching is as follows: Rotate the compass, dial free, until the dial reads the desired azimuth. Hold the compass in this position and rotate the top ring until the luminous mark is in direct prolongation of the luminous arrow. In this instance the direction of march is the direction of the axis of the compass and not the direction of the arrow, or of the luminous mark. In all cases of marching by compass, whether by day or by night, the compass is used only to select some feature upon which to march. 42. Orientation in the Field. Orientation consists of selecting the most convenient map and ground line and making them coincide. The most convenient method that gives the accuracy desired should be used. For marching, particularly on roads, the inspection method will serve. When location is in doubt or technical data is to be secured, the compass method is required. 43. Orienting the Map in the Field. a. By compass. It is better and easier to orient the map with the compass on a grid line than on the magnetic arrow of the orientation symbol. The use of the grid line permits the user to select any portion of the map and thereby place the compass where it will be least inconvenient. The grid line offers a better line, because of its length, for registration with the over-all axis of the compass. Frequently on folded maps the orientation symbol will have been folded under, but the reader will know the direction and amount of the adjustment. On an ungridded map that shows an orientation symbol, the compass would be placed on the magnetic arrow of the symbol, and the map rotated until the compass reads “0°.” b. By inspection. An officer in the field will always keep his location and movements plotted on his map. He does not drop from the sky into totally unfamiliar territory. It is inconceivable that the infantry officer will ever be in doubt about what road, trail, stream, or ridge he may be following, how he got there, and the general direction in which he is moving. Therefore, the inspection method of orienting the map will meet the vast bulk of orientation requirements for movement. It is not a sufficiently accurate orientation for gathering fire control or technical data. B. FA–Sup. 40 MAP READING c. By ground feature. Necessity for orientation by ground feature should be very rare. That an officer would be in the field without a compass, and that he should know his location, but not the cardinal directions, is hard to conceive. Such occasions do occur, however, and knowledge of this method of map orientation is expected in military map reading. True insurance against going astray in the field lies in following one's progress by map, rather than by being able to perform all the possible variations of orientation. 44. Locating Oneself on the Map. a. By inspection. It is well, when traveling in the field, to select readily identifiable features at which to stop. This greatly facilitates deter- mining location. Incidentally it is prominent terrain features that are of primary interest to the military man, and he would logically select a crossroad, a hill top, or the edge of a woods as the point at which to stop and study the terrain. Identification of location is then no more than finding the feature itself on the map. b. By single point. The process of single point location is really one of resection. Resection requires two intersecting lines. In this case (see Text) the road itself (trail, stream, or edge of woods) constitutes one of the lines. The ray plotted from the feature then becomes the second line, and gives an intersection. This method requires that the map be accurately oriented first, and that it remain in this position during the sighting and the drawing of the ray. The feature selected should lie at approximately right angles to the road. 45. Identifying Features in the Field. Error in the identity of terrain features in un- familiar territory is far too frequent. Such instances begin with our first battle (Bunker Hill) and continue throughout our military history. The proper use of the map will eliminate all such mistakes. There are two situations involved; first, when the map identity of a feature is designated, and it is desired to locate that particular feature on the ground; and second, when some ground feature is observed and it is desired to identify the feature on the map. The operations involved are similar, but have two variations. One, when the straight-edge is laid on two known points on the map, and the ground feature is picked up by looking along the line so determined. The other when the straight-edge is first sighted at the ground feature, and then the map line so determined is studied. There is no possibility of confusion in the field, because the situation will force the correct method on the observer. The term shot is used in the field to indicate the process of sighting in any object, and applies to either the compass or the alidade (straight-edge). The term ray is used to designate a line drawn on a map as the result of a visual shot in the field. The alidade, a triangular ruler, is the best type of straight- edge for use in the field for making shots. 46. Training Guide. MINIMUM STANDARDS: Each student to be familiar with the principles of maps and map reading. References WAR DEPARTMENT FM 21-25, FM 21-26, FM 21-30. ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF BALLISTICS, DISPERSION, AND GUNNERY AND EFFECT OF PROJECTILES CONTENTS Paragraphs Answers to Questions, Chapter I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Answers to Questions, Chapter II . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Answers to Questions, Chapter III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Answers to Questions, Chapter IV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Answers to Questions, Chapter V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Answers to Questions, Chapter VI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . } Answers to Questions, Chapter VII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * * s p & a º 1. Answers to Questions, Chapter I. 1. See Chapter 1, par. 2. 2. Relatively slow burning. 3. Fixed, semi-fixed and separate-loading. 2. Answers to Questions, Chapter II. 1. See Chapter II, par. 6. 2. a, yes; b, no. 3. Yes. 3. Answers to Questions, Chapter III. 1. The curve described by the center of gravity of a projectile in flight. 2. On the weight, size and shape of the projectile. 3. See Chapter III, par. 14. 4. Answers to Questions, Chapter IV. 1. Errors inherent to dispersion patterns. 2. See Chapter IV, par. 22. 3. Usually not. 5. Answers to Questions, Chapter V. 1. See Chapter V, par. 29. 2. Equal. 3. See Chapter V, par. 38. 4. Yes. 6. Answers to Questions, Chapter VI. 1. Preparation of initial data and conduct of fire. 2. See Chapter VI, par. 42. 3. Eleven. 4. At command, regardless of its source. 7. Answers to Questions, Chapter VII. 1. Angle of impact, nature of the ground, and shape, weight, velocity and rotation of the projectile. 2. A detonation. 3. Two; quick and delay. 4. Division of fragments of a bursting shell. 41 ANTITANK WEAPONS SECTION 1 THE CALIBER .50 MACHINE GUN CONTENTS Answers to Questions, Chapter I a s a s = e s e e s s , s s > * * * * * * * * * * * Answers to Questions, Chapter II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Answers to Questions, Chapter III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Answers to Questions, Chapter IV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * 8 º' s & & 8 Answers to Questions, Chapter V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Answers to Questions, Chapter VI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * * * * * Answers to Questions, Chapter VII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... " Answers to Questions, Chapter VIII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Answers to Questions, Chapter I. 1. Browning, caliber .50, M2, heavy barrel (flexible). 2. In cooling systems, trigger and buffer mechanisms, weight of barrel. 3. None. 4. Conventional front and rear and mount for telescopic sight. 5. Tripod, caliber 50, M3. 2. Answers to Questions, Chapter II. 1. By unscrewing from gun. See Chapter II, par. 4. 2. See Chapter II, par. 4b. 3. See Chapter II, par. 4c. 4. Oil buffer and barrel extension. 3. Answers to Questions, Chapter III. 1. After barrel has been screwed into extension. 2. See Chapter III, par. 13c. - 3. See Chapter III, par. 14b. 4. See Chapter III, par. 14. 4. Answers to Questions, Chapter IV. 1. Loaded and ready to fire. 2. See Chapter IV, par. 186. 3. See Chapter IV, par. 18. 4. See Chapter IV, par. 18f. 5. Bolt latch release and trigger. 5. Answers to Questions, Chapter V. 1. Any unintentional cessation of fire. 2. See Chapter V, par. 33. 3. See Chapter V, par. 34. 4. See Chapter V, par. 35. 6. Answers to Questions, Chapter VI. 1. See Chapter VI, par. 37. 2. Disassembling, assembling, adjusting. 3. Rapid loading of ammunition. 7. Answers to Questions, Chapter VII. 1. See Chapter VII, par. 44. 2. See Chapter VII, par. 49. 3. See Chapter VII, par. 50. 43 44 ANTITANK WEAPONS 4. See Chapter VII, par. 51. 5. See Chapter VII, par. 57. 8. Answers to Questions, Chapter VIII. 1. See Chapter VIII, par. 73. 2. See Chapter VIII, par. 73b. 3. See Chapter VIII, par. 77. 4. See Chapter VIII, par. 78. 5. See Chapter VIII, par. 80. ANTITANK WEAPONS SECTION 2 THE 37-MM ANTITANK GUN CONTENTS Paragraphs Answers to Questions, Chapter I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Answers to Questions, Chapter II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Answers to Questions, Chapter III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Answers to Questions, Chapter IV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Answers to Questions, Chapter V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 1. Answers to Questions, Chapter I. 1. The 37-mm antitank gun, M3, is a high velocity, flat trajectory, light cannon of the field gun type. 2. The %-ton, 4x4 truck. 3. Approximately 2 pounds. 4. The barrel, breech ring, extractors, the breechblock assembly, the crank, the operat- ing handle assembly, and the firing mechanism. 5. Telescope, M6, which is a non-adjustable of one power. 6. See Paragraph 4 a (1). 7. See Paragraph 4 b (1) (a). 8. See Paragraph 4 b (2) (a). 9. See Paragraph 4 e (1). 10. See Paragraph 5. 11. Only the grease and lubricating oil issued by the Ordnance Department. 12. In a vivid red. - 13. Thoroughly sluice and sponge the bore and chamber with either hot water and issue soap, salsoda solution, hot water alone, or in the absence of these with cold water. 14. The gun should be cleaned thoroughly, and if no corrosion is present all metal surfaces should be thoroughly coated with rust preventive compound. 15. See Paragraph 15. 16. The movement of the operating handle to the rear is transmitted through the oper- ating shaft to the crank. The trunnions on the crank move to the rear in the tee-slot in the breechblock and slide the block downward in the breech recess. The motion is stopped by impact of the stop surface of the crank hub on the shoulders of the breech ring lugs. 17. See Paragraph 16 b. 18. By rotating the rearward projecting arm of the cocking lever forward. 19. No. 20. See Paragraph 21. 21. a. Failure to fire. . Breech cannot be opened. . Failure to extract or eject. . Failure to feed. Sluggish recoil and counterrecoil. . Defective ammunition. . Broken or burred firing pin. Weak or broken firing spring. . Defective trigger actuator. . Improper assembly of trigger mechanism. Broken trigger arm. . Gun not completely in battery. 22. 45 46 ANTITANK WEAPONS 23. a. Caution firer to release pressure on the trigger actuator plunger. b. If the breech still cannot be opened, remove the firing pin and guide assembly and inspect the firing pin retractor spring. c. If no defects were found in the firing pin retractor spring disassemble the firing mechanism and inspect for a weak or broken trigger plunger spring. 24. Defective ammunition or obstruction or dirt in the chamber. 25. It is designed to permit firing with either caliber .22 or .30 ammunition. 26. Cleaning brush and rammer, breech and muzzle covers, oil can, grease gun, oil gun, sight illuminator, tool roll, towing harness, and telescopic sight case. 27. Because the round is issued with the cartridge case containing the propelling charge and primer firmly attached to the loaded and fuzed projectile. 28. (1) Shell, dummy, loading, practice. (2) Solid, shot, with tracer, practice, T10. (3) Solid, shot, with tracer, AP (Armor Piercing), T8. (4) Shell, HE (High Explosive), Mark II. 29. Command CEASE FIRING and if at a distance from the unit firing signal CEASE FIRING. 30. See Paragraph 31. 31. See Paragraph 33. 2. Answers to Questions, Chapter II. 1. To develop the squad to function as a team with precision and speed. 2. No, all training is executed at ease, except when the squad is formed at the com- mand “fall in.” º 3. When its lunette is attached to the pintle of the prime mover. - 4. (1) Squad leader, (2) Gunner, No. 1, (3) Assistant Gunner (loader), No. 2, (4) Ammunition carrier, No. 3, (5) Ammunition carrier, No. 4, (6) Chaufleur, No. 5. 5. See Paragraph 40 c. 6. See Paragraph 40 d. 7. See Paragraph 40 e. 8. “Load truck” (or other vehicle). 9. “Dismount.” 10. The position under cover near the firing position. Suitable cover positions may be found in draws, reverse slopes, wooded areas, behind cliffs, cut pines, hedges, or stone fences. 11. A position selected for each primary firing position. 3. Answers to Questions, Chapter III. 1. Training in antitank marksmanship is divided into two phases: a. Preparatory marksmanship training, b. Instruction and record firing practice on the one thousand inch range. 2. Mechanical training, placing the gun in action, and service of the piece. 3. a. Aiming exercises, b. Tracking exercises. 4. To teach the soldier the correct use of the telescope, how to aim on moving and stationary targets, ranges, and how to use the lead marks in the sight. 5. a. Aiming for range, b. Aiming with leads, c. Combined aiming for range and leads. 6. To take the correct firing position, to aim at stationary targets, and to apply the range table. 7. Except when the target is moving directly away from or towards the one position, always aim fairly low in the forward third of the reticle. 8. He is required to lay on the aiming target using various leads along the six hundred yard range (rate scale) line in the telescope reticle. 9. The gunner is taught to use the rate scale at all ranges. 10. The gunner learns how to track a moving target and simulate firing without dis- turbing the correct laying. e 11. See Paragraph 45. ANTITANK WEAPONS 47 4. Answers to Questions, Chapter IV. 1. Technique of fire is the application of effective fire upon a target. 2. a. Characteristics of fire, b. Determination of initial data, c. Fire orders, d. Conduct of fire. 3 . Eight thousand yards. 4. Anti-mechanized divisions. 5. One and one-half inches of armor. 6. Unarmored vehicles, exposed personnel, and open emplacements. 7. Two hundred to one thousand yards. 8. No, because it is designed primarily for use against moving targets. 9. Direct fire only. 10. The determination and range, and, when engaging a moving target, the lead. 11. Estimation by eye. 12. Two hundred yards to fifteen hundred yards. 13. See Paragraph 40 h. 14. See Paragraph 47 b. 15. See Paragraph 47 c. 16. See Paragraph 48 b. 17. See Paragraph 49 d. 5. Answers to Questions, Chapter V. 1. Training for placing the gun in action, marksmanship, and the technique of fire. 2. To train the individual to estimate ranges and speeds of vehicles and to determine the correct lead. 3. Firing at stationary or fixed targets, and at moving targets. *. References WAR DEPARTMENT FM 23-70. MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION CONTENTS Paragraphs Answers to Questions, Section 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Answers to Questions, Section 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Answers to Questions, Section 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Answers to Questions, Section 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Answers to Questions; Section 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Answers to Questions, Section 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * s e a 6 1. Answers to Questions, General Principles. (Section 1). 1. A gun, or piece, is a machine by which the force of expanding gas is used for the purpose of propelling a projectile in a definite direction. 2. By the rapid combustion of an explosive substance in a closed chamber in rear of the projectile. 3. Gun, howitzer, mortar. 4. Forged steel. 5. See Plate 1. 6. a. Economy of manufacture; greater facilities for inspection of material. 7. b. Great economy of time, labor and material; possible to construct from single forgings; certain increases in efficiency. 8. Swinging, drop, sliding. 9. Safety, not easy to put out of order, easily repaired, easily handled, parts inter- changeable. º 10. Prevention of passage of hot gases into parts of the breech mechanism, to their damage. - 11. Fixed and mobile. 12. Traverse, elevation, recoil. 13. Guide gun during recoil, connect gun to carriage and the elevating and traversing mechanisms and form a case for recoil and counterrecoil mechanisms. 14. To take up firing stresses and provide stability to carriage during firing. 15. See Chapter IV, par. 27. 16. By gravity, springs or hydropneumatic devices. 17. Axle and pivot. 18. Spur-gear or worm-gear and rack, and pivot traverse. 19. See Chapter IV, par. 32. 20. Axles, wheels, trails, spades, shields. 2. Answers to Questions, 75-mm Gun. (Section 2). 1. See Chapter 2, par. 4. 2. It acts in conjunction with the recuperator in regulating counterrecoil at different temperatures. 3. See Chapter 3, par. 8d. 4. See Chapter 3, par. 12, (4) a, b, c. 3. Answers to Questions, 75-mm Howitzers. (Section 3). 1. 543.56 pounds. 2. See Chapter II, par. 5. 3. To show the amount of reserve oil in the mechanism. 4. On oil-sealed antifriction bearings. 4. Answers to Questions, 155-mm Howitzer. (Section 4). 1. Of the built-up type. 2. Of the screw type. 3. See Chapter III, par. 22. 49 50 MATERIEL AND AMMUNITION 4. Four; time, point detonating or a combination fuze. 5. Seven. 5. Answers to Questions, Other Calibers. (Section 5). 1. Because of its range and its adaptation for use in harbor defense, when mounted in reinforced concrete emplacements. 2. To enable the recuperator guage to project 5 mm from the rear face of the cradle. 3. To prevent the carriage from moving to the rear when the gun is fired. 6. Answers to Questions, The 105-mm Howitzer. (Section 6.) Chapter I. 1. For use when using bore sighting equipment. (See paragraph 1 of text.) 2. 35 mph. (See paragraph 3 of text.) - 3. An emergency brake application. (See paragraph 3 of text.) 4. 1064 pounds. (See paragraph 4 of text.) 5. 45 pounds. (See paragraph 4 of text.) Chapter II. 1. To the right and rear. (See paragraph 5 of text.) 2. Turning the traveling lock lever 180° which locks the cradle to the trails. (See paragraph 9 of text.) 3. It must be released, swung up and latched. (See paragraph 9 of text.) 4. For emergency stops. (See paragraph 12 of text.) 5. To the load. (See paragraph 12 of text.) Chapter III. 1. To raise the detent out of engagement with the trigger shaft. (See paragraph 15 of text.) 2. See paragraph 15 of text. 3. Its construction provides for an equalizing movement to compensate for terrain irregularities, with the carriage in firing position. (See paragraph 16 of text.) 4. To neutralize unbalanced weight and reduce the manual effort required to elevate and depress the weapon. (See paragraph 16 of text.) 5. The return of oil in the cylinders through the groove clearances. (See paragraph 16 of text.) Chapter IV. 1. Azimuth compensating. (See paragraph 18 of text.) 2. It permits use of the telescope and its mount as a one-sight, one-man system of direct laying. (See paragraph 18 of text.) 3. See paragraph 18 of text. 4. Upon whether direct or indirect laying is to be employed. (See paragraph 18 of text.) 5. Four. (See paragraph 19 of text.) Chapter V. 1. It includes all of the components used to fire once, and it is characterized by the free fit of the projectile in the cartridge case. (See paragraph 22 of text.) 2. See paragraph 25 of text. 3. The superquick and delay types. (See paragraph 25 of text.) 4. Seven. (See paragraph 27 of text.) 5. See paragraph 28 of text. Chapter VI. - 1. No; only from the right. (See paragraph 34 of text.) 2. To keep dirt from the roller bearings. (See paragraph 35 of text.) 3. No. It merely changes the indicated value of the deflection. (See paragraph 37 of text.) 4. By using the elevation scale and the micrometer graduations on the foreward edge of the range drum. (See paragraph 37 of text.) 5. When the elevating handwheel is turned until the matching indexes are in line. (See paragraph 37 of text.) * MILITARY ORGANIZATION, FIELD ARTILLERY CONTENTS Paragraph Answers to Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1. Answers to Questions, General. 1. Infantry. 2. Six. 3. Because of the need to men to fix powder charges. 4. Yes. 5. Division artillery brigade and corps artillery brigade. 51 LEADERSHIP II CONTENTS Paragraphs Illustrative Incidents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Answers to Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * e g 1. Illustrative Incidents. The records of all our wars are replete with examples of good leadership by individual soldiers and by squad and section leaders as well as higher com- manders. In fact, even recourse to the daily newspapers will produce numerous cases which may be used to typify and illustrate the principles of leadership without risking that sententiousness which is usually distasteful to the American when too freely exhibited. Many appropriate examples may be found in the published histories of units which par- ticipated in the World War. An account of the fighting during the summer of 1918 gives a typical example. “One soldier, in particular, could look back with satisfaction to his part in the fight. He was freckled of face, and his hair, if not exactly red, was inclined to be sandy. He was a quiet individual and did not howl when he found his name on the K.P. list. No one thought much about him, but when the wounded were lying on the battlefield, he was one of the first to volunteer to go and get water two kilometers distant. On the morning of July 19th, when the 59th, his regiment, attacked, every officer in the company with the exception of one was either killed or wounded during the first hour. The second lieu- tenant who was left in charge was at his wit’s end. The game was new to him and his men were scattered all over the country. He had managed to round up two platoons in pretty good shape and get them in position to jump off for their second objective, for they had taken the first within the first hour. Sweating, fuming, running up and down the line, he begged and prayed for assistance from some one. It may be that his prayer was heard. At least it was answered, for over the ridge of a little hill to his left and slightly behind him he saw a line of men coming. Fifty there were in all and, if the truth must be told, there were some noncommissioned officers among them. At their head was a freckled-faced private. Up and down the line he went, bossing them, yelling at them, ordering them this way and that, a seasoned veteran, a natural leader. He had marshalled them from shell holes, from secure places behind trees and in the corners of the trenches. When he came up to the lieutenant he was grinning from ear to ear and his sandy hair was standing pretty much on end. ‘Lieutenant, he said, ‘I’ve got fifty of 'em here; where'll I put 'em?” For two days he bossed the men in that platoon in exactly the same manner as though he were their commanding officer and they accepted it without ques- tion. That is the simple tale of a private's rice to sergeant. In the eyes of the company he was no more than a freckled-faced, sandy-haired boy that didn't amount to much. But he was a leader of men. He had made a name for himself.” (The Fourth Division in the World War: Bach, Hall). 2. Answers to Questions. 1. In general, rules and doctrines, as well as methods, are humanly devised guides to conduct, and as such are subject to exception, or to modification or rejection when they shall have been found to be fallacious. A principle, as used in the text, is a fundamental truth, always existent and immutable because of its undeniable correctness. 2. Consider such qualities as those discussed in the text of Volume I. Consider such characteristics as sense of duty, patriotism, love of service, self-restraint, self-reliance, understanding, frankness, quick thinking, asperity, petulance, obstinacy, indifference, vagueness, temper, pride, or conscientiousness. 3. Consider simultaneous facings, movements and halting, and the manual of arms by 53 54 LEADERSHIP II units as large as the battalion at the direct command of the adjutant or battalion com- mander. Also consider mass calisthenics, especially in connection with the modern use of electrical voice amplification. Consider, however, the scope, limitations, and temporary nature of such control, as compared with the more permanent and practically all-inclusive control by the squad leader. FIRE CONTROL INSTRUMENTS CONTENTS Paragraphs Answers to Questions, Chapter II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Answers to Questions, Chapter III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Answers to Questions, Chapter IV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • * * * * * * * * * * * * * Answers to Questions, Chapter V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Answers to Questions, Chapter VI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Answers to Questions, Chapter VII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Answers to Questions, Chapter X . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • * * * * * * * * * * * * : 1. Answers to Questions, Chapter II. 1. If the tripod were not of nonmagnetic metal, the compass would be inaccurate because of the proximity of a metal which would attract it. 2. Y-azimuth is the clockwise angle from Y-North (or grid north) to any given line. 3. For all practical purposes it is 1/6400 of a circle. 2. Answers to Questions, Chapter III. 1. Any movement of the tripod legs will seriously effect the final reading on the instrument; it is necessary to plant the legs firmly, so that they will not be disturbed by wind or a slight touch. 2. The chief difference is that the reading on the instrument is not changed when the lower motion is used, whereas any movement of the upper motion changes the reading. 3. Answers to Questions, Chapter IV. 1. No. It changes direction of sighting, but does not effect reading. 2. 300. 4. Answers to Questions, Chapter V. 1. By a system of triangulation with the range finder as a 1-meter base of that triangle. 2. The adjusting lath is numbered serially the same as the range finder with which it should work. The lath is a flat metal strip the same length as the range finder. It has a sight in the center and has a vertical line painted near each end. 3. It is possible to measure horizontal angles with the range finder but it is im- practical to do so when there is an aiming circle or BC scope nearby. 5. Answers to Questions, Chapter VI. . 1. A prism is a glass used to change the direction of a ray of light. 2. The ideal field artillery glass should have a strong, durable frame of light, non- corrosive material; its optical parts should be moistureproof and dustproof; and construction should be such as to make it difficult for inexpert hands to tamper with it. 3. When you focus a glass you bring into the clearest possible relief the object on which you are sighting. The setting at which you can see the best may prove wholly unsatisfactory to another user, hence the necessity to focus the glass before using it. 4. Never wipe or clean the lenses with any materials except those recommended by the maker of the glass. 5. Interpupillary adjustment means adjustment of the glasses so that they are so separated as to correspond to the distance between your eyes. 6. Answers to Questions, Chapter VII. 1. Yes. An experienced operator can obtain excellent results without using a tripod. 55 56 FIRE CONTROL INSTRUMENTS 7. Answers to Questions, Chapter X. 1. On military maps the width of the mark made by a soft pencil might mean more than 50 yards on the ground. So it is essential that a sharp-pointed, hard pencil be used when drawing rays (lines). 2. Pin points can be used to locate exact points on a map and to interpolate between lines of pencil markings. BATTERY COMMUNICATIONS CONTENTS - * Paragraphs Answers to Questions, Chapter V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • * * * * * * * * * * * * * 1 Answers to Questions, Chapter VI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1. Answers to Questions, Chapter V. 1. There are 3 SCR 194 radio sets to each battery. 2. Only one man is needed to operate the 194 set. 3. Advantages: Speed, flexibility. Disadvantages: Lack of secrecy, interference by the enemy. 4. The A coil is used when operating on channels 1-25 inclusive. The A coil is larger than the B coil which is used when operating on channels 26-62. 5. There are 62 channels on the 194 set. 2. Answers to Questions, Chapter VI. 1. The telephone directory consists of two parts, one of which lists names of unit headquarter and telephone centrals, and the other which lists numbers for officers and offices. 2. The EE5 and the EE8. 3. The “phonetic alphabet” is words which represent letters such as Baker-B, Easy-E, and Roger-R. * 4. Fo-wer fo-wer; ate ate; wun hundred; wun two hundred; thu-ree thousand. 5. a. Inspect the handset and handset cord. - b. Insert a good battery. c. Give the 100% test. $ 6. “Ground return” means that the ground rather than a wire or other connection, completes the electrical circuit. 7. The battery reel is a two-wheeled vehicle with a single, mechanically-operated drum which holds about 2% miles of W-110 wire. 57 DUTIES OF BC DETAIL CONTENTS Paragraphs Answers to Questions, Chapter I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Answers to Questions, Chapter II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Answers to Questions, Chapter III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1. Answers to Questions, Chapter I. 1. His chief duty is to command the battery. 2. The battery executive is the BC's first assistant. 3. The RO's principal job is that of training and supervising a battery detail. He has other duties such as the BC may give him. 4. In general the battery detail is composed of the RO, lieutenant; Chief of Section, sergeant, Instrument Section, Wire Secticn and such other subdivisions as the BC and RO may direct. Its function is to provide reconnaissance and communication for the battery. Also it may prepare firing data for the battery commander. 5. Because of the technical skill required of a good detail man, it is essential that there be other men readily available to replace any man who may be a casualty. 2. Answers to Questions, Chapter II. 1. To consider the tasks confronting him in the forward area, before the battery is in position. 2. Signal sergeant radio 1 and scout corporals 1 and 2, the first to reconnoiter for wire routes and the second two to act as messengers, etc. 3. Limits of range of batteries. 4. To make certain that his orders are understood. 5. The situation, zone of fire, general location of batteries, zone of observation, zone of action of the supported units. 6. To select an observation point, get in contact with local commanders of supported units and report targets and situation in his area. 3. Answers to Questions, Chapter III. 1. Cover, field of view, and ease of access. 2. The BC is directly responsible, though he may delegate this job to one of his assistants. 3. Communication and reconnaissance is speeded up considerably. There is no time for exact surveys and often no time for wire communication. 4. Usually because it is impossible to make the necessary reconnaissance of the area. 59 CARE OF ANIMALS AND STABLE MANAGEMENT CONTENTS Answers to Questions, Chapter I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Answers to Questions, Chapter II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Answers to Questions, Chapter III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Answers to Questions, Chapter IV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Answers to Questions, Chapter V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Answers to Questions, Chapter VI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Answers to Questions, Chapter IX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 1. Answers to Questions, Chapter I. 1. 205. g 2. Croup, thigh, stifle, tail, buttocks, leg, hock, cannon, pastern, coronary band, hoof. 3. Filly: A female horse under 4 years of age. Gelding: A castrated male horse. Colt: An unaltered male under 4 years. 4. 100°F., but may vary 1° in either direction. 5. The vertical distance from the ground to the highest point of the withers, expressed in hands and inches. 6. a. A coat composed of red and white hairs, the red predominating. b. A coat of medium golden color, with mane and tail of like color. c. A coat of reddish color with black mane and tail. d. A coat of rusty black with reddish coloration around nostrils, elbows, etc. 2. Answers to the Questions, Chapter II. 1. The general term “good conformation’ implies that the horse under consideration is so constructed that the size, shape and configuration are such that it is best adapted mechanically to perform the particular type of work for which it will be used. Hence, a draft horse which performs slow, heavy work should have comparatively short limbs, heavily muscled both in haunches and shoulders—whereas the riding horse or racing horse should be light limbed (comparatively), clean jointed, have small feet, and other general mechanical conformation adapting it to the more rapid work. Both the heavy draft horse and the race horse can be well conformed for the purpose they are intended, yet be entirely different appearing horses. When referring to the riding horse or race horse, good con- formation’ results in a horse that appears to be of proper proportion, and such an animal is a pleasing picture to the eye of the trained horseman. A few general items as to proper conformation of the riding horse, as described by the authorities Goubaux and Barrier, may be of interest: * (a) The height of the well conformed horse is two and one-half times the length of the head. (Height at withers is referred to. Length of the head is from poll to muzzle.) (b) The distance from the axilla (point of elbow) to the ground, should be less than the distance from top of withers to the girth. (If there is much disparity here, the horse will be entirely too leggy or have ‘too much daylight’ under him.) (c) The croup should be approximately the same height as the withers—incidentally this being as mentioned before—two and one-half times the length of the head. (This distance also should be from the point of the shoulder to the buttock.) (d) The distance from the superior fold of the stifle joint to the point of the hock should be the same distance as from the point of the hock to the ground—both distances being the length of the head. Marked departures from these simple rules will give a poorly conformed horse. It may be interesting to try these rules out from photographs of well known horses (Man o' War fits these rules nearly exactly). 2. The riding horse uses his head and neck constantly in moving at any gait. The 61 62 CARE OF ANIMALS AND STABLE MANAGEMENT weight of the head when suspended from the comparatively long neck of the horse, has a very powerful influence in letting the horse keep his balance. A heavy head and short neck cuts down the leverage possible, and correspondingly reduces the agility of the entire animal. On the other hand, the well balanced head on a long but powerful neck gives an animal so conformed tremendous mechanical advantages in natural grace and agility. However, in all fairness, it must be kept in mind that the position of the head on the neck, and the position of the neck with respect to the body, have as great—and sometimes greater—influence on the mechanical advantages referred to than the mere size of head and length of neck. 3. For a riding horse, experience indicates that the higher withers are preferable with, of course, the obvious objection to withers so high as to cause injury to this region by the saddle. The withers are formed by the bony processes of the spinal column. Better leverage, greater agility is found where the withers form a good mechanical support for the attached tissues, which are mostly ligaments that flow into muscular tendonous tissue. The low, broad withêrs usually indicate a horse lacking in agility. However, it is sometimes observed that a young horse with low withers sometimes develops considerable height upon being put under the saddle, and put through proper exercises. º 4. The long, sloping shoulder is usually a positive indication of elastic gaits—that is, the rider is not subjected to anywhere near the violent shock in the saddle that is found in the horse with a short, straight shoulder. It goes without saying that if the rider is more comportable, the horse is also not so apt to develop lameness or injury from ‘pounding the road.” 5. The horse with the shorter cannon will be the better moving horse. A long cannon means loss of mechanical advantage and less agility. Leverage favors the short cannon, and this means better handling of the feet under the saddle. 6. The long, sloping pastern will result in a much more comfortable ride to you. The short pastern means a rough trot, more pounding on the horse (and the rider), and a predisposition toward laminitis under heavy fast work. However, it is mentioned that sometimes this long, sloping pastern can cause trouble. Many thoroughbred race horses have ‘broken down' due to strain on the pastern joint and damage to the check ligament. This condition, once encountered, means the end of racing for the horse, but it may have years of usefulness at moderate gaits. 7. The term “over in the knees’ means that when viewed from the side, the front surface of the foreleg is bulged forward slightly at the knee, instead of being a straight line. This conformation is not uncommon in thoroughbred horses and, unless pro- nounced, is not usually a defect. The same conformation is sometimes noticed in the fore- leg of a greyhound. It facilitates the action of the foreleg in rapid gaits, and many excellent thoroughbreds are so conformed. A good indication that the conformation is not desired, is an indication of scars on the knees. Unless the situation is exaggerated and there are scars on the knees, you would be reasonably safe in considering this thoroughbred for purchase. 8. Although the horse with the legs well apart gives an appearance of strength and solidity, you will find that his gaits under the saddle are not pleasant, due to the shifting laterally of his body at a trot in getting the center of gravity over its support. The horse with average width breast will be the preferable horse. He will be more agile, and have far pleasanter gaits. The horse with front legs well apart will not have the freedom of movement forward and to the rear of his shoulders that is predisposed in the horse with the normal width chest. It must be remembered that width of chest, or breast, is not so much an indication of lung space as it is poor skeletal conformation and an unnecessary bulk of muscular tissue. (Lung space is indicated by ‘well sprung' ribs) 9. The short back is obviously stronger for weight carrying than the long back. How- ever, it is true that the long backed horse is usually more supple, and also true that the horse with a very short back rarely has great speed. A reasonable compromise is advisable. The horse's back should be short enough to prevent evident mechanical weak- ness as a weight carrier, should be well muscled, but not so short as to give the horse the appearance of a 'chunk.' Too short a back may result in a tendency to overreach, if the CARE OF ANIMALS AND STABLE MANAGEMENT 63 horse gets tired or at times when it gets into an awkward position, such as getting in too close to a jump before taking off. 10. The larger girth indicates greater lung capacity, which is a highly desired character- istic. (The figures given indicate about the desired dimensions. A girth of over 72” is above average except in a really large horse. A girth of under 66" is not desired unless, of course, on a fairly small horse—for example, one of 15 hands one inch and weight of about 980 pounds). 3. Answers to Questions, Chapter III. 1. The Veterinary Corps. 2. While the animals are being fed and at time of grooming. 3. Maintenance of general condition. Segregation of affected and suspected animals. Disinfection of picket lines, equipment, water troughs, feed boxes, and feed bags. Daily inspection of suspected and healthy animals. 4. Nail punctures of the hoof or deep wounds of the legs. 5. Good grooming, clean equipment, segregation of infected animals, disinfection of grooming equipment, and clipping. . Spoiled food, overfeeding of “washy” feeds, sudden changes of diet, and nervousness. . Proper care of the fect. . The trot. . Incised wounds or cuts. Lacerated wounds or tears. Punctured wounds or boies. 10. Tight bandaging above and below the wound, or a pad on the wound. : 4. Answers to Questions, Chapter IV. 1. The shape and appearance of the incisor teeth of horses are a fairly positive means of determining the age of a horse up to the ninth year. However, after this age is reached —although the incisor teeth give general indications of age—they cannot be used to accu- rately determine ages after this period. For this reason it is customary to refer to any horse over nine years of age (in some cases the limit is referred to as ten years) as “aged.” This term is quite frequently seen on Race Track ‘Form Sheets.” 2. Two sets. Generally referred to as “baby teeth’ and ‘permanents.’ 3. Age determination from the teeth of a horse is based upon the following general rules (Incisor teeth only are considered—most positive group, the lowers): (a) Loss of temporary teeth and their replacement by permanents. (b) Shape, depth and, finally, the disappearance of the cups. (c) Shape, position of the dental star. (d) Shape, position and final disappearance of the enamel ring of the infundibulum. (e) Shape of the table surfaces and crowns of the incisors. (f) Length of the crown (increases with age). (g) Angle of incidence of upper and lower incisors. (h) Presence and length of Galvayne's Groove, corner incisor. (i) Presence of the ‘seven year notch, corner incisor. 4. A horse is said to have a ‘full mouth’ at five years of age. This means that all permanent incisors are erupted, and are in wear (corner incisors should be in contact when mouth is closed to be considered as ‘in wear'). 5. The ‘seven year notch' at the rear of the corner incisor rarely shows up till at least the seventh year of age. However, in most cases this particular formation remains even in well aged horses, so the presence of this notch is not an indication at all that the horse is just past seven years. 6. The Galvayne's Groove, a plainly marked depression in the outer cement surface of the corner incisor, makes its appearance at about the tenth year. This groove has pro- gressed downward about halfway from the gum to the table at 15 years, and may be clear down to the table surfaces at 20 years. 7. The parrot mouthed horse is one in which the upper incisors protrude over the 64 CARE OF ANIMALS AND STABLE MANAGEMENT lowers when the mouth is closed. The wear on the tables of a horse of this type is not as uniform as with the normal horse, and usual methods of age determination are not as 2CCuſate. - 8. A “cribber” is a horse which has developed a stable vice of biting and “worrying” the edge of his manger, the door of the stall or any other such convenient place. This causes rounding of the forward edges of the incisors, and in extreme cases even causes noticeable wear on the table surfaces. This is not a particularly vicious habit in itself, but very frequently a horse so afflicted gets in the habit of ‘sucking wind,' and is predisposed to colic troubles. 5. Answers to Questions, Chapter V. 1. The troop commander. 2. Feed boxes and mangers should be brushed out daily, all particles of food removed, and if possible exposed to sunlight and fresh air. Water troughs should be emptied and thoroughly cleaned by scrubbing without soap each morning. 3. The length should be such that the snap hangs 2 or 3 inches above the floor, permitting the horse to reach all parts of the manger and to lie down with ease. 4. Clean straw. 5. Daily. 6. a. As a protection against cold and storm. b. To cool out wet or heated animals. c. To improve the coat. d. To protect thin-skinned and clipped animals from flies. e. As a protection against chill in the case of sick animals. 7. Biting is usually the result of animals being teased by men. 6. Answers to Questions, Chapter VI. 1. 3 to 4 gallons. 2. Water remains in the stomach for only a short time, passing quickly to the intestines. If given soon after feeding, it flushes a considerable portion of the food from the stomach before it is digested. 3. Oats. a. 16 pounds. b. 4% pounds. 4. Prevent overeating. 5. Garrison ration and field ration. 6. 3 pounds. 7. Night feeding. 7. Answers to Questions, Chapter IX. 1. To protect the feet from breaking and wearing away without interfering with the normal functions of the feet. 2. 3 to 7 weeks. º 3. One front and one hind shoe fitted to his horse. 4. To provide for expansion of the foot and normal growth of horn between shoeing periods. * EQUITATION CONTENTS Paragraphs Answers to Questions, Chapter I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Answers to Questions, Chapter II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Answers to Questions, Chapter III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . º e g º e º 'º e s e º ºs e e Answers to Questions, Chapter IV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . & e o e s e s tº e º e º o e e º Answers to Questions, Chapter V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . © e º O & Answers to Questions, Chapter VI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . e a Answers to Questions, Chapter VII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Answers to Qpestions, Chapter VIII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Answers to Questions, Chapter D& . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. Answers to Questions, Chapter I. 1. Riding and horse training. 2. In addition to having attained a reasonably secure seat at all gaits, he should be able: to mount and dismount with ease; to correctly apply the aids whereby the horse is caused to move forward or increase his gait; to halt or decrease his gait; to turn to the right or left; or turn to the right or left about; and to back from the halt. To cover long distances with the least pcssible fatigue to the horse and rider. To jump obstacles. To ride across country. 3. Five. 2. Answers to Questions, Chapter II. 1. With stripped saddles and single snaffle single rein bridles. 2. Six. 3. The withers must not be pinched nor pressed upon. The central line of the back must have no pressure put upon it. The shoulder blades must have free and unhampered movement. The weight must be evenly distributed over a surface which extends from the play of the shoulder to the last true rib. 4. About one inch less than the length of the arm, fingers extended (dismounted). 5. Saddle blankets should be kept clean, soft and free from wrinkles. 6. Castile Soap (or white soap), saddle soap and neat’s foot oil. 3. Answers to Questions, Chapter III. 1. The means by which the horse is controlled, namely, the use of the rider's legs, the reins, the rider’s weight and voice. 2. To reinforce the action of the rider's legs. It should be used with moderation. 3. In carrying the hand to the right, the rider displaces the horse's head to the right; this action is called the right opening rein. The rider should avoid pulling the rein from front to rear or opening the elbow from the body. 4. In giving the right opening rein a tension from front to rear, the rider draws the shoulders of his horse to the rear and right and forces him to throw his haunches to the left. This is known as the direct rein of opposition. This action should be produced by lowering the hand, the fingers being closed on the adjusted Teln. 5. In carrying the right hand forward and to the left so that the rein bears against the neck, the rider draws the horse's muzzle to the right, forces the neck at the shoulders to the left, and weighs the left shoulder by loading it with the greater part of the weight of the neck. This is called the bearing rein. 4. Answers to Questions, Chapter TV. 1. To change gait from the walk to the trot, from the trot to the gallop, etc. 2. At the command: Change Hands, each rider after having passed the corner of the riding hall and marched a horse length on the long side, directs himself toward the diagonally opposite corner so as to take the track to the opposite hand at about two horses' length from the corner. Those going in an opposite direction are passed by keeping to the inside of the track. - 65 66 EQUITATION 3. At the command: Stand to Heel, each man stands at attention one yard in rear of and facing his horse. 5. Answers to Questions, Chapter V. 1. The effect of the curb bit is much more severe than that of the Snaffle, be- cause its action occurs almost entirely on the bars of the horse's mouth; the horse's lips and tongue ameliorate its pressure but little. This pressure acts downward and tends to lower the horse's head and neck. If the pressure of the curb bit is maintained for a long time, it becomes painful to the horse, also the bars of the mouth become numb, the curb chain stops circulation and the horse's mouth be- comes deadened to any action of the bit. 2. With horses that have tender mouths, or arch the neck unduly, are behind the bit or are nervous and restless and will not walk. 3. This bit is used alone during periods of stress such as the charge in order to gain effective control of the horse. 4. To develop balance, to confirm and strengthen the seat in the saddle and in- crease the strength and pliancy of the rider's muscles. 6. Answers to Questions, Chapter VI. 1. The gymnastics of the jump and conducting the horse to the obstacle, over it, and beyond it. 2. The moderate gallop. The speed should be regulated in accordance with the height and breadth of the obstacle. Generally the speed is increased as the breadth of the jump is increased, but rushing or excessive speed must be avoided. 3. Inclined forward. 4. March discipline, proper rate of Speed at the walk and trot; use and value of leading; the correct adjustment of saddle and equipment prior to the start of the march and during the regular halt periods, and watering. 7. Answers to Questions, Chapter VII. 1. The natural gaits and the artificial gaits. 2. The walk, trot, gallop, extended gallop or run. 3. When he gallops with his right lead in turning to the right and with his left when turning to the left. º 4. When he gallops with the right lead with his fore feet and the left lead with his hind feet, or, conversely. 8. Answers to Questions, Chapter VIII. 1. Broken lines, the serpentine, circling individually, half turn and the figure of 8. 2. Broad and high jumps. 3. To prevent the horses from avoiding them easily. 9. Answers to Questions, Chapter DK. 1. The ability to make a horse gallop from the trot with either lead. 2. Because it is very difficult and is of no value to the trooper in ranks. 3. Grasps the horse's tail. Under no circumstances should he grab the horse by the head or attempt to hold the reins. CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES Answers Answers Answers Answers Answers Answers Answers Answers Answers Answers Answers Answers Answers Answers Answers Answers Answers Answers to Questions, Chapter to Questions, Chapter to Questions, Chapter to Questions, Chapter to Questions, Chapter to Questions, Chapter to Questions, Chapter to Questions, Chapter to Questions, Chapter to Questions, Chapter to Questions, Chapter to Questions, Chapter to Questions, Chapter to Questions, Chapter to Questions, Chapter to Questions, Chapter to Questions, Chapter XVII to Questions, Chapter XVIII XVI 1. Answers to Questions, Chapter I. 1. The chassis group and the body group. 2. Frame, springs, axles, wheels, braking system, and steering mechanism. 3. Dead (non-driving) or live (driving). 4. It converts heat units into mechanical power by the internal combustion of a fuel. 5. It engages or disengages the engine from the transmission. 2. Answers to Questions, Chapter II. 1. a. Carry the weight of the vehicle and transfer power to the wheels. b. Carry the weight of the vehicle. 2. The housing, the shafts, the bearings, and the oil retainers. 3. Plain and floating. 4. A portion of the steering mechanism. 5. “Knee-action.” CONTENTS Paragraphs • a • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * g e s º º e º 'º & " " * * * • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * e s - e º a s gº tº * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * s • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * e s tº e º 'º e = * * * * * • * ~ * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * • * * * s s e s - s = < * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 3. Answers to Questions, Chapter III. 1. Mechanical, hydraulic, air, and electric brakes. 2. External contracting and internal expanding. 3. No, they are used on plant vehicles. wº 4. Answers to Questions, Chapter IV. 1. One that converts linear motion into rotary motion. 2. One. 3. By a fuel pump. 4. Liquid and air. 5. The force-feed type, the splash type, and a combination of both. 5. Answers to Questions, Chapter V 1. The clutch, transmission, transfer case, universal joints, propeller shaft, final drive, differential and axle shafts. 2. A device with which the driver can connect or disconnect the engine from the power transmission units. 3. Because an engine develops only a small fraction of its total power at low speeds, 4. An open and an enclosed shaft. 5. A joint that transmits power through an angle. 67 68 CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES 6. A final drive transmits power from the propeller shaft to the differential case. The differential delivers torque to two shafts or wheels which may be turning at different speeds. 7. The bevel gear, the worm gear, and the hypoid gear. 8. Greater tooth area in contact, quieter operation and increased chassis clearance. 6. Answers to Questions, Chapter VI. 1. The storage battery. 2. To generate and supply electric current in order to maintain the battery in a charged condition. 3. The battery, ignition, switch, coil, condenser, breaker (interrupter), distributor, spark plugs, and the necessary wire to connect them. 4. The magneto type. 5. The Bendix drive. 7. Answers to Questions, Chapter VII. 1. Scheduled preventive maintenance operations, unit replacements, repairs, and inspec- tions. 2. The first, second, third, and fourth echelons. - 3. The first and second echelons are the responsibility of the using arms and services, while the third and fourth echelons are the responsibility of the supply services. 4. Personnel, equipment, supplies, and time. 5. The drivers’ maintenance. 6. The first and part of or all of the second echelon maintenance. 7. Maintenance normally performed in the field by quartermaster and ordnance personnel. It embraces the replacement of unserviceable unit assemblies. 8. Answers to Questions, Chapter VIII. 1. Cleaning, servicing, and tightening. 2. Weekly, monthly, and semi-annual maintenance. 3. For new vehicles. 4. Adjustments including wheel bearings, pedal clearances, steering gear and linkage, fan belt, water pump, spring shackles and lights. Replacements including carburetor, generator, distributor cap and rotor, fuel pumps, batteries and cables, manifolds, instru- ments and switches, oil lines and filters, and brake shoes. 9. Answers to Questions, Chapter IX. 1. At the tail of the regiment. 2. It is quickly transferred to another vehicle. 3. It is placed well on the right of the road, and a mechanic with a kit of tools and spare parts is dropped off. When repaired it rejoins its outfit at the maximum authorized speed. 4. Yes, unless otherwise ordered. 5. The type of vehicle, type of march, and other considerations. 10. Answers to Questions, Chapter X. 1. Decentralized and centralized lubrication. 2. Decentralized lubrication is used principally in the field by drivers; in the centralized system the lubricating is done at a central point. 3. Yes. 4. Yes. 5. Lubricating oils, gear lubricants, greases, and miscellaneous lubricants and fluids. 11. Answers to Questions, Chapter XI. . The chief of section under the supervision of the company commander. . The chief of section, under the supervision of the company commander. . The chief of section and motor sergeant. . The motor officer of the unit. , Fully qualified technical experts, : CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES 69 12. Answers to Question, Chapter XII. 1. Drivers Report—Accident, Form No. 26; Investigating Officer's Report—Accident, Form No. 27; Permit for Motor Vehicle Operators, Form No. 228; Motor Vehicle Technical Inspection Report, Form No. 260; Driver's Trip Ticket and Performance Record, Form No. 237; and Motor Vehicle Service Record Book, Form No. 248. 13. Answers to Questions, Chapter XIII. 1. The driver. 2. a. Excessive speeds, particularly over rough roads and across country. b. Improper use of controls, particularly gear shift, clutch, brakes, and choke. c. Racing engine, particularly when cold. d. Overloading and improper loading. e. Lack of lubrication or use of improper lubricants. f. Lack of inspection, particularly systematic inspection. g. Deferred maintenance, including lack of proper servicing and adjustment. h. Accidents. 3. a. Military or civil police on duty will be strictly obeyed, and state and local high- way regulations will be carefully observed. b. A vehicle will never double (pass traffic moving in the same direction): (1) When going around a corner or blind curve. (2) In ascending or descending hills unless safe passage is assured. (3) At street intersections or crossroads. (4) Unless the road is wide enough to allow at least two feet between vehicles. c. Vehicles will be halted at railroad crossings not guarded by military personnel or civilian watchman. d. Vehicles will be slowed down to a safe stopping speed at all road intersections not covered by traffic control personnel or traffic control devices. e. Drivers will not permit their vehicles to coast down hills with clutch disengaged or gear shift lever in neutral. 14. Answers to Questions, Chapter XIV. . Gradually and with just enough force to accomplish the results. . When descending a hill. No. . Vapor lock is caused by the vaporization of fuel before it leaves the carburetor jets. Mud, sand, snow, and slush, etc. . a. See paragraph 105 in text. b. See paragraph 103 in text. . See paragraph 109 in text. 15. Answers to Questions, Chapter XV. 1. The vulnerability to aviation and secrecy. 2. The difficulties of control and communication, the sudden changes in orders, the high rate of movement, and the amount of discretion and responsibility left to subordinate commanders and drivers. 3. Stream lines, mountain passes, and similar features which may be classified as natural bottlenecks. 4. See paragraph 129. i. Answers to Questions, Chapter XVI. 1. Vehicles are dispatched at irregular intervals, singly, or a few at a time over a arked route leading to a new bivouac. The picture from the air should be one of "normal traffic routine. 2. See paragraph 131. 3. See paragraph 132. 17. Answers to Questions, Chapter XVIL 1. See paragraph 135c. 7() CARE AND OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES 2. Drivers are instructed to follow vehicle ahead as closely as they think is reasonable and consistent with safe driving practices. 3. See paragraph 137e. 18. Answers to Questions, Chapter XVIII. 1. Troop or supply convoys, according to loads. Light, medium, or heavy convoys. according to the type of vehicles. According to the service of vehicles they are classified as train convoys and provisional convoys. 2. Adding a bent, a single support, or stringers. 3. See paragraph 146b (8) in the text. References WAR DEPARTMENT Basic Field Manual FM 25-10, Technical Manual 10-510. AR 850-15. ~ º 1. |- ~. º ~~ º ºr 418 – - %. *o N9.31 Z/ - D) 22*. B.A º 4th †NFANTRY sº, N ---- - - ----- -- -- z. - Z EDWOODHILL º - - -* ~~ - . - - _/ - - - - - º - X _ w / X_ - * 300- - FOR USE WITH SF ECIAL MAF "A" w WS RASMUSSE N_2^ 500 LLEY HILL R.O.T.C. MANUALS OF - Scal I THE MILITARY SERVICE PUBLISHING CO. Cale 10,000 HARRISBURG, PA. - * º 1 2 Mil-Es º E – E F: E - ={ i looo sºo O robo 2OOO 3OOO 4 OOO YARDS E-L ELETEDTETE H E HT H Contour interval 10 feet Datum is mean sea level No. 82. º - 52D FANTRY |OO | :i DECLINATION 1935 ANNUAL MAGNET ic CHANGE 2' (increast) GRID DEcL 20 12" E 80 90 100 ºo PROTRACTOR 335 §o * * º º cº * > & 29 Co Nº. º £9 Oz © º- cº C. O º O × ..º. 2 2. 36 º - º tº O o, Q, Y. N. O º 32 & & %. º Sº º § ^S.O. Nº O º º <\º < *% º & &P * && 6. 6. º 3, Q. P-T-I - 8 9 1000YD5. º -: º 3o MILITARY SERVICE PUBLISHING CO. 93 - Telegraph Bldg. Harrisburg, Pa. CW Q. ^. - P- - O 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 SCALE R.F. 1:IO,OOO Sº Hº) N. - f f f 9. 17 9. f I = | | | | | | | | | | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nº || | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | miniºn. - 1600 1700 1800 º yº º 4800 4900 5000 ſºoo º Co º § § º - º C. º 42 ºf º º N 9 º ` 6- º « O 2. s Nº. 2, sº F- H E- E- E-i l s-83 5TZ 3TAT5 T5 T5 9 1000YDS. º s "3 * ºne co SCALE º =-83 º,"; R.F. :º i f * º E ſmſ, mºniºn. 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